1. 981-Article Text-2460-1-10-20240403

Engineering Science & Technology Journal, Volume 5, Issue 4, April 2024
OPEN ACCESS
Engineering Science & Technology Journal
P-ISSN: 2708-8944, E-ISSN: 2708-8952
Volume 5, Issue 4, P.No. 1149-1172, April 2024
DOI: 10.51594/estj/v5i4.981
Fair East Publishers
Journal Homepage: www.fepbl.com/index.php/estj
THE RELIABILITY ASSESSMENT OF POWER

TRANSFORMERS
Remigius Obinna Okeke1, Akan Ime Ibokette2, Onuh Matthew Ijiga3,
Enyejo, Lawrence Anebi4, Godslove Isenyo Ebiega5, & Odeyemi Michael Olumubo6
1
Department of Electrical/Electronics Engineering, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
2
Institute of Engineering, Technology and Innovation Management,
University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
3
Department of Physics, Joseph Sarwuan Tarka University, Makurdi, Nigeria.
4
Department of Telecommunications, Enforcement, Ancillary and Maintenance, National
Broadcasting Commission Headquarters, Aso-Villa, Abuja, Nigeria.
5
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of North Texas, Denton Texas, USA.
6
Department of Network Infrastructure Building, VEA, Telecoms, Manchester,
United Kingdom.
___________________________________________________________________________
*Corresponding Author: Remigius Obinna Okeke
Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]
Article Received: 08-01-24 Accepted: 11-03-24 Published: 04-04-24
Licensing Details: Author retains the right of this article. The article is distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 License
(http://www.creativecommons.org/licences/by-nc/4.0/) which permits non-commercial use,
reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is
attributed as specified on the Journal open access page.
___________________________________________________________________________
ABSTRACT
This research investigated the assessment of power transformer reliability with emphasis on the
transmission network within Rivers State in Nigeria, focusing on the perspectives of electricity
consumers, organizational personnel, and business operators using descriptive survey. The
study encompassed the entire population of 725,372 electricity consumers in the Port Harcourt
Electricity Distribution Company (PEDC) in Rivers State, which included both households and
business owners. To select a representative sample, the Convenience Sampling Technique was
employed, resulting in the inclusion of 390 electricity consumers in Rivers State. Data
collection utilized the Consumers Perception of Electricity Power Transformer Reliability
Okeke, Ibokette, Ijiga, Anebi, Ebiega, & Olumubo, P.No. 1149-1172 Page 1149
(COPEPT) questionnaire and Structured Interview, with the instrument's reliability established
through the test-retest technique, yielding a reliability coefficient for each investigation.
Research questions were addressed through the weighted mean score (WMS) analysis. Key
findings indicated dissatisfaction among electricity consumers in Rivers State, primarily
attributed to factors such as transformer age, overall condition, uncontrolled overloading,
adverse weather conditions, and inadequate transformer capacity to meet increasing demand.
Addressing these issues, different approaches including upgrading or replacing outdated
transformers, implementing limits on transformer loading, introducing robust earthing systems,
and increasing transformer capacity, were recommended to enhance consumer satisfaction and
overall reliability. The study further revealed that persistent power transformer failures resulted
in power outages, adversely impacting businesses, households, communication, and
contributing to reduced production and national income. Based on these findings,
recommendations in the form of strategies were provided, emphasizing a comprehensive
analysis of power surge control during adverse weather conditions, a plan for upgrading or
replacing outdated transformers, an assessment of power transformer capacity needs, and
collaboration with relevant stakeholders to develop strategies mitigating the negative economic
impact and enhancing communication with consumers.
Keywords: Reliability Assessment, Power Transformers, Rivers State and Transmission
Network.
___________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Upon the activation of a switch in residential spaces, offices, and industries, electric lights
illuminate, appliances initiate operation, and large-scale industries commence the
transformation of raw materials into both semi-finished and finished products. This progression
adheres to a systematic process encompassing power generation, transmission, and distribution.
The sequence initiates at the power plant, where electricity is generated and subsequently
transferred through a series of components: from the Power Plant to the Transmission Sub-
Station then to Distribution Sub-Station, and ultimately reaching Homes, Offices, and Industries
(Sa'ad, 2018).
Without the transmission link, the sequential movement of electricity from generating plants to
the final users can not be achieved as it provides a platform for the evacuation of electricity
from the generating companies (Gencos) to the distribution network for onward transmission
to final users.
The operational and maintenance responsibilities for Nigeria's transmission network lie with
the Transmission Company of Nigeria (TCN), a government-owned corporation established in
2004 (Sa'ad, 2018). This transmission network is intricately linked to diverse regional networks,
facilitating the seamless exchange of electricity between states and regions. This interconnected
structure plays a pivotal role in guaranteeing a dependable power supply across different parts
of the country and Rivers state in particular, while optimizing the utilization of generated
electricity. Comprising high-voltage transmission lines and substations, the Nigerian
transmission network is a critical component of the nation's electrical infrastructure (Sa'ad,
2018). The transmission lines have a voltage rating of 132kV and 330kV, which allow for the
long-distance transmission of electricity. These lines are made of conductors and supported by
transmission towers to ensure their stability and reliability. The substations are integral part of
the transmission network as they facilitate the transformation and control of electricity at
different voltage levels. Electricity from power plants or other substations are received by these
substations and step up the voltage to transmit it over long distances. Substations also regulate
the voltage, provide protection mechanisms, and enable the transfer of electricity to different
distribution networks. To ensure the efficient and reliable operation of the transmission
network, TCN employs various technologies and control systems. These include Supervisory
Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems, which monitor and control the network in
real-time. SCADA systems provide important information about the status of transmission
lines, substations, and transformers, allowing for timely response to faults or disruptions. They
also help in load balancing, optimizing network performance, and preventing grid instability
(NERC, https://www.nercng.org/).
In order to achieve efficient transmission, a number of equipment (Transformers, circuit
breakers, isolators, Isolators, shunt reactors, earthing switches etc) are needed and must be
reliable, one of which is the Power transformers which are undoubtedly the most important
equipment in the transmission stations (Sa’ad, 2018 et al).
A Power transformer, an electrical apparatus utilizing electromagnetic induction, facilitates the
transfer of electrical energy between multiple circuits. Commonly employed in alternating
current (AC) electrical power systems, it serves the purpose of either stepping up or stepping
down voltage levels (Wikipedia, 2021) as shown in the schematic diagram of types of
transformers in Fig. 1. The reliability of power transformers is crucial to ensuring an
uninterrupted power supply from the transmission network to consumers. They consist of a
component consisting of a core with magnetic permeability and a series of windings, which are
insulated conductors with low resistance wrapped around the core, a cooling and insulation
arrangement that includes insulation paper and mineral oil surrounding the active portion and a
transformer tank, connection terminals, and related accessories (Adewuyi et al 2016).
Figure. 1: Schematic Diagram of Types of Transformers.

Source: https://www.researchgate.net
As shown in the schematic diagram of types of transformers in Fig. 1., Power transformers stand
out as the predominant category of transformers employed in electrical power systems.
Specifically engineered for the transfer of electrical energy, they operate at high voltages,
facilitating the transmission of power from generating facilities to distribution substations. At
these substations, the voltage undergoes a reduction to facilitate subsequent distribution to end
consumers. Renowned for their substantial size and capacity to manage formidable loads, power
transformers play an indispensable role in the efficient transmission and distribution of
electricity. Primarily designed for transmission applications, these transformers find application
in power generation stations, substations, and the interconnection of grids. Power transformers
can handle voltages ranging from 110 kV to 765 kV and are responsible for transmitting large
amounts of electricity over long distances. They are usually oil-filled and have higher power
capacities compared to distribution transformer. The reliabilities of these power transformers
are instrumental in improving the quality of power supply in Nigeria and in Rivers state in
particular.
Reliability, defined as the ability of a system to fulfill its intended function without failure over
a specified period, underscores the critical importance of power transformer performance
(Wikipedia, 2021). In the case of power transformer, this refers to its ability to operate
continuously and reliably under normal operating conditions, without breakdowns or failures.
Transformers are designed to have a long service life, often exceeding 30 years, and therefore,
their reliability is of paramount importance (Oliveira, L. H., 2020). The reliability of a power
transformer is influenced by various factors, including design, manufacturing quality,
maintenance, and external conditions. A well-designed transformer should be able to withstand
electrical, mechanical, and thermal stresses, while maintaining its integrity and optimal
performance. The use of high-quality materials and advanced manufacturing processes helps to
ensure reliability and durability (Adewuyi, Abodunrin, & Aderonmu, 2016). By and large, the
reliability assessment is basically concerned with the evaluations, estimations or opinions
formed regarding the attribute (reliability) of an equipment (Power transformers).
The location scope of this study is focused on Rivers State, Nigeria. This particular geographical
area is chosen because it represents a specific region within Nigeria's Transmission industry.
Investigating the reliability of power transformers in Rivers State allows for a more localized
and context-specific analysis. Factors such as the local climate, infrastructure, maintenance
practices, and consumer demographics in Rivers State may have unique characteristics and can
significantly impact the reliability of power transformers. By narrowing the study to this
specific location, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of the challenges and
opportunities for improving power transformer reliability in Rivers State. The State is located
in the southern region of Nigeria, along the coastline of the Niger Delta. It lies between
longitude 6° 20' east and 8° 50' east, and latitude 4° 20' north and 7° 30' north. The state shares
boundaries with Imo, Abia, and Akwa Ibom states to the north, Bayelsa State to the west, and
the Atlantic Ocean to the south. It also shares an international boundary with Equatorial Guinea
to the east.
In terms of occupation, Rivers State is an economic powerhouse in Nigeria. It is home to several
multinational oil and gas companies, making it the hub of Nigeria's petroleum industry. Other
sectors such as agriculture, manufacturing, trade, and services also contribute to the state's
economy.
The reliability of power transformers in Rivers state has been a significant concern for
consumers in the country. Like many other states, Rivers state faces numerous challenges
regarding its electricity infrastructure, resulting in frequent power outages and inconsistent
supply, affecting economic activities and over all wellbeing of the citizens.
Consumer expectations have shifted from merely seeking access to electricity to demanding
high-quality, reliable power supply. Thus, the reliability of power transformers has gained
significant attention in recent years, as it directly impacts the welfare and satisfaction of
consumers.
This research was conducted to understand the Perception and Satisfaction of Electricity
Customers on the Reliability of Power Transformers within Rivers State, the Dominant Factors
Affecting the Reliability of Power Transformers, their Impacts on Customer Experiences and
Businesses and Possible Recommendations on how to improve the existing situation based on
customer feedbacks as well as to develop techniques for assessing and monitoring their
conditions.
Significance of Power Transformer Reliability in Rivers State.
The importance of this investigation concerning the dependability of power transformers within
the Rivers State Transmission Network is multifaceted; they find their usefulness among
electricity companies, consumers (households, firms, industries and government), policy
makers and contribution to literature.
Electricity Companies: This study holds significance for electricity providers as it offers
insights into consumer perceptions and satisfaction levels regarding power transformer
reliability. The outcomes can help companies in pinpointing areas for improvement and
devising strategies to bolster power transformer reliability. Ultimately, this could lead to
heightened customer satisfaction and loyalty.
Consumers (Households, Firms, Industries, and Government): Consumers directly feel the
impact of power transformer reliability. This research helps consumers grasp the factors
influencing power transformer reliability and evaluate their experiences within the Rivers state
transmission network. By articulating their viewpoints, consumers can contribute to the
formulation of effective policies and initiatives aimed at enhancing power transformer
reliability.
Policy Makers: Policy makers wield significant influence in shaping the electricity sector. The
insights derived from this study can guide policy makers in crafting regulations and policies
conducive to promoting power transformer reliability. It also underscores the importance of
investing in infrastructure and maintenance to ensure a dependable power supply for consumers.
Contribution to Literature: This study enriches the existing literature on power transformer
reliability within the Nigerian transmission industry by focusing on consumer perspectives. It
offers a comprehensive analysis of the factors influencing reliability, shedding light on their
impact on consumer experiences and industry performance as a whole. Moreover, the study
proposes practical recommendations based on consumer feedback, thereby contributing
valuable insights to the realm of power system reliability and addressing a gap in understanding
consumer perceptions within the Nigerian transmission industry.
LITERATURE REVIEW
In the context of power transformers, reliability is of utmost importance as electricity
transmission primarily relies on a stable and efficient power transformer. Power transformers
are responsible for converting electricity to the desired voltage levels, allowing for transmission
and distribution across the grid. Therefore, any failures or breakdowns in these transformers
can lead to power outages, affecting industries, households, and critical infrastructures.
Reliability Theory
The Reliability Theory offers a systematic approach to evaluate the reliability of power
transformers by considering various factors such as design, manufacturing quality, maintenance
practices, and environmental conditions. It provides tools and techniques to assess the
probability of failure, mean time between failures, and overall performance of power
transformers. The concept of this theory help power companies to identify weak points in their
transformer systems, implement better maintenance practices, and make informed decisions
regarding investments in infrastructure improvement (Emmanuel, 2017).
By improving the reliability of power transformers, Nigeria can enhance the stability and quality
of its electricity supply, thereby boosting industrial productivity, attracting investments, and
improving the overall living standards of its population.
Electricity Transmission in Nigeria
The radial transmission grid, incorporating 330kV and 132kV networks, is under the
management of the Transmission Company of Nigeria (TCN). TCN is responsible for both
system operation and market settlement functions (Folorunso and Olowu, 2014). This
extensive network, covering 5523.8km of 330kV and 6801.49km of 132kV transmission lines,
includes 32 number 330/132kV substations and 105 132/33/11kV substations as shown in the
Electricity Transmission Line in Fig. 2. The total installed transformation capacity is
7688MVA for 330/132kV and 9130MVA for 132/33/11kV, with an average available capacity
of 7364MVA for 330/132kV and 8448MVA for 132/33kV (Folorunso and Olowu, 2014, Labo,
2010).
The Nigerian 330kV transmission grid encounters challenges, primarily notable power losses
attributed to lengthy transmission lines. These losses diminish power availability to consumers,
resulting in insufficient power for operating appliances. The escalating power demand strains
the network, potentially reducing its lifespan or leading to a complete collapse (Folorunso and
Olowu, 2014). The major issues identified in the Nigerian transmission system include
insufficient funding, incomplete coverage, limited electricity wheeling capacity, outdated
sections with inadequate redundancies, financial constraints for expansion and maintenance,
frequent vandalism, poor voltage stability, inadequate tools and vehicles, lack of modern
communication and monitoring technologies, overloaded transformers, inadequate spare parts,
and insufficient technical staff recruitment and training (Johnson, B. 2017).
In an effort to address these challenges, the Power Holding Company of Nigeria underwent
unbundling, leading to the establishment of the Transmission Company of Nigeria.
The Transmission Company of Nigeria (TCN)
The Transmission Company of Nigeria (TCN) oversees the electricity transmission network
within the nation and by extension, in Rivers state. It is made up of three operational
departments namely the Transmission Service Provider (TSP), the System Operations (SO) and
the Market Operators (MO).
1. Transmission Service Provider (TSP): The TSP is responsible for the development and
maintenance of the national inter-connected transmission system, managing substations, power
lines, and providing open access transmission services. Its focus includes the maintenance and
expansion of the physical infrastructure constituting the transmission grid.
2. System Operations (SO): The SO oversees the flow of electricity from generation to
distribution companies, operating under the Grid Code for the Nigerian Electricity Supply
Industry (NESI). Its key responsibilities involve ensuring the reliability of transmission grid
lines and maintaining technical stability through planning, dispatch, and control operations.
Specific duties of the SO include: Controlling grid frequency and voltage, allocating power
loads during insufficient generation, designing, installing, and maintaining Supervisory Control
and Data Acquisition (SCADA) and communication facilities, economic dispatch of generating
units, procuring and managing ancillary services, enforcing the grid code and operational
procedures, coordinating planned outages for system equipment maintenance, conducting post-
fault analysis of major grid disturbances.
3. Market Operations (MO): The MO plays a pivotal role in administering the market rules
within the Nigerian Electricity Supply Industry (NESI). Its primary responsibility is to oversee
the Electricity Market, ensuring efficiency and adherence to market regulations. The specific
functions of MO include: Implementation and administration of the Nigerian Electricity Market
Rules, drafting and execution of Market Procedures, oversight of the commercial metering
system, ensuring each trading point has appropriate metering systems, management of the
market settlement system, administration of the payment system and commercial arrangements
within the energy market, including ancillary services, supervision of electricity market
participants' compliance with and enforcement of the market rules and the grid code, periodic
reporting on the implementation of the market rules, capacity building for market participants
on the market rules, procedures, and trading arrangements (Folorunso and Olowu, 2014).
The TCN infrastructure is mainly radial, lacking redundancies, leading to inherent reliability
issues. With transmission losses averaging around 7.4%, these figures are notably high
compared to benchmarks set by emerging countries, ranging from 2-6%. While the number of
system collapses has decreased in recent years, dropping from a peak of 42 in 2010 to a few in
recent years, these trends highlight the significant infrastructure and operational challenges
within the transmission subsector of the industry.
Figure 2: Electricity Transmission Line.

Source: https://www.researchgate.net
Power Transformers
Power transformers represent stationary devices designed for the transfer of electrical energy
between various voltage levels while maintaining a consistent frequency. Comprising multiple
windings, namely primary and secondary, these windings remain electrically isolated but are
magnetically interconnected through a shared magnetic core. The primary winding establishes
a connection with the input power source, while the secondary winding delivers power to either
the load or another transformer (Oliveira, L. H. et al 2020).
In terms of operating principle, the functionality of power transformers hinges on the principle
of electromagnetic induction. As alternating current (AC) courses through the primary winding,
it generates a dynamic magnetic field within the iron core. This magnetic field, in accordance
with Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, induces an electromotive force (EMF) in the
secondary winding. The voltage transformation ratio of the transformer is determined by the
ratio of turns between the primary and secondary windings (Oliveira, L. H. et al 2020).
Transformer Efficiency, Losses and Factors Contributing to Failure
Transformer efficiency pertains to the transformer's capability to convert electrical energy from
one voltage level to another with minimal energy losses. It is a crucial parameter influencing
the overall performance and operational expenses of the transformer, essential in various
applications like power generation, transmission, and distribution systems.
Operated on electromagnetic induction principles, transformers employ a primary winding
energized by alternating current, inducing a voltage in the secondary winding for energy
transfer. However, energy losses occur in this process, categorized into copper losses and core
losses (Redaelli & De Mello, 2019).
1. Copper Losses: They occur within the windings and are due to electrical resistance of the
conductor. They include I²R Losses and eddy current losses.
(a). I²R Losses: Arising from winding resistance during load current flow, these losses are
proportional to the square of the current. Mitigation involves using thicker wires with materials
featuring lower resistivity.
(b). Eddy Current Losses: Induced in the winding's laminated structure, these currents
circulate within, dissipating energy. Laminated cores made of thin metal sheets reduce eddy
current losses.
2. Core Losses: They occur as a result of hysteresis and eddy current losses.
(a). Hysteresis Losses: Resulting from changes in the core's magnetic field direction, magnetic
domains realign, causing energy dissipation. Utilizing materials with lower hysteresis losses,
like silicon steel or amorphous alloys, reduces this loss.
(b). Eddy Current Losses: Induced by a changing magnetic field, these currents circulate
within the core, causing energy dissipation. Laminated cores effectively minimize these losses.
The transformer's overall efficiency is determined by the ratio of output power (Pout) to input
power (Pin) (Redaelli & De Mello, 2019). Understanding these losses is vital for effective
transformer design, operation, and maintenance.
The efficiency (η) and the losses (Ph) can be expressed as: η = Pout / Pin = 1 - (Ph / Pin).
To achieve high efficiency, transformer design takes into account various factors such as
optimal sizing of conductors, selecting core materials with low losses, minimizing air gaps, and
efficient cooling mechanisms.
Power Transformer Failure in Electricity Transmission Networks

Failures of power transformers within electricity transmission networks pose substantial threats
to the reliability and stability of the electrical grid. The repercussions of such failures encompass
power outages, equipment impairment, and economic downturns. A comprehensive
comprehension of the root causes of these failures is imperative for the efficient operation and
maintenance of power transformers in transmission networks. Numerous factors contribute to
power transformer failures in electricity transmission networks, broadly classified into two
main categories: external and internal factors. External factors are related to the environment in
which the transformer operates, while internal factors are related to the design, manufacturing,
and maintenance of the transformer itself.
External factors that can cause power transformer Failure
1. Lightning and surge voltages: Lightning strikes or other high-voltage surges can cause
voltage spikes in the transmission network, which can lead to insulation breakdown and
transformer failure. Surge arresters are installed to protect transformers from these high
voltages.
2. Overloading: Power transformers are designed to handle a specific load capacity. If they are
consistently operated beyond their rated load capacity, the excessive heat generated can degrade
the insulation and cooling systems, leading to failure. Excessive loading of power transformers
can cause overheating, insulation breakdown, and winding failures. Overloading can occur due
to system imbalances, voltage fluctuations, or improper planning and design of the network.
3. Temperature variations: Extreme temperature variations, both hot and cold, can affect the
performance and lifespan of power transformers. High ambient temperatures can increase the
operating temperature of the transformer, causing accelerated insulation ageing and reducing
its lifespan. Conversely, extremely low temperatures can cause issues with the transformer's oil
and cooling systems.
4. Environmental factors: Harsh environmental conditions, such as high temperatures,
humidity, corrosive gases, and salt-laden air, can accelerate the ageing and deterioration of
transformer components, leading to premature failures.
5. Contamination: Pollution and contamination from dust, moisture, and chemical substances
can accumulate on the transformer's insulation, reducing its dielectric strength and thus
increasing the risk of failure.
Internal factors that can cause power transformer failures include:
1. Thermal Aging: Transformers have a limited lifespan due to the ageing of insulation
materials and other components. Over time, the insulation's dielectric strength and mechanical
properties degrade, making the transformer more prone to failure. Power transformers are
subjected to constant heating and cooling cycles due to normal load variations. Over time, these
cycles can cause degradation of the insulation materials, resulting in reduced insulation strength
and increased risk of failures.
2. Poor design or manufacturing: Inadequate design or manufacturing processes can result in
transformers with inherent weaknesses or faults, such as improper core clamping, inadequate
insulation, or substandard materials. These issues can lead to premature failures. Poor
workmanship, substandard materials, or design flaws during the manufacturing process can
significantly increase the risk of transformer failures. These defects may not be immediately
evident, and failures can occur after years of operation.
3. Internal faults: Electrical faults within the transformer, such as short circuits or winding
insulation breakdown, can cause localized heating, arcing, and thermal runaway, resulting in
failure.
4. Lack of maintenance: Inadequate or irregular maintenance of power transformers can lead
to failures. Maintenance tasks such as oil analysis, inspection of cooling systems, and regular
testing can detect and prevent potential troubles before they escalate.
RESEARCH METHODS AND MATERIALS.
This section centers on outlining the methods and techniques employed in conducting the study.
The various aspects related to the methods are discussed under the following sub-headings:
Research design, population of the study, sample and sampling technique, nature and sources
of data, validity and reliability of the instrument, method of data collection, method of data
analysis, ethical approval, and research methodology.
Research Design
The study employed a descriptive survey design, a research method aimed at collecting
information about a population in an unbiased manner. Before implementing the survey, the
researcher conducted a pilot test of the questionnaire to ensure it is clear and can effectively
collect the desired data. This involve administering the survey to a small group and refining the
questionnaire based on the feedback received. Overall, the process carried out in the descriptive
survey design for this study involved careful planning, structured data collection, and rigorous
analysis to assess the view of respondents concerning reliability of power transformers in the
Nigerian transmission network in Rivers State.
Population for the Study
The population of this study comprised all the 725,372 consumers (households, firms and
Industries) of electricity supply in Rivers State (Source: Nigeria Electricity Report: Energy
Billed, Revenue Generated and Customers, DISCOS, 2023).
The population of the study encompasses the complete set of individuals, cases, or entities that
the researcher aims to investigate or comprehend. It constitutes the specific group of interest
from which a sample is selected to represent the broader entity. The researcher took meticulous
steps to clearly define the study's population, ensuring that the outcomes could be accurately
generalized and applied.
Sample and Sampling Techniques
The study sampled 390 respondents using the Convenience Sampling Technique (CST). The
size of the sample pertains to the quantity of individuals or observations encompassed within a
sample for a particular study or research endeavor.
In this study, the Convenience Sampling Technique (CST) was employed. Convenience
sampling is a non-probability sampling method wherein participants are chosen based on their
convenient availability and accessibility to the researcher. The researcher selects on selected
respondents who were readily available, rather than randomly sampling from the entire
population.
Nature/Sources of Data
Data was collected from both the primary and secondary sources through, the use of
Questionnaire, Archival, and Structured Interview methods. The researcher used a
predetermined set of questions to interviewed consumers of electricity in Rivers State.
The researcher titled the questionnaire used for the study as Consumers Perception of Electricity
Power Transformer Reliability (COPEPT) questionnaire. The questionnaire was crafted
utilizing the Likert 5-point rating scale, assigning values as follows: Strongly Agree (SA)
represented 5 points, Agree (A) denoted 4 points, Undecided (U) was assigned 3 points,
Disagree (D) equated to 2 points, and Strongly Disagree (SD) held a value of 1 point. The
questionnaire comprised two distinct sections, labeled Section A and Section B. Section A was
formulated to extract demographic details from the respondents, while Section B was tailored
to gather information pertaining to the problem under investigation.
Validity/Reliability of Instrument
To test the validity and reliability of the test instrument, the Structured Interview Questions and
the questionnaire were designed by the researcher and inputs were received from other sources
to improve and validate the test instrument.
Method of Data Collection
The Direct Delivery Technique (DDT) was adopted to collect data from the respondents. The
researcher personally administered the questionnaires to the respondents and conduct the
interviews with electricity consumers.
Method of Data Analysis
The data was analyzed using the Weighted Mean Score (WMS). In this approach, the number
of respondents for each question under investigation is multiplied by the scale rating and the
total sum is divided by the number of respondents to arrive at a mean value which is judged as
accepted or rejected based on the criterion mean value.
Ethical Approval
The researcher adhered to ethical considerations throughout the study. Initially, a clearance
letter of permission was acquired from the department to conduct the research. Subsequently,
the researcher obtained the voluntary consent of the participants to willingly engage and share
information for the study. Furthermore, the researcher respected the respondents' right to
privacy and confidentiality concerning the information provided, safeguarding both personal
identities and the disclosed information.
Research Methodology
1. Clearly define the objectives of the survey and the scope of assessment as well as the overall
goals of the reliability assessment.
2. Determine the suitable sample size and selection method for the survey. In this case, the
Convenience Sampling Technique (CST) was used.
3. Develop a structured questionnaire to gather information relating to the reliability and
performance of power transformers. The questionnaire includes question on maintenance
practices, historical performance, etc.
4. Data Collection Process: Administer survey to the selected respondent which include network
operators, maintenance personnel, etc. The responses were collected and compiled to form a
data set for analysis.
5 Data Analysis Procedure: The data underwent an analysis to discern patterns, trends, and
potential areas of concern associated with power transformer reliability in the transmission
network. This encompassed the statistical analysis of quantitative data.
6. Initiate a Plan of Action (PoA) to address/prevent future failure occurrences and provide
recommendations for future research endeavors.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

This chapter analyzed the results generated from the data. The analysis is based on the research
questions of the study.
Table 1 reveals that 420 questionnaires were distributed in three (3) areas in Rivers State. Out
of the 420 questionnaires distributed, 390 were retrieved i.e. 93% retrieval and 30 were not
retrieved which is about 7% non-retrieval. The table reveals that 420 questionnaires were
distributed equally to the 3 areas but there was a shortfall in the retrieval of the questionnaire in
the 3 areas (Oyigbo, Eleme and Obio/Akpor Areas).
Demographic Distribution
Table 1
Questionnaire Distribution/Retrieval
S/N Areas Questionnaire Number Differences

Distribution Retrieved
1 Afam, Oyigbo Local 140 132 8

Government Area
2 Eleme Local 140 123 17

Government Area
3. Obio/Akpor Local 140 135 5

Government Area
Total 420 390 30
Figure 3: Sex Distribution
Fig. 3 Shows the statistical sex distribution of respondents. The results in the figure revealed
that out of the 390 respondents, 63% (245) respondents are males while 37% (145) are females.
Fig. 4 revealed that out of the 390 respondents, 37% (147) are single, 60% (234), are married
2% (6) respondents are separated and 1% (3) are divorced.
Figure 5: Qualification
Fig.5 Shows the educational distribution of the respondents. The distribution on the table shows
that out of the 390 respondents, 26% (98) has FSLC/O'Level, 36% (139) has OND/NCE, 31%
(121) has HND/B.Sc/B.A, Master 5% (23), P.hD 2% (9) and others 0%.
The above section is on demographics showing the description of the 390 respondents along
gender, marital and educational lines while the next section is a result of the investigation
carried out on the same number of respondents concerning their perception and satisfactory
level of electricity supply, their positions on the dominant factors affecting power transformer
reliability, their impacts and possible recommendations.
Research Question 1: How reliable are the power transformers currently employed in the
Rivers State Transmission Networks?
Table 2
The Perception and Satisfaction of Consumers Regarding the Reliability of Power
Transformers Currently Employed in the Rivers State Transmission Networks Based on
Customers’ Feedback.
S/N STATEMENT RESPONSE OPTION
SA A U DA SD TOTAL MEAN
5 4 3 2 1
The perception of consumers regarding the reliability of power transformers currently employed in the
A Rivers State Transmission Network.
Electricity Power supply in your area is - - - 127 263 390

1 consistent and uninterrupted. 1.3
- - - (254) (263) (517)
The cost of electricity supply in your - - - 11 379 390
2 area 1.0
is reasonable and within your means. - - - (22) (379) (401)
The capacity of Power Transformer in - - - - 390 390
your 1.0
3 area is sufficient and adequate for the - - - - (390) (390)
needs of the people.
There is always transparency and 390 - - - - 390
accountability in billing via meter 5.0
4 reading from the Electricity Power (1950) - - - - (1950)
Providers.
The customer services are timely and - - - 375 15 390
5 efficient in issues resolution to gain 1.96
public trust and confidence. - - - (750) (15) (765)
There is high level innovation and - 41 290 45 14 390

6 cutting-edge technology introduced to 2.92
foster expansion and future readiness - (164) (870) (90) (14) (1138)
Criterion Mean: 3.0
Research Questions 2: What are the common factors that contribute to the unreliability
of power transformers in the Rivers Transmission network?
Table 3
Common factors affecting the reliability of power transformers in the Rivers Transmission
Network Based on Customers’ Feedback.
5 4 3 2 1
Common factors affecting the reliability of power transformers in the Rivers State Transmission Network.
B
The age and overall condition of power 390 - - - - 390

1 transformers have a significant influence 5.00
on their reliability. (1950) - (1950)
- - -
Power transformers may fail to function 333 51 1 3 2 390
effectively when they are overloaded 4.80
2 uncontrollably. (1665) (204) (3) (6) (2) (1880)
Harsh weather conditions, such as heavy 321 69 - - - 390

rain, lightning, and extreme temperature 4.80
3 variations, can cause transformer failures. (1605) (276) - - - (1881)
One of the major factors affecting the

reliability of power transformers and - - - - 390 390
electricity supply in Nigeria is the 1.00
4 inadequate maintenance. - - - - (390) (390)
Electrical and mechanical stresses such as 274 92 13 2 9 390

power surges, vibrations affect power 4.60
5. transformer reliability. (1370) (368) (39) (4) (9) (1790)
The impact of vandalism and theft on 390 - - - - 390

6 power transformer accessories can bring 5.00
about unreliability in electricity service (1950) - - - - (1950)
delivery.
Poor investment in capacity building and 381 9 - - - 390
7 training of Engineers and Technicians can 4.98
affect power transformer operations. (1905) (36) - - - (1941)
Criterion Mean= 3.0
Research Question 3: How do unreliable power transformers in the Rivers Transmission

Network impact consumer experience and business operations?
Table 4
The Impact of Unreliable Power Transformers on the Consumer Experience and Business
Operations in the Rivers Transmission Network via Customer Response
5 4 3 2 1
The Impact of Unreliable Power transformers on the Consumer Experience and Business Operations in the Rivers
C State Transmission Network.
When a power transformer fails, it can 390 - - - - 390

have significant adverse effects on the 5.0
1 economy, resulting in financial and economic losses. (1950) - - - - (1950)
Transformer failures can lead to prolonged power 390 - - - - 390

outages, resulting in production halts and decreased 5.0
2 productivity. (1950) - - - - (1950)
Voltage fluctuations or power surges caused by 359 22 2 2 5 390

unreliable transformers can damage sensitive
3 equipment used in industries. 4.8
(1795) (88) (6) (4) (5) (1898)
Unplanned failures of power transformers necessitate 383 7 - - - 390

4 urgent repairs or replacements, often leading to higher 4.9
costs. (1915) (28) - - - (1943)
Poor electricity supply can reduce investors’ 321 56 07 03 03 390

confidence and by extension, discourage potential 4.77
5 private players’ involvement in economic growth (1605) (224) (21) (06) (03) (1859)
Criterion mean = 3.0
Research Question 4: What measures can be implemented to improve the reliability of

power transformers in the Rivers Transmission Network, as perceived by the consumers?
Table 5
Recommendations for improving the reliability of power transformers in the Rivers
Transmission Network based on consumer feedback
5 4 3 2 1
Recommendations for improving the reliability of power transformers in the Rivers State Transmission
D Network based on consumer feedback.
Implementing a comprehensive and more 390 - - - - 390

robust maintenance program is vital to 5.00
1 enhance the reliability of power
transformers. (1950) - - - - (1950)
Regular inspections and maintenance are the 390 - - - - 390

foundation of any maintenance program for 5.00
2 power transformers. (1950) - - - - (1950)
Implementing condition monitoring 355 35 - - - 390
techniques can improve the reliability of 4.9
3 power transformers. (1775) (140) - - - (1915)
To ensure the efficient operation and 223 167 - - - 390
maintenance of power transformers, it is
4 crucial to invest in training programs for 4.5
Engineers and Technicians. (1115) (668) - - - (1783)
The adoption of security measure such as 365 13 03 07 02 390

surveillance installations, substations
5 fencing and engaging local communities can 4.88
stop vandalization of power transformers’ (1825) (52) (09) (14) (02) (1902)
accessories.
Consumer education and awareness can play 94 164 03 32 97 390
6 a role in power transformer reliability 3.32
through efficient use of power supply. (470) (656) (09) (64) (97) (1296)
Criterion Mean =3.0

Discussion of Findings
The Perception of Consumers regarding the Reliability of Power Transformers currently
employed in the Rivers Transmission Network.
Table 2 analyzed the perception of consumers regarding the reliability of power transformers
currently employed in the Rivers State Transmission Network.
1. Statement 1 states that Electricity Power supply in your area is consistent and uninterrupted.
The responses to the item indicated that 263 respondents with commutating rating scale of 263
points strongly disagree with the opinion, 127 respondents with commutating rating scale of
254 disagree to the opinion. The above quantitative assessment cumulated to mean of 1.3 for
statement 1. The mean of 1.3 is relatively lower than the criterion mean of 3.0 used for value
judgment in this research work. Based on the response from the respondents, it is concluded
that Electricity Power supply in the various areas is not consistent and uninterrupted. Thus, the
statement in item 1 which states that Electricity Power supply in your area is consistent and
uninterrupted is rejected.
2. Statement two states that the cost of electricity supply in your area is reasonable and within
your means. The distribution on the table shows that 379 respondents with commutating rating
scale of 379 strongly disagree and 11 respondents with commutating rating scale of 22 disagree
to the opinion. The above indications resulted to a mean of 1.0. Judging with the Likert 5 points
rating scale, the above mean of 1.0 is less or lower than the criterion mean of 3.0 used for
judgment in this study. The lower mean of 1.0 is an indication that greater number of
respondents strongly disagree to the opinion in statement 2. Base on the above responses, the
statement in item 2 that the cost of electricity supply in your area is reasonable and within your
means is rejected.
3.The table reveals that the entire 390 respondents with commutating rating scale of 390
strongly disagree to the opinion in statement 3 which states that the capacity of Power
Transformer in your area is sufficient and adequate for the needs of the people. The above
responses cumulated to a low mean of 1.0. Since the above mean of 1.0 is less than the criterion
mean of 3.0, it is therefore rejected that the capacity of Power Transformer in your area is
sufficient and adequate for the needs of the people. This implies that the capacity of the
electricity power transformers in the various areas is not sufficient and adequate for the needs
of the people.
4. Statement 4 on the table reveals a mean of 5.0. This is an indication that the entire respondents
strongly agree to the opinion that there is always transparency and accountability in the meter
reading and billing from the Electricity Power providers. Base on this response, item 4 is
accepted. This implies that there is transparency and accountability in the meter reading and
billing from the Electricity Power providers in the areas under study.
5. Statement 5 on the table regarding customer efficiency on issues resolutions and timeliness
showed 375 respondents disagreed with a commutating rating scale of 750 and 15 respondents
strongly disagreed with a rating scale of 15. The responses cumulated to a mean of 1.96 which
is lower than 3.0, hence, the customer service delivery in terms of timeliness and efficiency of
issues resolution is rejected.
6. The statement on high level innovation and cutting-edge technology introduced to foster
expansion and future readiness is rejected as a mean of 2.92 was obtained which is lower than
the criterion mean.
The above findings support the work of Suraksha, (2020) who observed that for consumers to
be satisfied with the electricity supply in their domain, they expect a continuous and
uninterrupted supply of electricity for their daily activities, both at home and in businesses at
affordable cost for energy consumed with a strong conviction of future improvement, however,
this is not the case in this study.
Common Factors Affecting the Reliability of Power Transformer in the Rivers
Transmission Network Based on Customer Feedback.
Table 3 shows the statistical presentation of the common factors affecting the reliability of
power transformers in the Rivers State Transmission Network. Seven (7) statements were
raised to assess the opinions of the 390 respondents and the following findings were made:
1. Statement 1 states that the age and overall condition of the power transformers have
significant impacts on their reliabilities, the entire respondents demonstrated strong agreement
to this statement just like they did to statement 6 that the impact of vandalism and theft on power
transformer accessories can bring about unreliability in electricity service delivery. The
obtained mean values for the two different statements were 5.0 which is higher than the criterion
mean, hence, both statements are accepted.
2. Statements 2 and 3 produced individual mean values of 4.80 each which in either case is
higher than the criterion mean of 3.0, hence, the statements that power transformers may fail to
function effectively when overloaded uncontrollably and harsh weather conditions like heavy
rain, lightning and extreme temperatures can cause transformer failures hold true.
3. Statement 4 on inadequate maintenance as one of the major factors affecting the reliability
of power transformers and electricity supply in Nigeria showed the entire respondents strongly
opposing that view. With a low mean score of 1.0, the statement is rejected.
4. The statements electrical and mechanical stresses such as power surges, vibrations affect
power transformer reliability and poor investment in capacity building and training of Engineers
and Technicians can affect power transformer operations showed mean values of 4.60 and 4.98
respectively, which means they are accepted based on customer feedbacks.
The Impact of Unreliable Power Transformers on the Consumer Experience and Business
Operations in the Rivers Transmission Network.
The results on the table reveal the opinions of respondents on the impact of unreliable power
transformers on the Consumer Experience and Business Operations in the Rivers State
Transmission Network.
1. Statements 1 and 2 on the table show Mean of 5.0 for each of the statement respectively. The
mean of 5.0 is higher than the criterion mean of 3.0 used in this study for judgment. The above
mean of 5.0 for each of the items show that the entire respondents strongly agree that when a
power transformer fails, it can have significant adverse effects on the economy, resulting in
financial and economic losses and transformer failures can lead to prolonged power outages,
resulting in production halts and decreased productivity.
2. Statements 3, 4 and 5 show mean values of 4.80, 4.90 and 4.77 respectively. This means that
the majority of the respondents do agree to the opinion in statement 3, 4 and 5 on the table
which states that voltage fluctuations or power surges caused by unreliable transformers can
damage sensitive equipment used in industries, unplanned failures of power transformers
necessitate urgent repairs or replacements, often leading to higher costs due to expedited
procurement or emergency repairs and poor electricity supply can reduce investors’ confidence
and by extension, discourage potential private players’ involvement in economic growth. The
above mean of 4.8, 4.9 and 4.77 for each of statements 3, 4 and 5 respectively on the table are
higher than the criterion mean of 3.0 used for judgment. Base on the response of the majority
of the respondents, Item3, 4 and 5 on the table are therefore accepted.
The findings aligned with a study conducted by Girovich et al. (2013), titled "Power Quality
Issues and Their Economic Impacts on Industries," examined the economic impacts of power
quality issues, including voltage fluctuations caused by unreliable power transformers, on
various industries. The study revealed that these power quality issues resulted in financial losses
due to increased energy consumption, increased maintenance costs, and damage to equipment.
Recommendations for Improving the Reliability of Power Transformers in the Rivers
Transmission Network based on consumer feedback
Table 5 shows the statistical distribution of respondents’ opinions on the recommendations for
improving the reliability of power transformers in the Rivers State Transmission Network.
1. Based on consumer feedback, statements 1 and 2 on the table reveal a mean of 5.0 for each
of the statements respectively. This implies that the entire respondents strongly agree to the
opinion that implementing a comprehensive maintenance program is vital to enhance the
reliability of power transformers and regular inspections and maintenance are the foundation of
any maintenance program for power transformers. The mean of 5.0 for each of statements 1 and
2 respectively is higher than the criterion mean of 3.0 used for judgement in this study. Based
on the results on the table, statement 1 and 2 are accepted.
2. A high Mean of 4.9 is indicated for statement 3 on the table. The above high mean is a clear
indication that majority of the respondents strongly agree that implementing condition
monitoring techniques can improve the reliability of power transformers. Following the opinion
of the respondents, statement 3 is accepted.
3. Statement 4 equally shows a high Mean of 4.5. Base on this high Mean obtained, the
statement in item 4 is accepted. That is, to ensure the efficient operation and maintenance of
power transformers, it is crucial to invest in training programs for engineers and technician.
4. Statement 5 on the adoption of security measure such as surveillance installations, substations
fencing and engaging local communities can stop vandalization of power transformers’
accessories gave a high mean value of 4.88 which when compared with the criterion mean, is
accepted and holds true just like statement 6 with a mean value of 3.32 which shows that most
of the respondents think that consumer education and awareness can impact in power
transformer reliability through efficient use of power supply.
The above findings support earlier studies by Jiang, et.al., (2020), and Ullah, et.al., (2016) that
hold the views that implementing a maintenance schedule as well as daily inspection can help
improve transformer reliability and the training and retraining of field personnel will allow for
greater efficiency and reduced down time in terms of corrective maintenance of power
transformer respectively.
STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVING POWER RELIABILITY IN NIGERIA
Improving power reliability is crucial for ensuring uninterrupted electricity supply, enhancing
customer satisfaction, and supporting economic growth. Here are several strategies that utilities
and stakeholders can employ to enhance power reliability:
1. Establish a Comprehensive Maintenance Program: Implementing a comprehensive
maintenance program is vital to enhance the reliability of power transformers. This program
should include regular inspections, testing, and Proactive maintenance activities such as oil
sampling and analysis, thermographic imaging, and insulation resistance testing. Proper
maintenance ensures that potential issues are identified and addressed before they escalate to
larger problems. Establishing a comprehensive maintenance program for electricity power
transformers is crucial to ensure their reliable and efficient operation, prolong their lifespan,
and minimize the risk of failures and costly downtime (Olatunji, et.al., 2019).
2. Load management: Ensuring that transformers are not overloaded and operated within their
rated limits is essential to prevent overheating and insulation breakdown. Effective load
forecasting, proper network planning, and real-time monitoring of load profiles can help in load
management
3. Regular Inspections: Regular inspections are the foundation of any maintenance program
for power transformers. These inspections should be scheduled at specific intervals to identify
early signs of potential issues and make necessary repairs or replacements. Inspections should
include visual checks of external components, such as bushings, tap changers, fans, cooling
systems, and protective devices.
4. Condition Monitoring: Implementing condition monitoring techniques can improve the
reliability of power transformers. Condition monitoring involves the use of advanced
technologies, such as vibration analysis, infrared scanning, and partial discharge testing. These
techniques can detect abnormalities in the transformer's operation and provide valuable data for
making maintenance decisions.
5. Invest in Upgrading Aging Infrastructure: The Nigerian power grid consists of aging
infrastructure, including transformers past their design life. Upgrading these transformers or
replacing them with newer, more efficient ones can significantly enhance reliability. Investing
in modern transformer technologies that offer better insulation materials, cooling systems, and
fault detection systems can contribute to improved reliability and reduced downtime (Ogurinde,
et.al, 2014l; Okunota, 2018).
6. Enhance Transformer Design Practices:
Optimizing transformer design practices can contribute to improved reliability. This includes
adopting proper insulation, selecting appropriate cooling methods, and ensuring adequate fault
detection and protection mechanisms. Furthermore, implementing design practices that
consider the harsh climate and environmental factors specific to Nigeria can help increase
transformer resilience and longevity (Adeitiba, 2018).
7. Strengthen Training and Capacity Building: To ensure the efficient operation and
maintenance of power transformers, it is crucial to invest in training programs for engineers and
technicians involved in transformer operations. Continuous professional development, capacity
building workshops, and certification programs can equip personnel with the necessary skills
and knowledge to identify and address potential transformer issues promptly (Ali & Samuel,
2018)
8. Improved Security: To mitigate the issue of transformer vandalism, security measures such
as installing surveillance cameras, fencing substations, and engaging local communities in the
protection of transformers should be implemented. Furthermore, stringent penalties and law
enforcement should be enforced to deter potential vandalism and theft activities.
9. Consumer Education: Consumer education and awareness programs should be
implemented to improve consumer perspectives on transformer reliability. This can involve
providing regular updates to consumers on maintenance schedules, outage notifications, and
responding promptly to consumer complaints. Building trust between electricity distribution
companies and consumers help manage expectations and enhance consumer satisfaction with
the overall reliability of power transformers.
10. Good Earthing System: The earthing system in transformer installations plays a critical
role in ensuring both the safety and reliability of the electrical system by providing a low-
resistance path for fault currents to flow to the ground, ensuring that in the event of a fault,
excessive current is safely dissipated. This helps prevent electric shocks to personnel and
minimizes the risk of electrical fires or equipment damage.
CONCLUSIONS
The reliability of power transformers is of paramount importance in maintaining a stable and
resilient electrical grid. Power transformers serve as critical components in the transmission of
electricity, facilitating the efficient delivery of power from generation sources to distribution
networks to end-users. A reliable power transformer infrastructure ensures uninterrupted
electricity supply, supports economic activities, and enhances the quality of life for consumers.
By investing in modernization, proactive maintenance, and advanced monitoring technologies,
utilities can mitigate the dominant causes of transformer failure, minimize downtime, and
improve overall reliability thereby leading improved satisfaction on the part of users of
electricity. In addition, strategies such as having a comprehensive maintenance schedule, proper
load management, regular inspection, condition monitoring, upgrade of ageing transformer can
enhance the resilience of the power system to withstand various challenges, including extreme
weather events as well as electrical and mechanical stress thereby improving the reliability of
the power transformers.
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Engineering Science & Technology Journal, Volume 5, Issue 4, April 2024

THE RELIABILITY ASSESSMENT OF POWER

Figure. 1: Schematic Diagram of Types of Transformers.

Figure 2: Electricity Transmission Line.

Power Transformer Failure in Electricity Transmission Networks

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

S/N Areas Questionnaire Number Differences

1 Afam, Oyigbo Local 140 132 8

2 Eleme Local 140 123 17

3. Obio/Akpor Local 140 135 5

Total 420 390 30

Figure 3: Sex Distribution

S/N STATEMENT RESPONSE OPTION

Electricity Power supply in your area is - - - 127 263 390

There is high level innovation and - 41 290 45 14 390

Criterion Mean: 3.0

S/N STATEMENT RESPONSE OPTION

The age and overall condition of power 390 - - - - 390

Harsh weather conditions, such as heavy 321 69 - - - 390

One of the major factors affecting the

Electrical and mechanical stresses such as 274 92 13 2 9 390

The impact of vandalism and theft on 390 - - - - 390

Criterion Mean= 3.0

Research Question 3: How do unreliable power transformers in the Rivers Transmission

S/N STATEMENT RESPONSE OPTION

When a power transformer fails, it can 390 - - - - 390

Transformer failures can lead to prolonged power 390 - - - - 390

Voltage fluctuations or power surges caused by 359 22 2 2 5 390

Unplanned failures of power transformers necessitate 383 7 - - - 390

Poor electricity supply can reduce investors’ 321 56 07 03 03 390

Criterion mean = 3.0

Research Question 4: What measures can be implemented to improve the reliability of

S/N STATEMENT RESPONSE OPTION

Implementing a comprehensive and more 390 - - - - 390

Regular inspections and maintenance are the 390 - - - - 390

The adoption of security measure such as 365 13 03 07 02 390

Criterion Mean =3.0

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