2024-2025-CHEM101 BOOKLET (EN)

DOGUS UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
CHEM101 – CHEMISTRY
LABORATORY BOOKLET
(2024-2025)
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
PREFACE
Welcome to the Faculty of Engineering at Doğuş University, a place where Laboratory Health
and Safety is one of the highest priorities. The students of the engineering faculty at universities
are taking Chemistry Laboratory courses in their first year. As Doğuş University our primary
objective is to provide a safe working environment for students, faculty staff and visitors.
About the chemistry laboratory course, at the beginning of this booklet, firstly the rules to be
followed in the chemistry laboratory which are very important for the chemistry laboratory and
the security guidelines to be taken in the laboratory are explained. Safe handling, storage, use
and disposal of the chemical waste in the laboratory require policies for the safety of users and
the environment. The booklet is intended to provide fundamental safety information regarding
the use of chemicals, glasswares, electrical equipment, and so forth.
After the introduction of the materials used in the Chemistry Laboratory, there are a selection
of the selected experiments related to Chemistry Course.
In your first laboratory course, you will be informed about the rules to be followed in the
chemical laboratory and the safety precautions to be taken in the laboratory, and you will learn
the locations of the materials and systems to be used at the time of the accident, such as fire
extinguisher, safety showers, eye wash taps and how they work.
I wish you a healthy, successful and accident-free academic year.
Sincerely
Faculty of Engineering
Dean
Prof. Sunullah ÖZBEK
2
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
TABLE OF CONTENT
LABORATORY SAFETY RULES AND CAUTIONS ........................................................ 4
LABORATORY EQUIPMENTS ........................................................................................... 6
EXPERIMENT 1: CALCULATION OF HARDNESS OF WATER BY EDTA

TITRATION METHOD ......................................................................................................... 8
EXPERIMENT 2: DETERMINATION OF CITRIC ACID IN LEMON JUICE

.................................................................................................................................................. 13
EXPERIMENT 3: DETERMINATION OF VITAMIN C ................................................ 17
EXPERIMENT 4: PREPARATION OF SOAP (SAPONIFICATION) AND

INVESTIGATION OF SOAP PROPERTIES .................................................................... 22
EXPERIMENT 5: PIGMENT PRODUCTION BY EXTRACTION METHOD ............. 28
EXPERIMENT 6: STRUCTURE CHARACTERIZATION BY UV-VIS ABSORPTION

SPECTROSCOPY ................................................................................................................. 36
EXPERIMENT 7: FABRICATION OF SILVER NANOPARTICLES .......................... 41
3
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
LABORATORY SAFETY RULES AND CAUTIONS

1. All students have to wear lab coat. Students without lab coat will not be allowed in the lab.
2. All students have to wear safety glasses in the lab. Students without safety glasses will not be
allowed in the lab. Contact lenses are not allowed in the lab. because acid and organic chemical
vapors could get in between eye and lenses, lenses can be glued or dissolved on the eye in the
case of an accident and can be difficult to remove.
3. Wide dresses, sandal type shoes shouldn’t be worn in the lab. Long hair should be tied.
4. Food, drink and chewing-gum are not allowed in the lab.
5. All students should know where the fire extinguisher, first aid cabinet and shower are placed
in the lab.
6. Learn the speediest nearest exit from the lab. in the case of a fire.
7. Use the shower when your dresses or hair catches fire.
8. Do not run and do not make jokes in the chemistry lab.
9. Benches should not be used to sit on or to leave bags or personal things.
10. Smoke and vapor released during chemical reactions should not be smelled directly.
11. It is not allowed to work in chemistry labs. without attendance of assistants or instructors.
12. Do not use Bunsen burners next to flammable chemicals (i.e. ethers).
13. Read the labels carefully on the bottle before use of any chemicals.
14. Read the experimental procedure before coming to the lab. Students who come to lab having
no knowledge about experiment could create risks for themselves and other students.
15. In the case of any accident (glass cut, acid/base burn, fainting etc.), immediately inform your
assistant or instructor.
16. Do not orientate the test tube toward yourself and your friend. Reaction carried out in the test
tube could be dangerous.
17. Water should not be added on concentrated acids. Acids should be added to the water slowly
and by stirring.
18. It is forbidden to smell and to taste the chemicals and to pull solutions by mouth when using
pipet.
19. Chemicals (solid, liquid or solution) must not dumped into the sink. Waste bottles in the lab.
should be used. (Learn where the waste bottles in the lab are.)
20. Use the broken glass labeled container in the lab for the broken glass pieces.
21. Matchstick, litmus paper must not be disposed to the sink.
4
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
22. Mercury vapor is invisible and toxic. Mercury in the broken thermometer is very dangerous.
You must inform your assistant if a thermometer is broken.
23. Materials like hot test tube, crucible, and beaker must not hold by hand. Tube tongs should
be used or left to cool on an asbestos wire.
24. Please use the amounts of chemicals given in the procedure. Use of excess amounts can make
difficult to control the reactions or cause undesired side reactions.
25. Left behind chemicals should not be returned to the stock bottles, should be discarded into
the waste bottle
26. Always keep clean your working area, balance and its environment. Work clean and tidy in
the lab.
27. Don’t change the locations of the chemicals during the experiment.
28. At the end of the experiment, clean all the materials you used and return them to your
assistant.
29. Make sure that gas and water taps are closed before leaving the lab.
30. Wash your hands before leaving the lab.
5
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
LABORATORY EQUIPMENTS
6
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
LABORATORY EQUIPMENTS
7
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
EXPERIMENT 1: CALCULATION OF HARDNESS OF WATER BY

EDTA TITRATION METHOD
1.1 DETERMINATION OF HARDNESS IN WATER
Water, rain water (snow, rain etc.) Surface water (lake, river, etc.) Sea water and groundwater
(source, well, etc.) are classified in four groups. Food industry is the most underground. Natural
composition of water; The precipitation falling into the region varies depending on the
contactable textures of the water, whether under the ground or when it is being removed.
Food-related materials (such as pH, mixed solids or gases, hardness), physical properties (such
as color, odor, taste, skill), and microbiological characteristics (such as microorganisms,
pathogens and non-pathogenic microorganisms) did not qualify as drinking water. is a general
rule. In nature, water is usually found in two ways:
Ground Water: The hardness of groundwater is different, only the hardness of water from the
same source is constant. The water in contact with the limestone is hard.
Surface Water: The hardness of surface waters shows some changes according to the seasons.
The hardness of the water decreases when the rain is raining and the snow melts.
The classification of water according to usage areas is as follows:
v High quality water

• Drinking water only by disinfection
• Recreational purposes
• Animal production and farm needs
v Less contaminated water

• Drinking water with advanced or appropriate treatment
• Recreational purposes
• Fish production other than trout
• As irrigation water (in specified criteria)
• All uses except high quality water
v Contaminated water
8
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
• Can be used to obtain industrial water after a suitable treatment other than water-
requiring industries such as food and textile.
v Very contaminated water

• Includes surface water of lower quality than the above-mentioned water classes.
Drinking water must be free of disease-causing microbes, clear, odorless, cool (7-10 oC) and
must not contain H2S. Fe and Mn compounds are not required to be present in the tap water as
they leave stains on the laundry and give bad taste to water. However, some salts, in particular
bicarbonates, are desired to be in drinking water because they add flavor to water.
The suitability of the water for its intended purpose is checked by looking at its hardness. Water
hardening agents are generally salts of alkaline earth metals.
Soap water is called hard water. Hardness is caused by divalent metal cations. These ions are
especially Ca, Mg and to some extent Sr, Fe and Mn ions. The properties of these ions to resist
water and sudsing are called hardness. Considering that the cations and anions of the water-
soluble compounds will be in equilibrium, the total number of equivalents of the cations will
be equal to the total equivalent number of anions.
Cations: Ca, Mg, Sr, Fe, Mn

Anions: HCO3- , SO4-2, Cl-, NO3- , SiO3-2
The hardness of water is divided into temporary and permanent hardness.
Temporary hardness: Calcium and magnesium carbonate and bicarbonate hardness. This is
also called carbonate hardness. Temporary hardness can be removed by boiling water. Calcium
and magnesium bicarbonate salt, which forms the temporary hardness, are formed by CaCO3
and Mg(OH)2 when decomposed by heat. The two compounds are precipitated off. The
solubility of both solutions is inversely proportional to temperature.
Persistent hardness: Chloride, nitrate, sulphate, silicate and phosphates of calcium and
magnesium are not removed by boiling water.
Hardness = Permanent hardness + Temporary hardness

Determination of hardness degree of water;
1. Determination of transient hardness
9
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
2. Determination of total hardness with soap solution

3. Determination of total hardness by EDTA titration
Units of Hardness: German hardness, French hardness, British hardness, American hardness
or ppm units are used.
French Hardness Degree (FHD) : 10 mg CaCO3.L-1 or 8.4 mg MgCO3

German Hardness Degree (GHD) : 10 mg CaCO3.L-1 or 7.1 mg MgCO3
British Hardness Degree (BHD) : 14.3 mg CaCO3.L-1 or 2.0 mg MgCO3
American Hardness Degree : 1 mg CaCO3.L-1 or 0.8 mg MgCO3
1 FHD = 0.56 GHD = 0.70 BHD
Table 1.1 Drinking water hardness

French Hardness German Hardness British Hardness
Hardness
Degree Degree Degree
0–7 0–4 0–5 Very soft water
7 – 14 4–8 5 – 10 Soft water
14 – 22 8 – 12 10 – 15 Mod. hard water
22 – 32 12 – 18 15 – 22 Hard water
32 – 54 18 – 30 22 – 35 Very hard water
> 54 >30 >35 Extremely hard water
The damages of hard water: Hard waters are hardly desired because of hardening of the skin
and washing, blurry, laundry and so on. The bottom of the sink adheres to human skin after
bath or shower. Clogs the skin pores and hardens by covering the hair strands. This mass to the
skin creates a favorable environment for bacterial growth.
The hardness of the water loses its solubility rapidly when it is heated spontaneously or when
the water is heated and starts sticking to the surfaces it passes. Water pipes fill rapidly, water
pressure and flow decrease.
It increased scaling on the water heated surfaces causes insulation and increases energy
consumption. Calcification in the heating system causes an increase in fuel consumption.
Hardness is of great importance in the waters used to obtain steam, both for economy and for
boilers. Hard water with a temporary hardness of more than 12.5 is very depressing. When such
waters are heated, bicarbonates precipitate into carbonate and form a shell in the boiler and
10
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
pipes. The resulting shell causes heat to be transmitted to the power and therefore to the use of
excess energy.
- Hardness minerals give an undesirable taste in food.
- Hard water is not suitable for textile, paint, paper, leather, sugar and beer industries.
If on the other hand, very fresh water is aggressive, i.e., rodent because it is overloaded with
carbon dioxide. Therefore, it dissolves heavy metals such as lead, tin and cadmium, especially
in water pipes. However, when the water is rich in lime, the inside of the pipes will cover a thin
lime, thus preventing the contact of water with lead.
1.2 PROCEDURE
Used Chemicals and Supplementary Materials
• Ammonia Buffer Solution • Graduated Cylinder

• EDTA Solution • Pasteur Pipettes
• Eriochrome Black T Indicator • Water Sample
• Erlenmeyer
Calculation of Hardness of Water by EDTA Titration
1. Take water sample volume of 20 mL (V mL).

2. Dilute 20 mL of the sample in erlenmeyer flask to 40 mL by adding 20 mL distilled water.
3. Add 2 mL of ammonia buffer to bring the pH to 9±0.1.
4. Add 1 or 2 drops of the indicator solution. If there is Ca or Mg hardness the solution turns
wine red.
5. Add EDTA titrant to the sample with vigorous shaking till the wine red color just turns blue.
6. Note the volume of titrant added (V1 mL).
11
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
1.3 REPORT AND RESULTS Date:
CALCULATION OF HARDNESS OF WATER BY EDTA TITRATION METHOD

Name, Surname:
Group Number:
Table Number:
As water hardness is usually reported in terms of mg/L of calcium carbonate (even if water
contains both calcium and magnesium), we will use for calculations slightly strange reaction
equation:
Disodium salt of ehtylenediamine tetraacetic acid: (Na2H2Y) Y = deprotonated agent.
In aqueous solution EDTA ionizes to give 2Na+ ions and act as a strong chelating agent
Soft water: 0-60 mg/L Hard water: 120-180 mg/L
Mod. hard water: 60-120 mg/L Very hard water: >180 mg/L
Calculation:
1 mL of 0.01 M EDTA ≡ 1 mg of CaCO3
V1 mL of EDTA ≡ V1 mg of CaCO3
Volume of EDTA solution consumed = ………… mL

Volume of water taken = …………. mL
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!"#A%&D!#E!)*H,!-#A%./#0!1#0-%&D2!3"4564TTT!
8V:20D--!;!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!"#A%&D!#E!.<D!=V.D:!.V>D0!!
Hardness = …….. ppm
12
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
EXPERIMENT 2: DETERMINATION OF CITRIC ACID IN LEMON

JUICE
2.1 INFORMATION
Acid-Base Titrations and The Concentration of Citric Acid in Lemon Juice
Background on Acids and Bases
Acids and bases are commonly encountered in both the chemistry laboratory and everyday
substances. These substances are often classified according to their characteristic chemical
properties. Acids taste sour (like lemons!), react with carbonates and bicarbonates to produce
carbon dioxide gas, react with active metals to produce hydrogen gas, and neutralize bases.
Examples of common acids are acetic acid (found in vinegar) and citric acid (found in citrus
fruits). Bases taste bitter, tend to feel slippery to the touch, and neutralize acids. Examples of
common bases are sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3, also commonly known as baking soda) and
ammonia (NH3).
Acids and bases can also be classified according to their behavior in water. According to the
Arrhenius definition of acids and bases, acids are compounds that produce hydrogen ions (H+,
also called protons) when added to water, and bases are compounds that produce hydroxide
(OH–) ions when added to water. Table A shows some examples of each.
Aqueous solutions can be defined as acidic or basic based on their pH:
where [H+] is the molar concentration of the hydrogen ion. Pure water has a pH of 7, while
acidic solutions have a pH below 7 and basic solutions have a pH above 7. Most solutions
(though not all) fall within a pH range of 0 – 14.
Titration
13
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
In a titration, a solution of unknown concentration (the analyte) is investigated by carefully

reacting it with a solution of known concentration (the titrant). The titrant is added in small
increments until the reaction reaches the equivalence point, the point at which all of the analyte
has been completely reacted (i.e. when the two reactants exactly cancel each other out). By
measuring the amount of titrant added to reach the equivalence point, it is possible to determine
the number of moles of analyte in the original solution, and therefore its concentration.
Lemon Juice and Citric Acid
All citrus fruits contain a large quantity of a compound called citric acid (H3C6H5O7). In this
experiment, you will attempt to determine the concentration of citric acid in lemon juice using
titration. You will use baking soda (sodium bicarbonate, a base) as your titrant, which reacts
with citric acid (your analyte) according to the following chemical equation:
After performing the titration, you will use the quantity of baking soda added to determine the
concentration of citric acid in the lemon juice.
14
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
2.2 PROCEDURE
Materials
- 100 mL 0.5 M NaHCO3 solution

- 20 mL lemon juice
- Mentos
- Plastic pipette
- Beaker
- Magnetic stirrer
- Hotplate
Procedure
- Add 20 mL lemon juice to the beaker. The solution should be stirred with magnetic
stirrer.
- Put Mentos into lemon juice.
- Start adding 0.5 M NaHCO3 solution, into lemon juice, with portions of 1 mL at each
time.
- Stir your solution until there is no significant gas evolution.
- Repeat the NaHCO3 addition until you do not see any significant gas evolution.
- Take note about how many mL of NaHCO3 you consume for titration.
15
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
DETERMINATION OF CITRIC ACID IN LEMON JUICE
Name, Surname:
Group Number:
Table Number:
• Volume of 0.5 M NaHCO3 consumed:
• Mole of NaHCO3 :
• Mole of Citric Acid (from the molar ratios in the reaction):
• Molarity of Citric acid (in 20 mL Lemon Juice):
16
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
EXPERIMENT 3: DETERMINATION OF VITAMIN C
3.1 INFORMATION
We need vitamin C to stay healthy; it is a vital nutrient. Without enough vitamin C we can
develop a disease known as scurvy.
Scurvy used to be deadly for sailors and soldiers, who often had to go for long periods without
fresh fruit and vegetables. One symptom of scurvy is spongy and bleeding gums. This happens
because vitamin C is required for the body to make collagen, which is an important component
of connective tissue.
Humans, along with some other animals, have to eat foods containing vitamin C as our bodies
can’t synthesize it. The navy found that lime juice added to rum and water (grog) kept sailors
healthy.
Many fresh fruits and vegetables contain vitamin C. Citrus fruits, such as oranges and lemons,
are especially good sources. Vitamin C may also be added to processed food as a supplement.
Vitamin C is L-ascorbic acid – (5R)-[(1S)-1,2-dihydroxyethyl]-3,4-dihydroxyfuran-2(5H)-one

– or one of its oxidized forms (figure 1). Any of these have the biological effect of vitamin C.
17
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
Ascorbic acid does not just have activity as a vitamin, it is also an antioxidant. The term
oxidation originally referred specifically to a reaction that combined something with oxygen.
Now, however, it has a much wider meaning. If one reactant is being oxidized another must be
being reduced to balance out the transfer of electrons. These types of reactions are known as
redox (REDuction-OXidation) reactions. An antioxidant (or reducing agent) is used to reduce
another reactant while being oxidized itself (a bit like a see-saw: if one end goes up the other
must come down). We can use this property of ascorbic acid to measure how much we have in
a solution. Figure 2 shows the redox equation for ascorbic acid and iodine.
Ascorbic acid reduces iodine to iodide and in the process it is oxidized to dehydroascorbic acid.
We can show that elemental iodine is present in the solution by using starch – this produces a
characteristic purple/black color.
One molecule of ascorbic acid converts one molecule of iodine into two iodide ions. Once all
of the ascorbic acid has been oxidized the addition of more iodine results in the purple/black
color forming (this is an iodine/starch complex).
It is possible to measure the amount of vitamin C in a liquid by counting the number of drops
of tincture of iodine required to react with all the ascorbic acid present. It is also possible to
calibrate your tincture of iodine using a known amount of ascorbic acid (a vitamin C tablet)
dissolved in a known amount of water.
Tincture of iodine is widely used as an antiseptic, but care must be taken when using it for this
experiment. It is for external use only and may stain skin, clothes, and surfaces.
18
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
3.2 PROCEDURE
Calibration of Iodine
Materials
- Soluble vitamin C tablet (ideally effervescent with 1000 mg vitamin C per tablet)
- Starch solution (0.5 g starch in 50 mL water)
- Plastic pipette
- Beaker
- Magnetic stirrer
- Hotplate
- Tincture of iodine
- Graduated cylinder
Procedure
- Make the calibration solution by dissolving a vitamin C tablet in 1 liter (1000 cm3) of
water.
- Place 20 cm3 of your calibration solution in a beaker.
- Add 5 cm3 of starch solution to beaker.
- Carefully add tincture of iodine drop by drop to the beaker and count the number of
drops. Stir the solution gently after each drop. Stop adding drops when the solution turns
a deep purple/black color. Stir the solution for a further 30 seconds to ensure the color
change remains.
- Calculate the mass of vitamin C that reacts with one drop of iodine.
- To improve the accuracy of your calibration, repeat steps twice more and record your
data
19
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
Measuring Vitamin C
Materials
- Fruit Juice (includes Vitamin C)

- Starch solution (0.5 g starch in 50 mL water)
- Plastic pipette
- Beaker
- Magnetic stirrer
- Hotplate
- Tincture of iodine
- Graduated cylinder
Procedure
- Place 20 cm3 of your fruit juice in a beaker.

- Add 5 cm3 of starch solution to beaker.
- Carefully add tincture of iodine drop by drop to the beaker and count the number of
drops. Stir the solution gently after each drop. Stop adding drops when the solution turns
a deep purple/black color. Stir the solution for a further 30 seconds to ensure the color
change remains.
- Take note about how many drops of iodine that you used.
- Calculate the mass of vitamin C which is inside of your fruit juice.
20
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
DETERMINATION OF VITAMIN C
Name, Surname:
Group Number:
Table Number:
Calibration of Iodine
Concentration of Vitamin C solution: 1 mg / 1 mL
Volume of calibration solution taken: ……. mL
Mass of Vitamin C: ……… mg
Number of drops of iodine added: ………. drops
Mass of Vitamin C per drop of iodine added: ………… mg
Measuring Vitamin C
Volume of fruit juice taken: ………. mL
Number of drops of iodine added: ………. drops
Mass of Vitamin C which is inside of fruit juice: …………. mg
21
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
EXPERIMENT 4: PREPARATION OF SOAP (SAPONIFICATION) AND

INVESTIGATION OF SOAP PROPERTIES
4.1 SOAPS
Fats and oils are triesters of glycerol and three fatty acids. Animal fats and vegetable oils have
a high molecular weight and contain the alcohol, glycerol. Chemically, these fats and oils are
called triglycerides. A single triglyceride molecule in a fat may contain three different acid
residues and not every triglyceride in the oil or fat will be identical. Each fat or oil has a
characteristic statistical distribution of the various types of acids possible.
Figure 4.1 Fat/Oil molecule

Esters can be hydrolyzed to their alcohol and carboxylic acid components in the presence of
acid or base. Fats, oils, and fatty acids are insoluble in water because their hydrophobic tails are
so long. If a base is used for hydrolysis, the fatty acids produced are deprotonated and are
present as the corresponding carboxylate salts (soap). Because these product carboxylate salts
are charged, they are much more soluble in water than the corresponding uncharged fatty acids.
Since the carboxylate salts also each have a long nonpolar tail, they are also compatible with
nonpolar greases and oils.
Soap can emulsify fats and oils by forming micelles around oil droplets. The soap molecules
surround an oil droplet so that their nonpolar tails are embedded in the oil and their charged
22
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
“head” groups are on the exterior of the droplets, facing the water. If the oil droplets are small
enough and if there are enough soap molecules to surround them, the oil droplets become
dispersed in the water and can then easily be washed away. Therefore, using lots of soap, hot
water, and agitation can help clean greasy dishes. Hot water can melt solid fats, and agitation
can help break up the fats and oils into smaller droplets. Using lots of soap makes it more likely
that there will be enough soap molecules to surround and emulsify all of the fat droplets.
Figure 4.2 Structure of micelle

Soaps are less effective in hard water, which is water that contains a significant concentration
of Mg+2 and Ca+2 ions. These ions form precipitates with soap molecules, and this precipitate
is often seen as a gray line on a bathtub or sink and is often called “soap scum”. Since soap
forms a precipitate with Mg+2 and Ca+2 ions, it means that many of the soap molecules are no
longer present in the solution. Therefore, soap will form fewer suds in hard water. “Soft water”
is water that contains very few or no ions that precipitate with soap. Soap will therefore be much
more effective in soft water than in hard water.
Scheme 4.1 Saponification reaction

The fats and oils that are most common in soap preparations are lard and tallow from animal
sources, and coconut, palm, and olive oils from vegetable sources. The length of hydrocarbon
chain and the number of double bonds in the carboxylic acid portion of the fat or oil determine
the properties of the resulting soap. For example, a salt of a saturated long-chain acid makes a
harder, more insoluble soap. Chain length also affects solubility.
23
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
Figure 4.3 The content of animal and vegetable oils

Detergents are similar to soaps in that they have a charged head group and a long nonpolar tail
group, but they are not prepared from natural fats or oils. Detergents are useful because they do
not form precipitates with Mg+2 or Ca+2 ions, which means that they work in both soft and hard
water. Shown below is a typical detergent molecule, sodium lauryl sulfate.
Figure 4.4 A nonbiodegradable detergent

After detergents started being widely used, it was discovered that they were not broken down
in sewage treatment plants. Many streams and lakes became contaminated with detergents and
large amounts of foam appeared in natural waters. Biodegradable detergents were then
developed. Shown below is an example of a biodegradable detergent, sodium lauryl benzene
sulfonate.
Figure 4.5 A biodegradable detergent

Many commercial detergents also contain phosphate compounds. This can be a problem,
because phosphate is a nutrient for plants. Too much phosphate in a pond, lake, or stream
accelerates the growth of algae, which consumes too much of the dissolved oxygen in the water.
This disturbs the ecosystem in the pond, and some organisms will die. Therefore, you will see
some detergents these days that are labeled “phosphate free”. These are better for the
environment than phosphate-containing detergents.
24
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
4.2 PROCEDURE

• Beaker • Iron (III) Chloride (FeCl3)
• Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) • Magnetic Stirrer
• Distilled Water (H2O) • Pasteur Pipet
• Ethanol (C2H5OH) • pH Paper
• Filter Paper • Pi-pump
• Funnel • Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
• Glass Pipette • Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)
• Glass Rod • Spatula
• Graduated Cylinder • Synthetic Detergent
• Heater and Magnetic Stirrer • Test Tubes
• Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) • Vegetable Oil
Preparation of Soap
1. 10 g of vegetable oil solved in 10 mL ethanol.

2. 15 mL 20% wt NaOH solution added to oil solution.
3. It is stirred and heated carefully for 20 minutes.
4. The mixture allowed to cool.
5. 50 mL saturated NaCl solution is added into the mixture and stirred. Na+ and Cl- ions help for
separation of soap molecules from water by binding to the water molecules.
6. The mixture filtered by using filter paper and funnel. Solid phase washed with 100 mL cold
distilled water.
7. Soap in the mold is kept in the refrigerator for 1 week.
Investigation of Soap and Synthetic Detergent Properties: Precipitation and

Emulsification
TEST I
1. Standing in the refrigerator soap is weighed and the reaction yield is calculated. It is saved in
Table 2.1.
2. Preparing a stock soap and stock synthetic detergent solutions by dissolving 0.5 g of your
prepared soap and 0.5 g of synthetic detergent in 25 mL of boiling, distilled water. Stirred the
mixtures until the soap and detergent have dissolved.
25
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
3. Allow the solutions to cool. When both solutions are cooled, determined the pH of each
solution using pH paper and the results are recorded in Table 2.2.
4. Three test tubes were labelled as test tube 1, 2, and 3. Added 4 drops of vegetable oil to each
test tube. Added 5 mL of distilled water to test tube 1. Added 5 mL of stock soap solution to
test tube 2. Added 5 mL of stock synthetic detergent to test tube 3.
5. Each solution mixed by shaking and let stand for 3-5 minutes. Noted to Table 2.3 which of
the solutions, if any, emulsifies the oil by forming a single layer.
TEST II
6. Two test tubes were labelled as test tube 1 and 2. Placed 2 mL of stock soap solution in each
test tube. Added 2 mL of 1% wt CaCl2 solution to test tube 1. Added 2 mL of 1% wt FeCl3
solution to test tube 2. Shake each test tube to mix the solutions. Observation was recorded in
Table 2.4.
7. Added 4 drops of vegetable oil to each test tubes in previous step. Shake each test tube to mix
the solutions and let the solutions stand for 3-5 minutes. Noted to Table 2.4 which of the
solutions, if any, emulsifies the oil by forming a single layer.
8. Take two test tubes and repeat steps 6 and 7 for the synthetic detergent solution and record
the results in Table 2.4. Which solutions form a precipitate?
9. Placed 5 mL of stock soap solution in clean test tube and 5 mL of stock detergent solution in
a second test tube. Added 1 M HCl one drop at a time to both solutions until the pH in each
test tube is equal to 3. (Use pH paper to measure) Count the number of drops of acid added to
each mixture. Does a precipitate form in either mixture? Observation was recorded in Table
2.5.
10. Added 1 drops of vegetable oil to each test tube in Step 9. Shake each test tube to mix the
solution. Is the oil emulsified in either mixture? Please record to the Table 2.5.
26
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
PREPARATION OF SOAP (SAPONIFICATION) AND INVESTIGATION OF SOAP

PROPERTIES
Name, Surname:
Group Number:
Table Number:
Table 4.1
Amount of Soap (g)
%Yield
Table 4.2
pH
Soap Solution
Synthetic Detergent Solution
Table 4.3
System Test Tube Emulsification Occur
Distilled Water 1
Soap Solution 2
Synthetic Detergent Solution 3
Table 4.4
Precipitate Oil Emulsified
System
Soap Detergent Soap Detergent
MgCl2
FeCl3
MgCl2 +oil
FeCl3 +oil
Table 4.5
Soap Solution Detergent Solution
Drops Number of HCl
First Observation
Second Observation
27
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
EXPERIMENT 5: PIGMENT PRODUCTION BY EXTRACTION

METHOD
5.1.1 PIGMENTS
Pigments are molecules that make up the colors of all objects. By-products derived from food
processing are attractive source for their valuable bioactive components and color pigments.
Carotenoids are the most common class of pigment synthesized by photosynthetic organisms,
some non-photosynthetic bacteria and fungi. An activity is the main role of carotenoids,
effective antioxidant activity of carotenoids through singlet oxygen quenching and deactivation
of free radicals shows significant functions in the inhibition of various forms of cancer, macular
degeneration, cardiovascular diseases and eye related disorders.
Lycopene is a red plant pigment found in tomatoes, guavas, watermelons, papayas and
grapefruits. Due to its strong color and non-toxicity, lycopene is a useful food coloring.
Lycopene extract from tomato peel is intended for use as a food colorant. It provides the similar
color shades, ranging from yellow to red, as do the natural and synthetic lycopenes. The
lycopene may also be used as an antioxidant in food supplements. The main wastes of tomato
processing industry are seeds and peels. The peel can contain about 5 times more lycopene than
tomato pulp.
Figure 5.1 Important types of carotenoids
28
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
Table 5.1 Carotenoid composition in tomato

Amount by weight in 250 mg
Carotenoids
tomato extract
Lycopene 5.8 – 6.2
b-Carotene 0.1 – 0.2
Total 6.9 – 7.7
5.1.2 INDICATORS
A pH indicator or acid-base indicator is a compound that changes color in solution over a

narrow range of pH values. Only a small amount of indicator compound is needed to produce
a visible color change. When used as a dilute solution, a pH indicator does not have a significant
impact on the acidity or alkalinity of a chemical solution. An indicator molecule reacts with
water to form a hydrogen cation or hydronium ion. The color of the solution changes.
Figure 5.2 Reaction that occurs when the color of the solution changes in the presence of
indicator
Table 5.2 Commonly used synthetic indicators and their colors on the pH scale
29
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
pH indicators are used to give a rough value of pH of a chemical solution. For precise
measurements, a pH meter is used. Some indicators change from one color to another color,
while other indicators change between colored and colorless states.
pH indicators are usually weak acids or weak bases solutions. Many of these molecules are
found in nature. For example, the anthocyanins found in flowers, fruits, and vegetables are pH
indicators. Plants containing these molecules include red cabbage leaves, rose petal flowers,
blueberries, rhubarb stems, hydrangea flowers, and poppy flowers. Litmus is a natural pH
indicator derived from a mixture of lichens.
Table 5.3 Natural indicators and their colors on the pH scale
It is important to determine the nature of a substance because it is essential in biology,

chemistry, civil water purification, agriculture, forestry, food science, environmental science,
water treatment, oceanography, medicine, nutrition, agronomy, etc. engineering,
5.1.3 ANTHOCYANINS
Anthocyanins are polar molecules with hydroxyl, carboxyl, methoxyl and glycolyl groups
bound to aromatic rings. They are water-soluble pigments responsible for the blue, purple, and
red color of plant fruits, flowers, and leaves. They can be found in grapes, red currants, black
currants, raspberries, strawberries, apples, cherries, red cabbage, red-flashed potato, radish, and
aubergines.
30
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
Figure 5.3 Basic structure of anthocyanins in red cabbage (Cyanidin-3-sophoroside-5-

glucoside)
Table 5.4 General information about anthocyanins
Color Main Use Major
Pigment Source Color
Additives in Food Properties
Carbonated • Water soluble,
Grape skin Grape remaining after
and pH sensitive
extract pressed for juice or
Anthocyanins
alcoholic • Stable during

(enocianina) wine
beverages Red/pink short periods of
Fresh edible blue to purple moderate
Fruit and berry, raspberry, to blue heating
Foods and
vegetable blackberry, red • Fade over time
beverages
juice cabbage, purple potato, on exposure to
black carrot, etc. light
Anthocyanins are shown to have numerous potential health benefits such as reducing the risk
of chronic disease such as cardiovascular disease and cancers, prevention of obesity and type
2- diabetes, enhancement of sight and acuteness, and anti-allergic and antimicrobial activities.
Most of the suggested health benefits of anthocyanins are, however, related to their antioxidant
an anti-inflammatory activity.
5.1.4 SEPARATION METHODS
A mixture can be separated into different components by physical methods.
• Ways to separate components of a homogenous mixture that is a solid: Magnetism, flotation

• Ways to separate components of a mixture that contains solids and liquids: Filtration,
centrifugation
• Ways to separate a heterogeneous mixture made of liquids that do not mix: Extraction (if there
is a difference in density between liquids), distillation
31
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
• Ways to separate components of a homogenous mixture that is a liquid: Distillation, filtration,

dialysis, evaporation
Extraction is a technique used for selectively separating a compound from a mixture. For
example, a relatively water-insoluble organic compound can be separated from an aqueous
mixture by extracting it into a water-insoluble organic solvent. Extractions are often part of the
workup procedure for isolating and purifying the products of organic reactions.
The process of liquid-liquid extraction involves the distribution of a compound (solute) between
two solvents that are immiscible (insoluble) in each other. Generally, although not always, one
of the solvents in an extraction is water (H2O) and the other is a much less polar organic solvent,
such as diethyl ether (C3H10O), ethyl acetate (C4H8O2), hexane (C6H14), or dichloromethane
(CH2Cl2). By taking advantage of the differing solubilities of a solute in a pair of solvents,
compounds can be selectively transported from one liquid phase to the other during an
extraction.
In a typical extraction procedure, an aqueous phase (water) and an immiscible organic solvent,
often called the organic phase, are gently shaken in a separatory funnel. The solutes distribute
themselves between the aqueous layer and the organic layer according to their relative
solubilities. Inorganic salts generally prefer the aqueous phase, whereas most organics dissolve
more readily in the organic phase.
The separatory funnel initially contains the aqueous reaction mixture. When an organic solvent
less dense than water is added to the separatory funnel and the funnel is stoppered and shaken
to mix the two phases, the separated phases would appear as shown in Figure 5.4. Then the
lower aqueous layer can be drained from the separatory funnel, leaving the organic layer
containing the desired product in the funnel (Figure 5.4).
Figure 5.4 Transfer of organic compound in liquid phase to organic phase
32
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
Before you begin any extraction, look up the density of the organic solvent whether the
extraction solvent you are using is more dense or less dense than water. The denser layer is
always on the bottom. Organic solvents that are less dense than water form the upper layer in
the separatory funnel, whereas solvents that are denser than water form the lower layer.
Figure 5.5 Solvent densities
5.2 PROCEDURE
• Beaker
• Dichlorometane (CH2Cl2) • MgSO4 or Na2SO4
• Distilled water • Pasteur Pipette
• Glass Pipette • Red Cabbage
• Glass Rod • Separatory Funnel
• Magnetic Stirrer and Heater • Tomato Paste
Solid Phase Extraction
1. Take a few leaves of red cabbage and tear or cut them into small pieces. Fill a 100 mL beaker
about ¾ full of the cabbage leaf pieces.
2. Add 40 mL hot distilled water and 10 mL ethanol into the beaker.
3. Place the beaker on the heater and boil for about 20 minutes. Be careful not to boil over the
cabbage, or to let so much water evaporate that it burns.
4. Remove the beaker when you have a dark purple extract.
5. Pour the cabbage extract indicator solution into a labelled stock bottle.
33
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
Liquid-Liquid Extraction
1. Weigh 5 g of tomato paste into a 25 mL beaker and add 10 mL hot distilled water.
2. Mix them together and break up any large clumps with a spatula and shake vigorously.
3. Place the beaker on the heater. Allow to boil for 5-10 minutes, then filter off with filter paper.
4. Transfer the liquid phase to the separatory funnel. Extract by adding 10 mL dichloromethane.
5. Dichloromethane forms the subphase because it is more dense than water. Pour the lower
dichloromethane phase into the beaker you weighed beforehand.
6. Please repeat this process for 2 times.
7. Add 1 spatula dryer MgSO4 or Na2SO4 to remove water.
8. Filter the solution in a clean beaker. Let the solvent evaporate until completely dry.
9. Weight the beaker (after dry it). Please note ……mg lycopene/β-carotene pigment mixture in
Table 3.1.
34
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
5.3 REPORT AND RESULTS
PIGMENT PRODUCTION BY EXTRACTION METHOD Date:
Name, Surname:
Group Number:
Table Number:
Table 5.1
Weigh Amount (g)
Empty Beaker
Filled Beaker
Net (Lycopene ve b-Carotene)
35
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
EXPERIMENT 6: STRUCTURE CHARACTERIZATION BY UV-VIS

ABSORPTION SPECTROSCOPY
6.1 SPECTROPHOTOMETRY VE ABSORPTION
Light is electromagnetic radiation. Rhythmic waves travel through space and the distance
between the peaks of waves is called wavelength. The wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation
range from one nanometer to one kilometer, which is inversely proportional to the amount of
energy available.
Figure 6.1 Electromagnetic spectrum
The color of organic pigments such as Lycopene (red), β-Carotene (orange) and the
xanthophylls (yellow) is due to their ability to absorb electromagnetic radiation in the visible
region of the spectrum. In many cases, the color a pigment appears is the complement of the
color its molecules absorb. So a molecule, such as Lycopene, that absorbs light in the Blue-
Green region (λmax = 470 nm) of the visible spectrum will appear as Orange-Red.
Figure 6.2 Colors in the visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum
36
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
The absorbance of electromagnetic radiation by organic molecules in the Ultraviolet-Visible

region of the electromagnetic spectrum is typically due to electronic transitions within the
molecule; the absorbed photon provides sufficient energy to cause valence electrons to
transition from an energetically lower quantum state to one that is higher. Measuring the
wavelength of absorbed photons is accomplished in a spectrometer.
The spectrometer will also measure the Intensity of the absorbance. This intensity is then related
to the number, or concentration, of the absorbing species. A UV-Vis Spectrometer consists of
a Light Source (Tungsten Filament or Deuterium Lamp), dispersive optics (Prism or Diffraction
Grating) to separate the wavelengths of the light, a sample compartment and a detector.
Figure 6.3 Schematic representation of UV-Vis absorption spectrometer
Light from the source passes through an Entrance Slit and is focused on the dispersive element,
such as a diffraction grating. This separates out the various wavelengths comprising the Light
into a rainbow of colors. The desired wavelength is selected by rotating the dispersive element
such that the desired color passes through an Exit Slit, through the Sample and then onto a
detector.
Figure 6.4 Entrance and exit slits
The magnitude of the Absorbance will depend directly on the Concentration (c) of the absorbing
species, the Path Length (b) of the light through the cell and the ability of the species to absorb
radiation at the given wavelength, the extinction coefficient (ε).
Beer-Lambert Law: A = ε . b . c
37
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
Figure 6.5 Absorption spectra of lycopene (–) and β-carotene (---) in hexane (left side) and in
ethanol (right side)
6.2 PROCEDURE
Absorption Study of Lycopene and b-Carotene Pigments
1. Put 3 mL of ethanol into the sample cell of the mini UV-Vis spectrophotometer and take a
blank measurement. Pour the ethanol from the cell into the waste container.
2. Dissolve the lycopene and b-carotene mixture samples (extracted in the previous week) in 3
mL of ethanol and take them to the UV-Vis spectrophotometer sample cell. Follow the
absorption spectrum by press the Record in the device application.
3. Record the maximum wavelength and the absorbance value for that wavelength in Table 6.1.
Absorption Study and Indicator Test for Anthocyanins
1. Take the test tubes for pH=1, pH=2, pH=3, pH=7, pH=11, pH=12 and pH=13.
2. Get 5 mL of 0.1 M HCl in test tube pH=1. Take out 0.5 mL of this solution using your pipette
and put it in test tube pH=2. Add 4.5 mL of distilled water and mix thoroughly.
3. Get 0.5 mL of pH=2 and put it in test tube pH=3. Add 4.5 mL distilled water and stir.
4. Get 5 mL of 0.1 M NaOH in test tube pH=13. Take out 0.5 mL of this solution using your
pipette and put it in test tube pH=12. Add 4.5 mL of distilled water and mix thoroughly.
5. Get 0.5 mL of pH=12 and put it in test tube pH=11. Add 4.5 mL distilled water and stir.
6. Add 1 mL of red cabbage extract to each test tube and record the color changes in Table 6.2.
7. Put 3 mL of distilled water into the sample cell of the mini UV-Vis spectrophotometer and
take a blank measurement. Pour the distilled water from the cell into the waste container.
8. Take the absorption measurements of all solutions and record the maximum wavelengths and
absorbance values in Table 6.2.
38
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
Test Tubes pH Preparation
1 1 5 mL 0.1 M HCl Solution

2 2 0.5 mL pH=1 Solution + 4.5 mL Distilled Water
4 7 5 mL Red Cabbage Extract
7 13 5 mL 0.1 M NaOH Solution
39
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
STRUCTURE CHARACTERIZATION BY UV-VIS ABSORPTION

SPECTROSCOPY
Name, Surname:
Group Number:
Table Number:
Table 6.1
UV-Vis Absorption Results
Solution
lmax Absorbance
Table 6.2
UV-Vis Absorption Results
Test Tubes pH Changes in Color
lmax Absorbance
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 7
5 11
6 12
7 13
40
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
EXPERIMENT 7: FABRICATION OF SILVER NANOPARTICLES
7.1 NANOTECHNOLOGY AND NANOPARTICLES
Nanotechnology is a branch of engineering devoted to designing, producing, and using

structures and devices having one or more dimensions of about 100 millionth of a millimeter
(100 nanometers) or less.
Microparticles and nanoparticles are a unique class of materials with enormous technological
potential in energy, imaging, medical, and environmental applications. Nanoparticles are
defined to have at least one physical dimension less than 100 nanometers. Microparticles have
a physical dimension between approximately 1 and 1000 micrometers. Despite having the same
composition as the corresponding bulk material, due to size effects, these particles display
exceptional optical, electrical, thermal, and magnetic characteristics. Researchers have
developed methods of synthesis to further control the properties, shape, composition, and size
distribution to better suit specific applications.
Microparticle and nanoparticle (NP) synthesis is typically achieved by physical and chemical
methods. In physical methods, particles are created by reducing the size of the source material,
a so-called top-down approach to microfabrication and nanofabrication. Physical techniques
include milling, gas condensation, electro-spraying, lithography, and thermal decomposition.
In many chemical methods, particles are created by nucleating and growing particles from
atomic or molecular precursors normally in the liquid or vapor phase of a chemical reaction, a
so-called bottom-up approach. Chemical methods for synthesis of microparticles and
nanoparticles include microemulsion, hydrothermal, microfluidic, chemical vapor, pyrolysis,
and sol-gel processes. Chemical synthesis of nanoparticles produces nanostructures with less
defects, provides access to more complex and homogeneous chemical compositions, and is
easily scalable for low-cost and rapid fabrication.
41
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
In NP synthesis, there are two primary approaches known as top-down and bottom-up. The top-
down approach describes that NP synthesis from bulk materials into smaller ones. The top-
down strategy mostly falls under the physical method of NP synthesis as it acquires a big tube
furnace to smash bulk material into smaller parts. While the bottom-up strategy suggests
that NPs are synthesized to the required material from smaller molecules. Chemical reduction
is mostly used in this technique, sometimes combined with the capping agent for NPs
synthesized stabilizing purposes. The biological method of NP synthesis is also categorized
under bottom-up approach, where biomolecules incorporate with metallic substances
for nanoscale material production. The idea of top-down and bottom-up strategies is illustrated
in the figure. The techniques are categorized into physical, chemical, and biological techniques
for synthesizing NPs for both top-down and bottom-up approaches.
Several techniques with NP synthesis have been created. The physical technique of NP
synthesizing has advantages as it avoids NP solvent contamination but it is not negligible to
consume a large quantity of energy for condensation and evaporation of particles. Furthermore,
highly elevated temperature and pressure modulations, which create longer time for NP
manufacturing, indirectly expends the cost of synthesis of NPs.
In the chemical method, to synthesize high purity and stable NP, reducing agents and protective
agents are used to synthesize NP and avoid agglomeration. Strong chemical consumption leads
the synthesized NP to be contaminated. Although the response is fast and cost-effective
42
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
compared to the physical technique, it is hard to regulate the variation in NP size and shape
without significant reduction and stabilization of agents.
Application Areas of Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology is helping to considerably improve, even revolutionize, many technology and

industry sectors: information technology, homeland security, medicine, transportation, energy,
food safety, and environmental science, among many others.
• Using nanotechnology, materials can effectively be made stronger, lighter, more

durable, more reactive, more sieve-like, or better electrical conductors, among many
other traits.
• Nanotechnology has greatly contributed to major advances in computing and
electronics, leading to faster, smaller, and more portable systems that can manage and
store larger and larger amounts of information.
• Nanomedicine, the application of nanotechnology in medicine, draws on the natural
scale of biological phenomena to produce precise solutions for disease prevention,
diagnosis, and treatment.
• Nanotechnology is finding application in traditional energy sources and is greatly
enhancing alternative energy approaches to help meet the world’s increasing energy
demands. Many scientists are looking into ways to develop clean, affordable, and
renewable energy sources, along with means to reduce energy consumption and lessen
toxicity burdens on the environment.
• Nanotechnology offers the promise of developing multifunctional materials that will
contribute to building and maintaining lighter, safer, smarter, and more efficient
vehicles, aircraft, spacecraft, and ships. In addition, nanotechnology offers various
means to improve the transportation infrastructure.
43
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
7.2 PROCEDURE
Materials
- 75 mL 2.4 mM AgNO3 solution

- 2 mL 38.8 mM trisodium citrate solution
- Plastic pipette
- Beaker
- Magnetic stirrer
- Hotplate
Procedure
- Add 75 mL 2.4 mM AgNO3 solution into the beaker. Turn on the hotplate and start
heating the solution to 90 oC. At the same time solution should be stirred with a magnetic
stirrer.
- When the solution reached 90 oC, 2 mL 38.8 mM trisodium citrate solution was added
portion wise.
- After the completion of adding trisodium citrate, the color of the solution will start
turning to pale yellow.
- Get 10 drops of sample to the test tube every five minutes.
- After 40 min., turn off the stirring and heating.
- Take UV measurement and record the absorbance and wavelength value of each sample.
2 mL 38.8 mM trisodium citrate

(drop by drop)
75 mL 2.4 mM AgNO3
Heat up to 90 oC After 40 min

Stirring
Take 10 drops sample

in every 5 min
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
min min min min min min min min
44
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
FABRICATION OF SILVER NANOPARTICLES
Name, Surname:
Group Number:
Table Number:
Sample Wavelength (lmax) Absorbance at lmax (A)

5 min
10 min
15 min
20 min
25 min
30 min
35 min
40 min
45
DOGUS UNIVERSITY
Date
SAFETY PLEDGE
To Dogus University Faculty of Engineering
This is to certify that I have read and that I understand this paper entitled “Chemistry Laboratory
Rules and Cautions”. I also certify that I will obey each and every rule stated in the paper and
will adhere to each of them in my chemistry courses. I have received a duplicate copy of this
paper and will keep it available for review throughout my chemistry courses.
Name, Surname:
Student Number:
Course: CHEM101 Chemistry
Signature:
Lecturer
Dr. EMEL ÖNAL DUMANOĞLU

Signature
46

2024-2025-CHEM101 BOOKLET (EN)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

2024-2025-CHEM101 BOOKLET (EN)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

2024-2025-CHEM101 BOOKLET (EN)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

DOGUS UNIVERSITY

I wish you a healthy, successful and accident-free academic year.

Prof. Sunullah ÖZBEK

LABORATORY SAFETY RULES AND CAUTIONS ........................................................ 4

LABORATORY EQUIPMENTS ........................................................................................... 6

EXPERIMENT 1: CALCULATION OF HARDNESS OF WATER BY EDTA

EXPERIMENT 2: DETERMINATION OF CITRIC ACID IN LEMON JUICE

EXPERIMENT 3: DETERMINATION OF VITAMIN C ................................................ 17

EXPERIMENT 4: PREPARATION OF SOAP (SAPONIFICATION) AND

EXPERIMENT 5: PIGMENT PRODUCTION BY EXTRACTION METHOD ............. 28

EXPERIMENT 6: STRUCTURE CHARACTERIZATION BY UV-VIS ABSORPTION

EXPERIMENT 7: FABRICATION OF SILVER NANOPARTICLES .......................... 41

LABORATORY SAFETY RULES AND CAUTIONS

EXPERIMENT 1: CALCULATION OF HARDNESS OF WATER BY

1.1 DETERMINATION OF HARDNESS IN WATER

The classification of water according to usage areas is as follows:

v High quality water

v Less contaminated water

v Very contaminated water

Cations: Ca, Mg, Sr, Fe, Mn

Hardness = Permanent hardness + Temporary hardness

2. Determination of total hardness with soap solution

French Hardness Degree (FHD) : 10 mg CaCO3.L-1 or 8.4 mg MgCO3

1 FHD = 0.56 GHD = 0.70 BHD

Table 1.1 Drinking water hardness

- Hardness minerals give an undesirable taste in food.

Used Chemicals and Supplementary Materials

• Ammonia Buffer Solution • Graduated Cylinder

Calculation of Hardness of Water by EDTA Titration

1. Take water sample volume of 20 mL (V mL).

1.3 REPORT AND RESULTS Date:

CALCULATION OF HARDNESS OF WATER BY EDTA TITRATION METHOD

Disodium salt of ehtylenediamine tetraacetic acid: (Na2H2Y) Y = deprotonated agent.

Soft water: 0-60 mg/L Hard water: 120-180 mg/L

Volume of EDTA solution consumed = ………… mL

Hardness = …….. ppm

EXPERIMENT 2: DETERMINATION OF CITRIC ACID IN LEMON

Acid-Base Titrations and The Concentration of Citric Acid in Lemon Juice

Background on Acids and Bases

Aqueous solutions can be defined as acidic or basic based on their pH:

In a titration, a solution of unknown concentration (the analyte) is investigated by carefully

Lemon Juice and Citric Acid

- 100 mL 0.5 M NaHCO3 solution

2.3 REPORT AND RESULTS Date:

DETERMINATION OF CITRIC ACID IN LEMON JUICE

• Volume of 0.5 M NaHCO3 consumed:

• Mole of Citric Acid (from the molar ratios in the reaction):

• Molarity of Citric acid (in 20 mL Lemon Juice):

EXPERIMENT 3: DETERMINATION OF VITAMIN C

Vitamin C is L-ascorbic acid – (5R)-[(1S)-1,2-dihydroxyethyl]-3,4-dihydroxyfuran-2(5H)-one

- Fruit Juice (includes Vitamin C)

- Place 20 cm3 of your fruit juice in a beaker.

3.3 REPORT AND RESULTS Date:

Concentration of Vitamin C solution: 1 mg / 1 mL

Volume of calibration solution taken: ……. mL

Mass of Vitamin C: ……… mg

Number of drops of iodine added: ………. drops

Mass of Vitamin C per drop of iodine added: ………… mg

Volume of fruit juice taken: ………. mL

Number of drops of iodine added: ………. drops