FIGURES OF SPEECH/FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE and SOUND DEVICES

1. Onomatopoeia – refers to words that imitate sounds.

Examples: splash, tinkle

2. Alliteration – is the repetition of beginning sounds in two or more

neighboring words within a line.
Examples: Time tells the tales; tinkle, tinkle, tinkle

3. Assonance – is the repetition of vowel sounds in words with different

consonants in a line.
Example: Hear the mellow wedding bells. Golden bells.

4. Rhyme – this is used by poets to make the poem sound nice.

Example: I wandered lonely as a cloud (A)
That floats on high o’er vales and hills, (B)
When all at once I saw a crowd, (A)
A host, of golden daffodils; (B)
Beside the lake, beneath the trees, (C)
Fluttering and dancing in the breeze. (C)

5. Personification – is when an object, animal or idea is given human

characteristics.
Example: The heavens heard the cry of the people.

6. Imagery – is the use of vivid descriptive words to appeal to the senses of the
readers and for them to visualize what the author is describing.

7. Hyperbole – exaggerated statements or claims not meant to be taken

literally.
Example: I am so hungry I could eat a horse.

8. Irony – the expression of one’s meaning by using language that normally

signifies the opposite, typically for humorous or emphatic effect.
Example: The world’s biggest dog is named Tiny.

IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS
The English language uses phrases that have a different meaning than
the meaning of the individual words in them. You can get the meaning of these
expressions by reading the words in the same sentence. This is called context
clues.
Idiomatic Expression Meaning
a hot potato speak of an issue (mostly current) which may
people are talking about and which is usually
 disputed
pass the buck blame someone else for a problem or wrongdoing
new kid on the block a newcomer
a penny for your thoughts a way of asking what someone is thinking
barking up the wrong tree looking in the wrong place; accusing the wrong
person
beat around the bush avoiding the main topic
best of both worlds all the advantages
best thing since sliced a good invention or innovation; a good idea or
bread plan
cry over spilt milk when you complain about a loss from the past
devil’s advocate to present a counter agreement
every cloud has a silver be optimistic, even difficult times will lead to
lining better days
give the benefit of the believe someone’s statement, without proof
doubt
hit the sack/sheets/hay to go to bed
bite off more than you can to take on a task that is way too big
chew
let the cat out of the bag to share information that was previously
concealed
not a spark of decency no manners
once in a blue moon happens very rarely
speak of the devil this expression is used when the person you have
just been talking about arrives.

1. Lighting – can indicate the time of the day and the mood of the scene.
Lighting can also be used to change the appearance of an object or image. The
light source can be placed in different positions to shoot a scene.

2. Blocking – is the arrangement of the position of characters in a film

sequence. The film director handles blocking in filmmaking. The director tells
the characters where they should be and how they should position themselves.

3. In filmmaking, the director directs and controls all that goes into a film.
He/She is the leader who guides those involved in making the film.

4. Characterization – is very important in films to make the movie believable

and real to the audience. It can be done through the use of the words,
movements or gestures, facial expressions and clothing.

5. Location is a specific place in filmmaking that fits the scene and chosen for
the shoot to happen. At other times, an artificial backdrop is built to depict the
necessary setting. This is called set. In order to get the best angle, the director
or the director of photography positions the camera and lighting on the right
spot. This positioning of the camera and lights is called set-up.

NOUNS
Regular nouns form their plural by adding s or es. Follow these rules to
change regular nouns into plural form:
1. Add –s or –es to most nouns.
Examples: bell – bells, poem – poems
2. For nouns ending with the sounds /ch/, /s/, /sh/, /z/, and /ks/, add –es.
Examples: watch – watches, bush – bushes, glass – glasses
3. For nouns ending in f or fe, change f or fe to v and add –es.
Examples: half – halves, knife – knives, wife – wives
4. For nouns ending in y and preceded by a consonant, change y to i and add –
es.
Examples: melody – melodies, baby – babies, lady – ladies
For nouns ending in y and preceded by a vowel, just add –s.
Examples: key – keys, holiday – holidays, highway – highways
5. Add –es to some nouns ending in o, to others add an –s only.
Examples: hero – heroes, tomato – tomatoes, radio – radios, barrio – barrios
Remember that there are also some exceptions to these rules.

Irregular nouns are those that form their plural in other ways and not by
adding s or es. Here are the rules in forming the plural of irregular nouns:
1. Some irregular nouns change their spelling or add a different ending to form
their plural.
Examples: mouse – mice, child – children
2. Foreign nouns borrowed mostly from Latin words form their plural by
changing their last letter or letters to I, a, ae, or es.
Examples: From us to i: cactus – cacti, focus – foci
From um to a: curriculum – curricula, datum – data
From a to ae: alumna – alumnae, antenna – antennae
From is to es: oasis – oases, parenthesis – parentheses
3. A few nouns have the same spelling in both singular and plural forms.
Examples: deer, traffic, trout, mackerel, series, sheep

Tone is the feeling of the author

Examples:
affectionate disappointed bewildered calm relaxed fearful
bitter furious optimistic harsh comic scholarly
Mood is the general atmosphere of the text created through the author’s use of
words
Purpose is the author’s reason for writing. This has the acronym PIE: P for
persuade, I for inform and E for entertain.

TENSES OF THE VERB

1. Past Tense – is formed by adding d or ed to the base form of the verb. Was
or were are the past tense of the verb be.
Examples:
Mr. Hamel brought an old primer, thumbed at the edges and he held
it open on his knees with his great spectacles lying across the pages.

2. Present Tense –is formed by using is, am or the base form of the verb. S (s)
or es is added to the base form of the verb when the subject of the sentence is
singular but not when the subject is plural.
Examples:
This is your last French lessons.
I want you to be very attentive.

3. Future Tense – is formed by using shall or will with the base form of the
verb.
Examples:
Don’t go so fast, bub; you will get to your school in plenty of time!

THE CONTINUOUS OR PROGRESSIVE TENSES OF THE VERB

1. Past Progressive Tense – is formed by using was or were with the –ing form
of the verb.
Examples:
She was walking to school when my friend saw her.
We were going up the classroom when my classmate tripped.

2. Present Progressive Tense –is formed by using is, am or are with the -ing
form of the verb.
Examples:
The officers of the class are attending a leadership training session.
They are now boarding the school bus.

3. Future Progressive Tense – is formed by using shall or will with be and the
-ing form of the verb.
Examples:
Next month, we will be using different apps for our performance
tasks.
The school president shall be seeing us again at the end of this term.

ASPECTS OF THE VERB

1. Past Perfect Tense – shows an action completed in the past before another
action happened. It is formed by using had + past participle form of the verb.
Example:
We had just finished the grammar lesson when the villagers came.
2. Present Perfect Tense –shows an action that was completed sometime in
the past and is still continuing in the present. It is formed by using has/have +
the past participle form of the verb.
Example:
He has expected worst things since the war began.

3. Future Perfect Tense – shows an action that will still be completed

sometime in the future. It is formed by using will/shall + have + past participle
form of the verb.
Example:
The villagers will have protected the school from outsiders when
necessary.

MODALS
Verbs that need another verb are called modals. They are also called
helping verbs. Examples of modals are may, shall, will, can, must, could and
ought to. Modals are used with the base form of the verb. We use modals to
show if we believe something is certain, probable or possible (or not). We also
use modals to talk about ability, asking permission, making requests and offers
and so on.
Examples:
Aguio and Bulanawan can make the earth tremble. (ability)
Their grandfather will make them reconcile. (promise)
Shall we watch this movie? (requesting permission)
They may like this new recipe. (not sure)
When she was younger, she could walk a mile. (able to do in the
past)
Deanne ought to do her homework every day. (duty)
Chefs must come with their clean aprons on. (requirement,
obligation)

EUPHEMISM
When people want to be polite, they use words that are less harsh or
unpleasant. Sometimes, too unpleasant words are not to be said in public or
with a lot of people. Using polite words in this case is called euphemism. Here
are some examples:
EUPHEMISM MEANING
perspiration sweat
in the family way pregnant
big-boned heavyweight
powder your nose use the bathroom
differently abled disabled
comfort station public toilet
a little too thin on top getting bald
restroom toilet
hearing impaired deaf
discomfort pain

PRONOUNS
We use pronouns to replace nouns when we speak or write. The nouns that the
pronouns refer to are called antecedents. Since the antecedents vary, the
nouns should agree with these nouns in:
 number
 singular
 plural
 gender
 masculine
 feminine
 no gender
Other than gender and number, the pronoun should agree with the antecedent
in terms of case. Case refers to the form a word takes and its function in the
sentence. The pronoun in a sentence can be subjective, objective or possessive.

 case
 subjective pronouns are used as a subjects or complements in the
sentence. (I, you, he, she, it, we, they and who)
Examples:
He plucked the withering rose from the boy’s garden.
It was a rose.
 objective pronouns are used as objects of verbs or preposition. (me,
you, him, her, it, us, them, whom)
Examples:
The angel gave the rose to him.
That little boy was me.
 possessive pronouns are used to show possession. (my, mine,
your, yours, his, her, hers, its, our, ours, their, theirs, whose)
Examples:
This plant was mine before.
Are you sure this is hers?

ELEMENTS OF A PLOT
Plot is the events, what happened from the beginning till the end.

Setting is the place and time when and where the story happened. It could be
in a city, on the air, or in the sea. It could be a time in the past, the present or
the future.
Characters are also important element in narratives. Characters refer to the
persons or animals around which the story revolves. The characters are the
heroes and villains in the story. The villains are the enemies of the heroes and
are the “bad guys”.

Point of View (first person, second person, third person)

Chronological order is telling the events in sequence. In this kind of plot

development, the story flows from the beginning, continues on to the middle
and leads to a conclusion.

Flashback is a technique where sometimes, in the middle of the story, a

character or the narrator remembers what happened in the past and begins
telling it.

In Media Res is a technique where stories begin in the middle and then
through a series of flashbacks tell what had happened in the past. In Media
Res means “in the middle of things”. In this technique, the story begins in the
middle.

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
1. Adding the –s or –es to a verb makes it singular. The plural form of the verb
is its base form.
Example: quit (plural), quits (singular)

2. Singular nouns or pronouns as subject of the sentence take singular verbs.

Example:
Trey remembers his mother’s birthday.
But: I/You remember his mother’s birthday.

3. Plural nouns or pronouns as subject of the sentence take plural verbs.

Example: The children are using the computer.

4. When the subject is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns joined by

and, use the plural verb.
Example: Trey and Daniel are in the Internet café.

5. When two singular nouns or pronouns are joined by or or nor, use a

singular verb.
Example:
Either Trey’s mother or father is picking him up today.

6. When there are two subjects in a sentence, one of which is singular and the
other is plural joined by or or nor, the verb agrees with the one nearer it.
Example: Mang Dick or the boys are leaving the room.
7. Doesn’t (does not) is used with singular nouns or pronouns (except I and
you).
Example:
The store manager doesn’t listen to the customer.

8. Don’t (do not) is used with plural nouns.

Example:
The customers don’t realize that they are already spending too
much.

9. For subjects with intervening phrases (words that come between the subject
and the verb should follow the subject and not the noun in the intervening
phrase.
Example:
The cashier, together with the security guards, is heading for the
bank.

10. When “there is” or “there are” starts the sentence, the verb follows the noun
found after it.
Example:
There is an activity in the mall today.
There are discounted goods in the grocery.

11. Some nouns are plural in form and require plural verbs (scissors, pajamas,
pliers, jeans, pants, eyeglasses, refreshments, trousers, proceeds).
Example:
Her jeans are well-pressed and clean.

12. Other nouns appear to be plural but are most often singular in meaning
and therefore require singular verbs (mathematics, statistics, civics, physics,
news, calisthenics, social studies, athletics, gymnastics, measles, mumps,
Philippines).
Example:
The Philippines is in Southeast Asia.

13. Most indefinite pronouns require singular verbs (another, any, anyone,
anything, everybody, everyone, everything, nobody, none, one and each).
Example: No one seems to be home right now.

14. A few indefinite pronouns require plural verbs (all, many, some, several,
both)
Example: Many are depending on the decision of the judge.