BCHEM: Carbohydrates (:P)

Carbohydrates Monosaccharides = one type of monosaccharide unit

 The most abundant organic molecules in nature Heteropolysaccharide = two or more types of
 The empiric formula is (CH2O), “hydrates of monosaccharide
carbon”
 provide important part of energy in diet 1. Monosaccharides
 act as the storage form of energy in the body
• A carbohydrate that contains a single
 are structural component of cell membranes
polyhydroxy aldehyde or polyhydroxy ketone
 Although their abundance in the human body is
relatively low, carbohydrates constitute about • Cannot be broken down in to simpler units
75% by mass of dry plant materials by hydrolysis reactions
A. Empiric formula • Naturally occurring monosaccharides have from
• simplest whole number ratio of atoms three to seven carbon atoms; five- and six-
present in a compound carbon species are especially common
B. Green (chlorophyll-containing) plants
 produce carbohydrates via photosynthesis. In • Pure monosaccharides are water-soluble, white,
this process, carbon dioxide from the air and water crystalline solids.
from the soil are the reactants, and sunlight
absorbed by chlorophyll is the energy source. • About 20 monosaccharides occur in nature.
 CO2 + H2O + solar energy ---(chlorophyll These are divided in 2 types: Aldoses, Ketoses
plant enzymes)--> carbohydrates + O2 A. Aldoses
C. Plants have 2 main uses for the carbohydrates • The monosaccharides that contain an aldehyde
they produce: (-CHO) functional group in their molecular
 In the form of cellulose, carbohydrates structure are called aldoses.
serve as structural elements • Since the carbon atom in aldehyde group has
 In the form of starch, they provide energy only one vacant orbital, the aldehyde group is
reserves for the plants always placed at the terminal of the
 Dietary intake of plant material is the major monosaccharide chain.
carbohydrate source for humans and • They are further classified as tetrose, triose,
animals. pentoses, etc…,, depending on the carbon
atoms they contain.
D. Carbohydrates have the following functions in
humans B. Ketoses:
• Carbohydrate oxidation provide energy • The monosaccharides that contains a ketone
(>C=O) functional group in their molecular
• Carbohydrate storage, in the form of structures are called ketoses.
glycogen, provides a short-term energy reserve. • Since the carbon atom in the ketone group has
only divalent valence, the ketone group can be
• Carbohydrates supply carbon atoms for the placed anywhere in the monosaccharide
synthesis of other biochemical substances chain.
(proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids) • Like aldose, they are also further classified as
tetrose, triose, pentose, etc.., depending on
• Carbohydrates form part of the structural the carbon atoms they contain.
framework of DNA and RNA molecules.
Example of Monosaccharides:
• Carbohydrates linked to lipids are structural
components of cell membranes 1. GLUCOSE
• Carbohydrates linked to proteins function in a • Sometimes, it is also known as grape sugar or
variety of cell-cell and cell-molecule recognition dextrose.
process
• Occurs in nature in a free state as well as a
E. Some diseases associated with disorders of combined state.
carbohydrate metabolism:
 Diabetes mellitus • The sugar of the surface animals, the most
 Galactosemia crucial energy source for mammals, and is
 Glycogen storage diseases obtained by the digestion of starch.
 Lactose intolerance
• About 20% of glucose occurs in ripe grapes.
Classification of Carbohydrates: That’s why it is called grape sugar.

• Apart from grapes, other natural sources of

glucose are honey, and sweet fruits like
mangoes, pears, apples, peaches, etc.

• It is probably the most abundant compound on

the earth.

A. Open Chain Structure:

• Baeyer proposed the open-chain structure of

glucose molecules. After various tests, scientists
noticed that the molecular structure of glucose
contains one -CHO group (at the terminal
• Monosaccharides: Simple sugar position), one 1° -OH group, and four 2° -OH
groups.
• Disaccharides: 2 monosaccharide units
• Therefore, the open-chain structure of glucose is
• Oligosaccharides: 3-10 monosaccharide units
• OHC-(CHOH-CHOH-CHOH-CHOH)-CH2OH
• Polysaccharides: more than 10 sugar units
• There are four chiral carbons in this
• Homopolysaccharides & heteropolysaccharides structure.
BCHEM: Carbohydrates (:P)
B. Cyclic Structure: • Hydrolysis of disaccharide produces two
monosaccharides
• In a further study, it was noticed that there were
certain defects in the open-chain structure • Joining of 2 monosaccharides by O-glycosidic bond:
of glucose.
• Maltose (α-1, 4) = glucose + glucose
• Emil Fischer suggested that glucose (and other
monosaccharides) has a cyclic hemiacetal • Sucrose (α-1,2) = glucose + fructose
structure to explain those limitations.

2. FRUCTOSE • Lactose (β-1,4) = glucose + galactose

• Another name for fructose is laevulose or fruit

sugar. Examples of Polysaccharides:

• The most critical of all ketoses. 1. SUCROSE

• being dextrorotatory in nature gives
• It occurs along with glucose in honey and dextrorotatory glucose as well as laevrotroy
other sweet fruits like mangoes, pears, fructose on hydrolysis.
sugar cane, apples, peaches, etc. • The overall mixture is laevorotatoryans this is
because the laevorotation of fructose (-92, 4) is
• It is called fruit sugar. more than the dextrorotation of glucose (+52.5)
2. MALTOSE
• In the combined state, it is present in sucrose
• Is also called one of the disaccharides which have
(disaccharide) and inulin (polysaccharide). In
two a- D glucose units which are connected by
sucrose, it is linked with glycosidic bonds with
the first carbon of the glucose and also linked
glucose. If it is combined with other
to the fourth carbon of another glucose unit. In
monosaccharides, then they form
the solution, a free aldehyde can be produced at the
oligosaccharides.
first carbon of the second glucose of the solution
A. Open Chain structure: and it is a reducing sugar as it shows reducing
properties.
• The molecular formula is C6H12O6. 3. LACTOSE
• (carbon 1 of galactose, carbon 4 of glucose)
• Based on its reactions, it has been established • Commonly it is called milk sugar as this
that fructose contains one keto group at the disaccharide is found in milk.
C-2 carbon atom in the chain. • It is made up of beta D galactose and B-D-
glucose. The bond between the first carbon of
• Besides keto carbon, six carbon atoms are
galactose and the fourth carbon of glucose. This is
arranged in a straight chain, like in glucose.
also a reducing s ugar.
• Fructose belongs to D-series, like glucose, and • There few more types which are not that popular,
it is laevorotatory. such as: b Trehalose

• Therefore, its correct name is D-(-)-fructose. OLIGOSACCHARIDES

• The open-chain structure of fructose is: HOH2C- • Contains three to ten monosaccharide units
CO-CHOH-CHOH-CHOH-CH2OH covalently bonded to each other

B. Cyclic Structure: • Usually found associated with proteins and

lipids in complex molecules that have both
• Also exists in the cyclic form. structural and regulatory functions

• Due to the presence of the keto group, it • Free oligosaccharides are seldom encountered
forms an intramolecular hemiketal. In this in biochemical systems
formation, the C6 -OH group of the fructose
combines with the C2 keto group. • Complete hydrolysis of an oligosaccharide
produces several monosaccharide molecules;
• Therefore, C2 becomes chiral or asymmetric
carbon and possesses two possible spatial 1. trisaccharide produces three monosaccharide
arrangements of CH2OH and OH groups around units,
it. 2. hexsaccharide produces six monosaccharide
• As a result, D-fructose exists in two units
stereoisomeric forms, i.e.: • Raffinose and fructooligosaccharides are
• ⍺-D-fructopyranose and 𝛽-D- plant-derived oligosaccharides.
fructopyranose, like glucose. • Galactooligosaccharides are dairy-derived
3. GALACTOSE oligosaccharides.

• A monosaccharide sugar whose chemical or Example of Oligosaccharides:

molecular formula is C6H12O6. It exists in two 1. RAFFINOSE
types of structural forms: open-chain and cyclic.
• A trisaccharide composed of galactose, glucose,
• The two enantiomers of galactose are: and fructose.
Dextrogalactose (D-galactose) and
Levogalactose (L-galactose), which are mirror • It can be found in beans, cabbage, brussels
images of each other. sprouts, broccoli, asparagus, other vegetables,
and whole grains
Disaccharides
• FRUCTOOLIGOSACCHARIDES (2
• Contains two monosaccharide units covalently fructose and 1 glucose)
bonded to each other
• GALACTOOLIGOSACCHARIDES (2
• Like monosaccharides, disaccharides are galactose and 1 glucose)
crystalline, water-soluble substances.
Polysaccharides
BCHEM: Carbohydrates (:P)
• Polymeric carbohydrate that contains many AND DIASTEROMERS
monosaccharide units covalently bonded to each
other. Stereoisomers
 isomers that have the same molecular and structural
• Number of monosaccharide units present in a formulas but differ in the orientation of atoms in
polysaccharide varies from a few hundred units space.
to more than a million units.  can be subdivided into two types:
enantiomers and diastereomers
• Undergo hydrolysis under appropriate 1. Erantomes ore stereoisomers
conditions to produce monosaccharides  are isomers that have the same molecular and
structural formulas but differ in the orientation of
• Both cellulose and starch are naturally occurring
atoms in space.
polysaccharides that are very prevalent in the
 Stereoisomers can be subdivided into two types:
world of plants
enantiomers and diastereomers

Homopolysaccharides:
2. Diasteromers ore stereoisomers
• classified as a chain that contains only one type  are stereoisomers whose molecules are not mirror
of monosaccharide unit images of each other.
 Cis-trans isomers (of both alkene and cycloalkane
• Branched: types) are diastereomers.
 Molecules that contain more than one chiral center
• Glycogen and starch (α-glycosidic polymer)
can also exist in diastereomeric as well as
• Unbranched: enantiomeric forms.

Cellulose (β-glycosidic polymer) Enantiomers (D- and L-Forms)

 Structures that are mirror images of each other and are
Heteropolysaccharides designated as D- and L- sugars based on the position of
–OH grp on the asymmetric carbon farthest from the
• e.g., glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) carbonyl carbon
• classified as a chain that contains two or more  Majority of sugars in humans are D-sugars
types of monosaccharide units.

CHIRALITY: HANDEDNESS IN MOLECULES Fischer projection formula:

Any molecule that contains a carbon atom with four different  Two-dimensional structural notation for showing the
groups bonded to it in a tetrahedral orientation possesses spatial arrangement of groups about chiral centers in
handedness molecules.
 A chiral center is represented as the intersection of
The handedness-generating carbon atom is called a chiral center. vertical and horizontal lines
 Atom at the chiral center is almost always carbon
o Chial molecule - molecule with a chiral center
have handedness, Haworth projection formula:
miror images are not superimposable  Two-dimensional structural notation that specifies the
o Achial molecule - do not possess handedness, three-dimensional structure of a cyclic form of a
monosaccharide.
miror images are imposable

GUIDELINES FOR IDENTIFYING CHIRAL CENTERS

1. A carbon atom involved in a multiple bond (double or

Shortcut on identifying D and L :
triple bond) cannot be a chiral center since it has fewer
In Fischer projection formula:
than four groups bonded to it. To have four groups
D- = if the OH on the bottom chiral centre points to the right,
present, all bonds about the chiral center must be single
L- =if the OH on the bottom chiral centre points to the left
bonds
2. A carbon atom that has two like groups bonded to it cannot be In Haworth projection formula:
a chiral center since it does not meet the requirement of four Left up, right down
different groups. D- = -H left-up, OH right-down
L- = -OH left-up, -H right-down
3. 3. Carbon atoms in a ring system, if not involved in Visual Summary
multiple bonding, can be chiral centers. Such carbon D-Configuration: -CH₂OH up, -H left-up, -OH right-down.
atoms have four bonds –two to neighboring atoms in the L-Configuration: -CH₂OH down, -OH left-up, -H right-down.
ring and two to substituents on the ring.
Chirality occurs when both (1) the two substituents are
different and (2) the two “halves” of the ring emanating from SUGAR ISOMERS
the chiral center are different. 1. Aldo-keto
2. Epimers
IMPORTANCE OF CHIRALITY 3. D- and L-Forms
 In human body chemistry 4. α- and β-anomers
o Right-handed and left-handed forms of a
molecule often elicit different responses
within the body. Sometimes both forms are Glucose, galactose, and fructose
biologically active, each form giving a  have the same chemical formula ( C 6 H 12 O 6 ‍), but
different response.; sometimes both elicit the they differ in the organization of their atoms, making them
same response, but one form’s response is isomers of one another.
many times greater than that of the other, and
sometimes only one of the two form is Fructose
biochemically active.
 Eg. Body’s response to the right-handed form of
epinephrine is 20 times greater then its response to
the left-handed form.

STEREOISOMERISM: ENANTIOMERS
BCHEM: Carbohydrates (:P)
 a structural isomer of glucose and galactose, meaning volume because of the repulsion of their negative
that its atoms are actually bonded together in a different charges
order.
This property contributes to the resilience of synovial fluid
and the vitreous humor of the eye

Members of GAGs

1. Chondroitin sulfates: Most abundant GAG

2. Keratan sulfates: Most heterogeneous GAGs
3. Hyaluronic acid: Compared to other GAGs, it is
unsulfated and not covalently attached to
protein
4. Heparin: Unlike other GAGs, Unlike other GAGs
that are extracellular, heparin is intracellular
and serves as an anticoagulant

METABOLIC PATHWAYS OF CARBOHYDRATES

METABOLIC PATHWAYS

• Organized sequences where the metabolic reactions

that occur in a cell
• consisting of a series of consecutive biochemical
REDUCING SUGARS
reactions used to convert a starting material into
 If the O on the anomeric C of a sugar is not attached to
an end product.
any other structure (Free), that sugar can act as a
1. Glycogenesis
reducing agent
2. Glycogenolysis
 Reducing sugars reduce chromogenic agents like
3. Gluconeogenesis
Benedict’s reagent or Fehling’s solution to give a colored
4. Pentose phosphate pathway
precipitate
 Urine is tested for the presence of reducing sugars using 5. Glycolysis
these colorimetric tests 6. Kreb’s cycle
 Examples: 7. Oxidative phosphorylation
Monosaccharides Metabolism and Biosynthesis of Glucose
Maltose and Lactose
Metabolism
COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES
• Cabohydrates attached to non-carbohydrate structures by • is the sum total of all the biochemical
glycosidic bonds (0- or N-type) e.g., reactions that take place in a living
 Purine and pyrimidine bases in nucleic acids organism.
 Bilrubin • Metabolic reactions fall into two subtypes:
 Proteins in glycoproteins and proteoglycans catabolism and anabolism.
 Lipids found in glycolipids 1. Catabolism
• occurs when large biomolecules are broken
Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) down into simpler components.
• Catabolic reactions usually release energy.
• large complexes of negatively charged • The reactions involved in the oxidation of
heteropolysaccharide chains glucose are catabolic.
• are associated with a small amount of protein, 2. Anabolism (opposite of cata)
forming proteoglycans, which consist of over 95 • is a metabolic reaction in which small
percent carbohydrate biochemical molecules are joined together to
• bind with large amounts of water, producing the form larger ones.
gel-like matrix that forms body's ground substance • Anabolic reactions usually require energy in
• The viscous, lubricating properties of mucous order to proceed.
secretions also result from GAGs, which led to the
original naming of these compounds as Glycogenesis
mucopolysaccharides
• GAGs are linear polymers of repeating • the formation of glycogen from glucose.
disaccharide units • Glycogen is synthesized depending on the demand
[acidic sugar-amino sugar]n for glucose and ATP (energy).
• The amino sugar (usually sulfated) is either • If both are present in relatively high amounts,
D-glucosamine or D-galactosamine then the excess of insulin promotes the glucose
• The acidic sugar is either conversion into glycogen for storage in liver and
D-glucuronic acid or L-iduronic acid muscle cells.
• GAGs are strongly negatively-charged:
• carboxyl groups of acidic sugars Sulfate groups (high glucose and atp present = promote
glucose to glycogen for storage in liver and
Resilience of GAGs muscle cell)
Relationship between glycosaminoglycan structure and • In the synthesis of glycogen, one ATP is required per
function glucose incorporated into the polymeric branched
structure of glycogen.
• Because of negative charges, the GAG chains tend to
be extended in solution and repel each other and
• Actually, glucose-6-phosphate is the cross-roads
when brought together, they "slip" past each other
compound. Glucose-6-phosphate is synthesized
This produces the "slippery" consistency of mucous directly from glucose or as the end product of
secretions and synovial fluid gluconeogenesis.

• When a solution of GAGs is compressed, the water is Pathway of Glycogenesis

"squeezed out" and the GAGs are forced to occupy a
1. Glucose-6-phosphate
smaller volume. When the compression is released,
o the first step of the glycolysis pathway if
the GAGs spring back to their original, hydrated
glycogen is the carbohydrate source and
further energy is needed.
BCHEM: Carbohydrates (:P)
o If energy is not immediately needed, the • NADH and FADH2 are Hydrogen acceptors or
glucose-6-phosphate is converted to glucose Hydrogen carriers that transports Hydrogen into the
for distribution in the blood to various cells ETC or Electron Transport Chain in the mitochondria to
such as brain cells. act as proton pump in the formation of ATP.
 The process is triggered by conditions
when blood Kreb’s Cycle / Tricarboxylic Acid (TCA) Cycle
glucose drops from the normal level.
• The Krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondrial
matrix and generates a pool of chemical
energy (ATP, NADH, and FADH2) from the
oxidation of pyruvate, the end product of
glycolysis.
• Pyruvate is transported into the mitochondria
and loses carbon dioxide to form Acetyl-CoA,
a 2-carbon molecule. When Acetyl-CoA is
oxidized to Carbon dioxide in the Krebs cycle,
chemical energy is released and captured in the
form of NADH, FADH2, and ATP.
Gluconeogenesis • Below is the TCA cycle with the enzymes used in
pink and the conversion of the different molecules
• is the process of synthesizing glucose from non- from pyruvate in black with emphasis on the
carbohydrate sources. functional group where the dehydration (removal of
• The starting point of gluconeogenesis is pyruvic acid, water) and decarboxylation (removal of carbon
although oxaloacetic acid and dihydroxyacetone dioxide) take place.
phosphate also provide entry points. a. Outcomes of Kreb’s cycle:
• Lactic acid, some amino acids from protein and • From 2 molecules of Pyruvate from Glycolysis, each
glycerol from fat can be converted into glucose. turn of the cycle forms three NADH molecules and
• Gluconeogenesis is similar but not the exact reverse one FADH2 molecule. These carriers will connect
of glycolysis, some of the steps are the identical in with the last portion of aerobic respiration, the
reverse direction and three of them are new ones. Electron Transport Chain to produce ATP molecules.
• occurs mainly in the liver with a small amount One GTP (Guanidine triphosphate) or ATP is also
also occurring in the cortex of the kidney. made in each cycle
• Very little gluconeogenesis occurs in the brain,
skeletal muscles, heart muscles or other body Oxidative Phosphorylation via the Electron
tissue. In fact, these organs have a high demand Transport Chain
for glucose.
• The electron transport chain is a cluster of
• Therefore, gluconeogenesis is constantly occurring
proteins that transfer electrons through a
in the liver to maintain the glucose level in the
membrane within the mitochondria to form a
blood to meet these demands.
gradient of protons that drives the creation of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and allows the
release of the large amount of chemical energy
Pentose phosphate pathway stored in reduced NAD+ (NADH) and reduced FAD
(FADH2). The energy released is captured in the
• The Pentose-Phosphate pathway is another metabolic form of ATP (3 ATP per NADH and 2 ATP per FADH2)
process by which Glucose-6-phosphate is used to • This stage produces most of the energy (32 - 34
produce NADPH (a coenzyme for lipid ATP molecules, compared to only 2 ATP for
biosynthesis), ribose-5-phosphate (a pentose glycolysis and 2 ATP for Krebs cycle). This stage
phosphate), and numerous other sugar phosphates. converts the NADH and FADH2 into ATP. The
electron transport chain works as a proton pump: it
Glycolysis
pumps hydrogen ions (protons) through the
• Glycolysis does not require oxygen and is membrane, and only allows them back through a
considered to be anaerobic. protein (ATP synthase) which produces ATP. The
• For certain anaerobic organisms, such as some electron transport chain uses oxygen to accept
bacteria and fermentation yeasts, glycolysis is electrons at the end of the chain (the electrons
the sole source of energy. combine with hydrogen ions and oxygen to produce
• Glycolysis is the process in which one glucose water molecules) as represented by the following
molecule is broken down to form two molecules equation.
of pyruvic acid (also called pyruvate).
In summary, the goal of glycolysis,
• The glycolysis process is a multi-step metabolic
glycogenolysis, and the citric acid cycle is to
pathway that occurs in the cytoplasm of animal
conserve energy as ATP from the catabolism of
cells, plant cells, and the cells of
carbohydrates.
microorganisms.
• At least six enzymes operate in the metabolic If the cells have sufficient supplies of ATP,
pathway. In the first and third steps of the pathway, then these pathways and cycles are inhibited.
ATP energizes the molecules. Thus, two ATP molecules Under these conditions of excess ATP, the liver will
must be expended in the process. Further along in the attempt to convert a variety of excess molecules
process, the six-carbon glucose molecule converts into into glucose and/or glycogen.
intermediary compounds and is then split into two
three-carbon compounds. The latter undergo During anaerobic respiration, pyruvate builds up
additional conversions and eventually form pyruvic and is converted to lactic acid in animals and
acid at the conclusion of the process. ethanol (alcohol ) in plants
• During the latter stages of glycolysis, four ATP
molecules are synthesized using the energy given off
during the chemical reactions. Thus, four ATP
molecules are synthesized and two ATP molecules are
used during glycolysis, for a net gain of two ATP
molecules. Another reaction during glycolysis yields
enough energy to convert NAD to NADH (plus a
hydrogen ion). The reduced coenzyme (NADH) will
later be used in the electron transport system, and its
energy will be released. During glycolysis, two NADH
molecules are produced.
BCHEM: Carbohydrates (:P)
2. Membrane lipids (phospholipids,
sphingoglycolipids, and cholesterols)

3. Emulsification lipids (bile acids)

4. Messenger lipids (steroid hormones and

eicosanoids)

5. Protective-coating lipids (biological waxes)

Based upon whether or not saponification occurs

when a lipid is placed in basic aqueous solution:

• Saponifiable lipids

triacylglycerols, phospholipids,
sphingoclycolipids, and biological waxes

• Nonsaponifiable lipids

cholesterol, steroid hormones, bile acids,

and eicosanoids

Classification of lipids

1. Simple lipids,
2. Complex lipids
3. Derived lipids

Simple Lipids

 Neutral fats/oils or triacylglycerol

 Waxes
CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS  Esters of fatty acids with various alcohols.
1. Fats
Lipids  Esters of fatty acids with glycerol. Oils
are fats in the liquid state
 Derived from a Greek word “lipos” means Fat.  Esters of fatty acids with glycerol.
 Biological lipids are chemically diverse group of  Oils are fats in the liquid state
organic compounds which are insoluble in water  Esters of fatty acids with alcohols other
 They are soluble in non-polar solvents such as than glycerol.
ether, chloroform or benzene 2. Waxes
 Are hydrophobic in nature due to the  Esters of fatty acids with higher
predominance of hydrocarbon chains in their molecular weight monohydric alcohol
structures.  Esters of fatty acids with higher
 Unlike proteins, nucleic acid, and polysaccharides, molecular weight monohydric alcohols
lipids are not polymer  Have no importance as far as human
 The chief storage of energy, they provide 6 fold as metabolism. E.g Bees-wax
much energy as an equivalent mass of glycogen
 Fats and oils are the principle stored forms of Waxes
energy in many organisms.
 Lipids participate in oxidative phosphorylation  Solid simple lipids containing a monohydric
 do not have a common structural feature that alcohol (with a higher molecular weight then
serves as the basis for defining such compounds, glycerol) esterified to long-chain fatty acids.
instead their characterization is based on solubility Example of these alcohols are palmitoyl alcohol,
characteristics. cholesterol, vitamin A or D.
 an organic compound found in living organisms  Properties:
that is insoluble (or only sparingly soluble) in o Insoluble in water, but soluble in fat
water but soluble in nonpolar organic solvents solvents and are negative for acrolein test
o Not easily hydrolyzed as the fats and are
Two methods for subclassifying lipids: indigestible by lipses and are very
resistant to rancidity.
 By use of the biochemical function of a lipid as the
o No nutritional value
basis for classification
 Based on whether or not a lipid can be broken Complex Lipids
down into smaller units through basic hydrolysis
 Esters of fatty acids with alcohol containing
Based on biochemical function additional (prosthetic) groups
 Subclassified according to the type of prosthetic
1. Energy-storage lipids (triacylglycerols)
group present in the lipids as follows:
BCHEM: Carbohydrates (:P)
o Phospholipids 10- Lipids provide bases for dealing with diseases
o Glycolipids such as obesity, atherosclerosis, lipid-storage
o Lipoproteins diseases, essential fatty acid deficiency, respiratory
distress syndrome,
Precursor and Derived Lipids

 These include fatty acids, glycerol, steroids, other

alcohols, fatty aldehydes, and ketone bodies, FATTY ACIDS
hydrocarbons, lipid-soluble vitamins, and
hormones.  A fatty acid is a naturally occurring
 Because they are uncharged, acylglycerols monocarboxylic acid.
(glycerides), cholesterol, and cholesteryl esters  Fatty acids nearly almost always contain an even
are termed neutral lipids. These compounds are number of carbon atoms and have a carbon chain
produced by the hydrolysis of simple and complex that is unbranched.
lipids.  In terms of chain length, they are characterized
as: Long-chain fatty acids (C12 to C26) Medium-
Lipids Primary Functions chain fatty acids (C8 and C10) Short-chain fatty
Fatty acids Energy sources, acids (C4 and C6)
biosynthetic precursors
SATURATED VS UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
Triacylglycerols Storage, transport
Phosphoglycerides Membrane components Saturated Fatty Acid
Ketone bodies Energy sources
Sphingolipids Membrane components  A saturated fatty acid is a fatty acid with a carbon
Eicosanoids Modulators of physiologic chain in which all carbon-carbon bonds are single
activity bonds
Cholesterol Membrane component
Monounsaturated Fatty Acids
Steroid hormones | Modulators of physiologic
activity  A monounsaturated fatty acid is a fatty acid with a
carbon chain in which one carbon-carbon double
bond is present.
Functions of Lipids
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
 Electrical & thermal insulators
 Metabolic regulator  A polyunsaturated fatty acid is a fatty acid with a
 Absorption of vitamins carbon chain in which two or more carbon-carbon
 Flavor & taste to food double bonds are present. Up to six double bonds
 Other functions are found in biochemically important PUFAs
 Storage form of energy
 Structural component The fatty acids present in naturally occurring lipids
almost always have the following three
characteristics:

1. An unbranched carbon chain

2. An even number of carbon atoms in the caron chain
3. Double bonds, when present in the carbon chain, in a
Biological Importance of Lipids cis configuration.

1. More palatable and storable to unlimited amount Associated Diseases

compared to carbohydrates 1. Cardiovascular Diseases: High consumption of
2. Have a high energy value (25% of body needs) and Saturated fatty acids is directly associated with a
they provide more energy pr gram than carbohydrates higher risk of developing cardiovascular
and diseases.
3. proteins but carbohydrates are preferable source of
energy. The diet out that World Health Organization has
4. Supply the essential fatty acids that cannot be recommended a with of less total than 10% of
synthesized by the body saturated fatty acids energy consumption.
5. Supply the body with fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E and
K) Studies have shown replacing saturated fatty acids with
6. They are important constituents of the nervous unsaturated fats for up to two years can
system progressively decrease the risk of cardiovascular
7. Tissue fats is an essential constituent of cell diseases.
membrane and nervous system. It is mainly
phospholipids in nature that are not affected by Dyslipidemia
starvation.
 a condition of abnormal levels of lipids in our
7-Stored lipids “depot fat” is stored in all human blood. It is caused due to high consumption of
cells acts as: saturated fatty acids
 shows high level of cholesterol, triglycerides, high-
 A store of energy. density lipoprotein or low-density lipoprotein.
 A pad for the internal organs to protect  This condition is directly related to an increased
them from outside shocks. risk of heart disease and stroke
 A subcutaneous thermal insulator against
loss of body heat. Cancer

8-Lipoproteins, which are complex of lipids and  A number of studies have shown that high
proteins, are important cellular constituents that consumption saturated fatty acids can lead to
present both in the cellular and subcellular breast cancer and prostate cancer.
membranes.
a-Volatile short-chain fatty acids
9-Cholesterol enters in membrane structure and is
 They are liquid in nature and contain (1-6) carbon
used for synthesis of adrenal cortical hormones,
atoms.
vitamin D3 and bile acids.
 water-soluble and volatile at room temperature,
e.g., acetic, butyric, and caproic acids.
BCHEM: Carbohydrates (:P)
 Acetic F.A.(2C) CH3 -COOH.  CH,-CH,~CH=CH-CH,-CH=CH-CH,-CH=CH-(CH,),-
 Butyric F.A.(4C) CH3 –(CH2)2 -COOH. COOH
 Caproic F.A.(6C) CH3-(CH2)4-COOH.
Arachidonic acid:
b-Non-volatile short-chain fatty acids:
 C20:4∆5, 8, 11, 14
 They are solids at room temperature and contain  It is an important component of phospholipids in
7-10 carbon atoms. animal and in peanut oil from which
 They are water-soluble and non-volatile at room prostaglandins are synthesized.
temperature include caprylic and capric F.A.  CH,-(CH,),-CH=CH-CH,-CH=CH-CH,-CH=CH-CH,-
 caprylic(8C) CH3,-(CH2)6 -COOH. CH=CH- (CH,).-COOH
 Capric(10C) CH3,-(CH2)8 -COOH.
1-Simple Lipids
B-Long-chain fatty acids:
A-Neutral Fats and oils (Triglycerides)
 They contain more than 10 carbon atoms.
 They occur in hydrogenated oils, animal fats, Definition:
butter and coconut and palm oils.
 They are called neutral because they are
 They are non-volatile and water-insoluble
uncharged due to absence of ionizable groups in
 Include palmitic, stearic, and lignoceric F.A.
it.
 palmitic(16C) CH3-(CH2)14-COOH
 The neutral fats are the most abundant lipids in
 stearic(18C) CH3-(CH2)16-COOH
nature. They constitute about 98% of the lipids of
 lignoceric(24C) CH3-(CH2_22-COOH
adipose tissue, 30% of plasma or liver lipids, less
NOMENCLATURE OF FATTY than 10% of erythrocyte lipids.

 The systematic name for a fatty acid is derived

from the name of its parent hydrocarbon by the
substitution of vic
 for the final e.
 For example, the C18 saturated fatty acid is called
octadecanoic acid because the parent
hydrocarbon 1s octadecane.
 The position of a double bond is represented by
the symbol ∆ followed by a superscript number.
 eg, ∆9 indicates a double bond between carbons 9
and 10 of the fatty acid;

MONOUNSATURATED, POLYUNSATURATED..

Polyunsaturated fatty acids

(Essential fatty acids):

Definition:

 They are essential fatty acids that can not be

synthesized in the human body and must be
taken in adequate amounts in the diet.
 They are required for normal growth and
metabolism
 Source: vegetable oils such as corn oil, linseed oil,
peanut oil, olive oil, cottonseed oil, soybean oil
and many other plant oils, cod liver oil and animal
fats.
 Deficiency: Their deficiency in the diet leads to
nutrition deficiency disease.
 Its symptoms include: poor growth and health
with susceptibility to infections, dermatitis,
decreased capacity to reproduce, impaired
transport of lipids, fatty liver, and lowered
resistance to stress.

Function of Essential Fatty Acids

1. They are useful in the treatment of

atherosclerosis by help transporting blood
cholesterol and lowering it and transporting
triglycerides.
2. The hormones are synthesized from them.
3. They enter in structure of all cellular and
subcellular membranes and the transporting
plasma phospholipids.
4. They are essential for skin integrity, norma!
growth and reproduction.
5. They have an important role in blood clotting
(intrinsic factor).
6. Important in preventing and treating fatty liver.
7. Important role in health of the retina and vision.
8. They can be oxidized for energy production.

Linolenic acid

 C18:3A9, 12, 15
 in corn, linseed, peanut, olive, cottonseed and
soybean oils.