ZOO101 GENERAL ZOOLOGY

Cells, Tissues, Organs,

and Organ Systems of
Animals
Carl Jerwin J. Gonzaga
What are cells?
• The functional units of life
Two basic types of cells:
1) Prokaryotes - Lack nuclei and
membrane-bound organelles
a. Archaea
b. Eubacteria
2) Eukaryotes - Have a membrane-bound
nucleus and organelles; have cytoskeleton
Three basic parts of eukaryotic cells

• Plasma membrane - outer

boundary of the cell; reception of
external molecules
• Cytoplasm - portion of the cell
outside the nucleus; organelles are
suspended in semifluid cytosol
• Nucleus - contains the
chromosomes separated by a
nuclear envelope
Structure of cell membranes
• A membrane is a fluid bilayer of proteins and phospholipids
• Is in a constant state of flux

1) The phospholipids have one

polar end and one nonpolar end
2) Cholesterol is present in the
plasma and organelle membrane
3) Membrane proteins are either
peripheral or intrinsic
4) Glycocalyx on the plasma
membrane surface act as molecular
fingerprint for each cell type
Cholesterol arrangement between lipid molecules
The glycocalyx
• Glycoproteins are formed when carbohydrates and proteins unite
• Glycolipids are formed when carbohydrates and lipids unite
Functions of cell membranes
• Regulate material moving in and out of the cell (selective
permeability)
• Separate the interior of the cell from the outside
• Separate organelles within the cell
• Provides a large surface area for chemical reactions to
occur
• Separate cells from one another
• Site for receptors containing specific cell identification
markers
Simple diffusion
• Molecules move randomly at all temperatures above absolute zero (-273°C) from areas
of high concentration to low concentration
• The goal is to become evenly distributed and reach equilibrium
Facilitated diffusion
• Polar molecules may diffuse down their concentration gradient through protein
channels in the lipid bilayer to avoid contact with the membrane’s hydrophobic pole
Facilitated diffusion
• Carrier proteins facilitate the movement of polar and nonpolar molecules to go down
the concentration gradient
• Simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion require no energy input
Osmosis
• The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration
• Water flow in living cells is facilitated by aquaporins
Tonicity
• The relative concentration of the solutes in the water inside and outside of the cell
Isotonic - solute concentration is the same inside and outside a red blood cell
Hypertonic - solute concentration is higher outside the red blood cell than inside
Hypotonic - solute concentration is lower outside the red blood cell than inisde
Filtration
• Movement of molecules across membranes using hydrostatic pressure
Active Transport: Energy Required
• Active transport moves molecules from lower concentration gradient to a higher
concentration gradient - this movement requires ATP energy
• Similar to facilitated diffusion, except the carrier protein uses energy
Uniporters - transport a single molecule or ion
Symporters - transport two molecules or ions in the same direction
Antiporters - transport two molecules or ions in opposite directions
Bulk transport
• Movement of many molecules at the same time
Endocytosis - Plasma membrane envelops large
molecules and moves them across the membrane
Pinocytosis - Uptake of small droplets of
extracellular fluid
Phagocytosis - Cell engulfs solid material
Receptor mediated endocytosis - Molecules bind
to receptor proteins on the membrane; the
membrane envelops the molecules
Exocytosis - Secretory vesicles fuse with plasma
membrane and release the contents outside the cell
Cytoplasm
• The cytoplasm has two parts:
Cytomembrane - consists of the
organelles
Cytosol - Fluid that suspends the
structures of the cytomembrane
Ribosomes
• No membrane
• Produces proteins
• Contains proteins and Ribosomal RNA
(rRNA)
• Usually cluster in groups (polyribosomes)
connected by messenger RNA (mRNA)
Endoplasmic reticulum
• Sheets, sacs, and tubules that spread
throughout the cytoplasm
• Helps materials to circulate around the
cytoplasm
• Enzyme and protein storage
• Attachment site for ribosomes (ER with
attached ribosomes is rough ER; ER with no
attached ribosomes is smooth ER)
• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum produces
lipids and stores calcium ions in muscle
cells
Golgi apparatus
• Composed of flattened stacks of membrane-bound
cisternae
• Sorts, packages, and secretes proteins and lipids
• Proteins are sealed in transfer vesicles; the ER passes to
the Golgi apparatus
• In the Golgi apparatus, proteins are modified to be
marked in batches for different destinations
• Proteins are packed in secretory vesicles to be released
from the cell through exocytosis
• GA are abundant in secretory cells
• Creates the lysosomes
Lysosomes
• Contains hydrolase enzymes - used to digest organic molecules
• Fuse with phagocytic vesicles to digest food particle
Microbodies
• Enzyme-bearing, membrane-
enclosed vesicles
• Peroxisomes contains the enzyme
catalase which breaks down
hydrogen peroxide into water and
oxygen
Mitochondria
• Double membrane bound organelle
• Inner membrane folds in on itself to
form the cristae - used to increase
surface area to trap energy
• The matrix contains ribosomes and
circular DNA
• Converts energy to a usable form
Cytoskeleton
Microtubules - function in the movement of organelles
Intermediate filaments - maintains cell shape and spatial organization of
organelles
Microfilaments - provides mechanical support and helps form contractile
systems
Cytoskeleton
Cilia and flagella
• Elongated appendages used for
propulsion
• In stationery cells, they move material
over to the cell surface
• Cilia may also act as signal receivers
• Cilia and flagella enclose a matrix called
an axoneme (9+2 pattern of
microtubules)
• Basal body controls the growth of
microtubules (9+0 pattern)
Centrioles and microtubule organizing centers
Nonmembraneous regions of cytoplasm near the
nucleus that give rise to microtubules (e.g. the
centrioles)
Vaults
• Octagon-shaped cytoplasmic ribonucleoproteins
• Collects molecules synthesized by the nucleus to be delivered within the cell
• It is thought that they collect mRNA from the nucleus and transports them to
the ribosome for protein synthesis
Exosome
• Functions in discarding unwanted cellular components
• Also contains cell-specific proteins, lipids, and genetic
material that are transported to other cells to convey
information
Nucleus
• Contains the DNA
1) Directs chemical reactions in cells
2) Stores genetic information
• The nuclear envelope separates the
nucleus from the cytoplasm; pores allow
materials to enter and exit nucleus
Chromosomes
• Nucleoplasm is the inner mass of the
nucleus
• Contains the chromatin (uncoiled
chromosomes) in non-dividing cells
Nucleolus
• Non-membrane bound structure in nucleoplasm in
non-dividing cells
• Preassembly points for ribosomes
Levels of organization in animals
• Protoplasmic organization
• Cellular organization
• Tissue level
• Organ level
• System level
Epithelial tissue
• Covers and lines organs and body surface
• Separated from underlying tissue by a basement
membrane
• Functions in transport, excretion, protection, and sensory
reception
• Simple epithelium - one layer
• Stratified epithelium - two or more layers
Simple squamous epithelium
• Single layer of tightly-packed flattened cells with a central nucleus
• Found in alveoli, capillaries
• Functions in filtration and diffusion
Simple cuboidal epithelium
• Single layer of tightly packed cube-shaped cells
• Found in glands and the ovaries
• Secretion and absorption
Simple columnar epithelium
• Single layer of elongated cells
• Found in digestive tract and gallbladder
• Functions in absorption and enzyme secretion
Pseudostratified columnar
epithelium
• Found in the bronchi, uterine tubules
• Propels mucus or reproductive cells by ciliary action
Stratified squamous epithelium
• Many layers of cells
• Found in esophagus, mouth, vagina
• Keratinized
• Protects underlying tissue
Connective tissue
• Supports and binds
• Found in the extracellular matrix
1) Loose connective tissue
2) Fibrous connective tissue
3) Adipose tissue
Loose connective tissue
• Flexible fibers of collagen, elastin, and reticular fibers
Fibrous connective tissue
• Collagen fibers are densely packed
Adipose tissue
• Stores lipids
Cartilage
• Hard yet flexible tissue
• Made of up chondrocytes found in the lacunae
• Chondroblasts provide support and later mature into
chondrocytes
Hyaline cartilage
• Found in cartilage of nose, trachea, larynx
• Functions in form and reinforcement
Elastic cartilage
• Contains collagenous fibers and elastin
• Found in external ear
• Maintains shape while allowing flexibility
Fibrocartilage
• Helps manage compression forces on invertebral disks and joints
Bone cells
• Osteocytes also found in lacunae
• Surrounded by calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate
Blood
• Red and white blood cells suspended in plasma
Nervous tissue
Neurons - Impluse conducting cells
Neuroglia - Protection, nourishment, and support of neurons
Peripheral glial cells - Peripheral glial cells
Muscle tissue
• Allows movement
1) Skeletal muscle - attached to bones, allows voluntary movement
2) Smooth muscle - Involuntary movement
3) Cardiac muscle - Allows rhythmic contractions of the heart
Skeletal muscle
Smooth muscle