June-2024-issue (1)

E-ISSN: 2583-1755
VOLUME-3, ISSUE-10
JUNE 2024
International Year of Camelids
A Monthly Peer Reviewed Magazine for Agriculture and Allied Sciences
https://theagricultureonline.com/
Editor-in-Chief Associate Editor
Dr. Vijay Bharti Dr. Umesh Singh

Professor (Agronomy) Assistant Professor (GPB)
Water Management Research Centre DKS College of Agriculture and
Sher-e-Kashmir Universityof Agri. Research Station, Alesur
Sciences and Technology of Jammu Bhatapara, Chhattisgarh
(U.T. of J&K)
International Editor
Dr. Bisheswar Prasad Yadav

Director
Directorate of Agricultural Research
Province-2, Parwanipur, Bara
Nepal
Editorial Board
Dr. R. K. Singh Dr. A. V. Dahiphale

Professor Agronomist
Department of Agronomy Central Experimental Station
Institute of Agricultural Sciences Wakawali, Dapoli
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi Ratnagiri, Maharastra
Uttar Pradesh
Dr. Awani Kumar Singh Dr. R. P. Sharma

Principal Scientist (Horticulture) Senior Scientist-Soil Science
Centre for Protected Cultivation Division of Soil Resource Studies
Technology (CPCT) ICAR-National Bureau of Soil Survey
Indian Agricultural Research Institute and Land Use Planning
New Delhi Amrawati Road, Nagpur (MH)
Dr. Sandeep Kumar Dr. Sunil Kumar Verma

Scientist (Seed Production) Assistant Professor
University Seed Farm, Ladhowal Department of Agronomy
Punjab Agricultural University Institute of Agricultural Sciences
Ludhiana Banaras Hindu University
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh
Dr. Alok Kumar Dr. O. P. Garhwal

Senior Horticulture Officer Associate Professor (Horticulture)
National Horticulture Board Rajasthan Agri. Research Institute
Gurugram, Haryana Durgapura, Jaipur
(SKN Agri. University, Jobner)
Dr. Prafulla Pralhadrao G. Dr. Aniruddh Pratap Singh
Associate Professor (Seed Pd. Officer) Assistant Professor-cum-Jr.
AICRP-NSP-Breeder Seed Production Scientist
Unit, Central Demonstration Farm Olericulture and Floriculture
Dr. PDKV, Wani Rambhapur Nalanda College of Horticulture
Akola, Maharastra Noorsarai, Bihar
Dr. Anuradha Saha Dr. Vikram Kumar

Chief Scientist (Agronomy) Scientist-B
AICRP (Rice) Central Silk Board, MESSO
Division of Plant Breeding & Genetics P-3 Seed Station, Rompara
Sher-e-Kashmir Universityof Agri. Resubelpara, North Garo Hills
Sciences and Technology of Jammu Meghalaya
Dr. Pravin Kumar Upadhyay Dr. Vinay Pratap Singh

Scientist Assistant Professor
Division of Agronomy Department of Plant Physiology
ICAR- Indian Agricultural College of Agriculture, Ganj Basoda
Research Institute, New Delhi JNKVV, Jabalpur
Dr. A. L. Jat Dr. Shruti Godara

Assistant Research Scientist Scientist-B, Biotechnology
Division of Agronomy Forest Research Institute (FRI)
Oilseed Research Station, SDAU Dehradun
Sardarkrushinagar, Palanpur
Gujarat
Dr. Devi Lal Bagadi Dr. Kumari Sunita

Plant Physiologist Assistant Professor
AICRP on Arid Zone Fruits Department of Botany
SKN College of Agriculture Dean Dayal Upadhyay Gorakhpur
Jobner (Rajasthan) University, Gorakhpur (U.P.)
Dr. Mukul Kumar Dr. Manish Kumar Singh

Assistant Professor-cum-Jr Scientist Assistant Professor
Department of Biochemistry & Crop Department of Vegetable Science
Physiology, M. B.A.C., Agwanpur College of Horticulture,
Bihar Agricultural University Banda University of Agriculture and
Sabour Technology, Banda (U. P.)
Dr. Kamlesh Meena Dr. Manoj Kumar Sharma

Subject Matter Specialist Assistant Professor
Krishi Vigyan Kendra (ICAR-IIVR) Department of Plant Physiology
Deoria, Uttar Pradesh SKN College of Agriculture
Jobner (Rajasthan)
Dr. Sanjeev Kumar Dr. B. L. Dudwal
Agricultural Economist Assistant Professor
Department of Economics
SKN Agriculture
and Sociology
University
College of Basic Sciences & Humanities
Punjab Agricultural University Jobner, Jaipur (Rajasthan)
Dr. Swarnali Duary Dr. Chenesh Patel

Assistant Professor (Agronomy) Department of Entomology
MS Swaminathan School of GB Pant University of
Agriculture Agriculture and Technology
Centurion University, Gajapati Pantnagar, Uttarakhand
Odisha
Dr. Vinod Bhateshwar Dr. Amit Kumar

Assistant Professor (LPM) Assistant Professor (Entomology)
Department of Agriculture GLA University, Mathure
Vivekananda Global University Uttar Pradesh
Jaipur (Rajasthan)
Dr. Monalisa Sahoo Dr. Vikash Kumar

Assistant Professor (Agronomy) Assistant Professor (Agronomy)
MS Swaminathan School of GLA University, Mathure
Agriculture Uttar Pradesh
Centurion University, Gajapati
Odisha
Gaurav Singh Vishen Mr. Rahul Mishra

Assistant Professor (Horticulture) Scientist
National PG College, Barhalganj ICAR-IISS, Bhopal
Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh
Dr. Arjun Lal Ola Dr. Vijaykumar

Assistant Professor (Vegetable Science) Assistant Professor
Rani Lakshmi Bai Central Livestock Research and
Agricultural University, Jhansi Information Centre (Deoni)
Karnataka Veterinary, Animal
and Fisheries University, Bidar
Mr. Avinash Kumar Ms. Kawaljeet Kaur

Research Scholar Assistant Professor (Soil Science)
Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central CT Group of Intuitions
Agricultural University, Pusa Jalandhar, Punjab
Bihar
Dr. Rajeev Kumar Srivastava Dr. Madhuri Arya
Assoc. Professor-cum-Sr. Scientist Assistant Professor - cum - Scientist
Agronomy, Dr. RPCAU, Pusa PBG, Dr. RPCAU, Pusa, Dholi,
Samastipur, Bihar Muzaffarpur, Bihar
Rahul Kumar Dr. Gauri Jairath

Executive Officer Scientist, Livestock Products Tech.
Quality Council of India ICAR-IVRI, Regional Station
Ministry of Commerce and Industry Palampur, Himachal Pradesh
Dr. Sarvan Kumar Khokhar Sudhir Mishra

Assistant Professor and Head Assistant Professor
Department of Agriculture National P.G. College, Barhalganj
Guru Nanak College, Budhlada Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh
Mansa, Punjab
Dr. Sanchit Thakur Dr. Dharminder

Assistant Professor (PBG) Associate Professor (Agronomy)
MS Swaminathan School of PG College of Agriculture,
Agriculture Dr. RPCAU, Pusa, Samastipur,
Shoolini University, Solan (H.P.) Bihar
Founder and Managing Editor Co-founder
Dr. Kartikeya Choudhary Dr. Anoop Kumar Devedee

Assistant Professor (Agronomy) Assistant Professor
MS Swaminathan School of Division of Agronomy
Agriculture Dean Dayal Upadhyay Gorakhpur
Shoolini University, Solan (H.P.) University, Gorakhpur, U.P.
Content Editors
Dr. Mehjabeen Ms. Aparnna V.P.

Department of Soil Science & Department of Dairy Science and
Agricultural Chemistry Food Technology
Bihar Agricultural University Institute of Agricultural Sciences
Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar Banaras Hindu University
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh
Reviewers
Dr. Ranjeet Singh Bochalya Mrs. Manju Netwal

Division of Agronomy Department of Horticulture
SKUAST-Jammu SKN College of Agriculture, Jobner
Dr. Deepak Katkani Mr. Om Prakash Jitarwal
Mahyco Department of Horticulture
CCSHAU, Hisar, Haryana
Mr. Peeyush Kumar Jayaswal Mr. Aakash
Research Scholar Research Scholar
Birsa Agricultural University, Ranchi Institute of Agricultural Sciences, BHU
Mr. Gaurav Prakash Mr. Shankar Bijarnia
Department of Soil Science and Agril. Chemistry Research Scholar
Agriculture University, Kota SKRAU, Bikaner
Dr. Shivam Kumar Singh Mr. Nitin Yadav
Department of Horticulture Research Scholar
PG College, Ghazipur Institute of Agricultural Sciences, BHU
Mr. Rajkumar Jakhar Mr. Kartik Madankar
Research Scholar Research Scholar
Institute of Agricultural Sciences, BHU Institute of Agricultural Sciences, BHU
Mr. Mahendra Kumar Mr. Ayush Bahuguna
Research Scholar Assistant Development Officer
JNKVV, Jabalpur Department of Horti. and Food Processing, Dehradun
Mr. Deepak Kumar Yadav Mr. Bhagchand Yadav
Agriculture Technical Assistant, Mirzapur (U.P.) Department of Horticulture
SKRAU, Bikaner
Mr. Nanu Ram Sharma Ms. Skikha Jain
Department of Entomology Research Scholar, Division of Fruit Science
SKRAU, Bikaner Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi
Mr. Dodiya Ravi Kumar Dhirubhai Mr. Suresh Kumar Fagodia
Department of Entomology Research Scholar, Department of Soil Science and
Anand Agricultural University, Anand, Gujarat Agricultural Chemistry, SKNAU, Jobner
Mr. Kanik Kumar Bansal Mr. Vijay Kumar
Research Scholar, Division of Agronomy Research Scholar, Division of Agronomy
SKUAST-Jammu SKUAST-Jammu
Shesh Narayan Kumawat Pravallika Sree Rayanoothala
AICRP-Weed Management, Division of Agronomy Department of Plant Pathology (Agriculture and Allied
SKUAST-Jammu Sciences), CV Raman Global University, Bubaneswar,
Odisha
Mr. Veerendra Kumar Patel Mr. Vishal Yadav
Research Scholar, Department of Soil Science Research Scholar, Department of Extension Education
Mahatma Gandhi Chitrakoot Gramodaya University, ANDUA&T, Kumarganj, Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh
Chitrakoot, Satna, Madhya Pradesh
Anushi Ganesh Ram
Research Scholar, Department of Horticulture (Fruit Research Scholar, Department of Horticulture,
Science), CSAUAT, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh RVSKVV, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh
Mr. Satyabrata Sarangi
Research Scholar, Department of Agricultural
Entomology, OUAT, Bhubaneswar, Odisha
Volume 3, Issue 10, June 2024
Monthly
ISSN: 2583-1755
The Agriculture
Magazine
A Monthly Peer Reviewed Magazine for Agriculture and Allied Sciences
Published by:
The Agriculture Publication
18, Keshav Nagar-1, Near Rajasthan Girls College,

Murlipura Scheme, Jaipur-302039
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: theagricultureonline.com
E-ISSN: 2583-1755 Volume-3, Issue-10, June 2024

© Author
Disclaimer: The views expressed in the articles are those of the Authors/contributors and not
necessarily of the Editor, editorial board and publisher. Editorial board invites original unpublished
articles, case studies and success stories from all functional area of Agriculture and Allied
Sciences. Authors/contributors are themselves responsible for any kind of Plagiarism found in
their articles and any related issues. Also, it is assumed that the articles have not been published
earlier and are not being considered for any other magazine/journal/book.
ISSN: 2583-1755
Volume : 3, Issue : 10
June, 2024
Publication Schedule : Monthly
All Correspondence Should be Address to
The Managing Editor
Dr. Kartikeya Choudhary
The Agriculture Magazine
CONTENTS
SI. No. bcbxcbbb
Titles & Authors Page No.
Utilization of Gene-Splicing Techniques in Different Areas
1. 1-4
Radheshyam Kumawat, Nang Priyanka Langkhun and Amarjeet Singh Bhogal
Crop Residue Management in Sustainable Agriculture
2. 5-7
Gangadhar M. Arkachari, Eramma, Bhavya V. P., Kamala D. G. and Sindhu R. V.
Regenerative Agriculture and its Necessity for Recent Times
3. 8-10
S. Swetha
Significance of Soil Organic Carbon in Agriculture
4. 11-13
Grafting Techniques in Vegetable Crops
5. 14-16
K. Rajendar Sagar
Agritourism Policies in India
6. 17-22
Hariom Dubey, Shaktiranjan Panigrahy and R. S. Pundir
Controlled Environment Agriculture: A Hope for Future Agriculture
7. 23-26
Pallabi Das, Pallavi Deka and Sinki Barman
Tiny Honey Bee with Big Impact
8. S. Gopi, Shivanand D. Ainapur, R. Navya Shree, Sai Kumar U. S., Noothan R. Gowda and 27-30
Siddu A. Nyamgoud
Harnessing Potential of Seaweed Farming: A Step Closer to Sustainability
9. 31-34
Shohaib Sheikh Ayub Chauhan, Ayesha Siddiqa and Bichhinna Maitri Rout
Climate Change and Its Impact on Vegetable Crop Production
10. 35-41
Chandrasekhar Manikala, Namratha M. R., Ashwini and Iyappan M.
Successful Management of Lumpy Skin Disease in a Calf
11. 42-45
J. Shashank, N. Rajanna and J. Saikiran
Exploiting the Nutritional Value of Milk or Milk is Synonymous with Nutrition
12. 46-49
Shanker Suwan Singh
Genetically Modified Rice: Prospects and Controversies
13. 50-57
Chethan Kumar K. B., N. R. Kiran, Jesmon Raj N. and Lokesh J.
Conventional Vs Molecular Plant Breeding: A Comparative Analysis
14. Kavya Thottempudi, N. R. Kiran, Hirematada Gangadhar, Bhavanasi Sai Meghana, Arshad 58-64
Khayum and Ayesha Siddiqua
Innovations in Coffee Cultivation: Modern Techniques for Better Yields
15. 65-72
M. A. Suchitra, Bhuvaneshwari D. S. and S. A. Nadaf
Organic Coffee Farming: Benefits and Challenges
16. 73-79
Bhuvaneshwari D. S., M. A. Suchitra and S. A. Nadaf
Mechanisms of Plant Defense: The Role of PAMPs and DAMPs in Innate Immunity
17. Snata Kaushik, Sudharshan Keralapura Ramachandra, Hans Austin and Dnyaneshwar 80-83
Madhukar Firake
Microbes the Master Puppeteers from the Invisible Realm
18. Hans Austin, Sudharshan Keralapura Ramachandra, Snata Kaushik and Dnyaneshwar 84-87
Madhukar Firake
Organic Amendments in Plant Disease Suppression
19. Sudharshan Keralapura Ramachandra, Snata Kaushik, Hans Austin and Dnyaneshwar 88-90
Madhukar Firake
Regulations of Flowering in Fruit Crop for Higher Yield and Quality Production
20. 91-94
Parvathaneni Phanindra, Muchumarri Vinay, Siripurapu Sumanth Paul and Amit Kotiyal
CONTENTS
SI. No. Titles & Authors Page No.
Canopy Management in Fruit Crops for Maximizing Productivity
21. 95-99
Nishant Nayak and Abdul Samad
22.
Basic Concepts of Starting Beekeeping 100-106
Suresh Kumar Jat, Lekha and Sunita Yadav
Mechanisms of Colonization and Nutrient Acquisition by Arbuscular Mycorrhizal
23. Fungi 107-110
Sreshma C. K.
24.
Exploring the Feasibility and Growth of Vertical Farming in India 111-115
Shubham S. Isokar and Jagdish M. Parbat
25.
Carbon Sequestration and Carbon Neutral Concept 116-118
Sreshma C. K. and Hanumanta D. Lamani
26.
Agricultural Applications of Drone Technology 119-121
P. Shanmugapriya
27.
Bio-Cleansing Wonders: Maggot Therapy for Wound Healing 122-126
Dharani Priya N. and Prithiya V.
28.
Invisible Threats: The Economic Impact of Mites on Agriculture 127-129
Mohana Jayasankar and Monisha Udhayakumar
29.
Establish of Community Fodder Bank in Rural Areas 130-134
Devendra Kumar Meena and Meenakshi Meena
30.
Functional Roles of Melatonin in Agriculture 135-139
Manju Jat and Madhurya Ray
31.
Management Strategies for South East Asian Thrips, Thrips parvispinus in Chilli 140-142
S. Srinivasnaik, K. Vijaya Lakshmi, V. Ratnakar and Bharati N. Bhat
32.
Floor Management in Fruit Orchards 143-147
Hemant Bagul
Diversified Farming Systems: A Sustainable Approach to Enhance Productivity and
33.
Resilience 148-151
Devrani Gupta, Dinesh Shah, Rahul Verma, Abhishek Raj Ranjan, Rinku Kumar and Rajeev
Ranjan Tiwary
34.
Horticulture and Agroforestry: Growing Employment in Rural India 152-155
Akshay Mehta, Shivam, Aman Kumar, Visha Jain and Alkesh Yadav
35.
No-Till Farming Effects on Crops 156-158
C. Kalpanachavla
36.
Pesticides: A Risk to the Health of Soil 159-162
37.
Autonomous Farming: Challenges, Opportunities and Future Outlook 163-164
Himani Sharma, Safal Singh and Pankaj Singh
38.
Strategic Training: Objectives, Methods and Impactful Implementation 165-169
Yaksh Patel
39.
Harnessing Nature’s Bounty: Methods and Applications of Divi Divi Tannin Extraction 170-172
V. Manimaran, K. Aswitha and V. K. I. Srisubalakhshmi
40.
Small Scale Aquaponics Integrated with Ornamental Fish Tanks 173-177
Pratiksha Nimbarte and Prathamesh Ade
CONTENTS
41.
Precision Agriculture: Path to Smart Farming 178-182
Meghna Sarma and Mokidul Islam
42.
Innovations in Food Packaging Technology 183-186
Vishwaradhya M. Biradar
43.
Role of Male Sterility in Vegetable Crops 187-194
A. V. Malviya, Harsh S. Hathi, J. M. Ganvit, A. I. Patel and R. D. Vekariya
44.
Leaf Quality and Its Effects on Silkworm Growth, Survival and Adult Reproduction 195-198
Shudeer, Chandana C. R., Jayant J. M. and Arpita
45.
Exploring the Importance of Plamyrah 199-201
Sunita, Shikha Tripathi, Niteshwari Baghel and Udayabhan Nishad
46.
Production Technology of Avocado 202-203
Sangeetha A., Vaishnavi C. and Venkatesh C.
47.
Value Addition of Kiwi Fruit 204-205
Sujitha M., Vaishnavi S. and P. Karuppasamy
48.
Black Night Shade and Its Value Addition 206-207
S. V. Santhiya, P. Shanmathi and C. Venkatesh
49.
Innovative Solar Powered Air Inflated Grain for Onfarm Drying 208-210
Abhinav Dubey
Optimizing Container Gardening for Urban Vegetable Production: Best Practices and
50. Benefits 211-215
Ritikraj V. S., Satheesh S., Muchumarri Vinay and Amit Kotiyal
51.
Effect of Microplastics on Soil Physical Properties 216-217
Sruthi K. and Santhosh C.
52.
Revolutionizing Agriculture: The Role of Drones in Future Farming 218-221
Anshu, Jyoti Sharma and Vijay Kumar
53.
Ice Apple: Nature’s Gift to Beat Heat with Exotic Allure 222-223
Seelothu Rakesh, Ameda Swarnalatha and J. Cheena
Thriving Under Cover: Sustainable Production of Horticultural Crops under Protected
54. Cultivation 224-228
Surendra Lal and Gopal Mani
55.
Innovative Approaches in Nutrient Management for Sustaibale Cropping Systems 229-234
Vinayak Maurya, Yamini S., Shivendra Kumar Singh and Tarun Kumar
56.
Sustainable Agriculture and Future Perspectives 235-240
Shivendra Kumar Singh, Yamini S., Vinayak Maurya and Tarun Kumar
57.
Health Benefits of Spirulina: A Nutrient Dense Superfood 241-243
S. K. Deshmukh, P. K. Wakle, P. M. Todasam and M. D. Lawankar
Endophytes: The Future of Plant Disease Management
58.
Sulekha Pradhan, Disha Baishnabi, Lopamudra Sarangi, Sushree Sandhya Pradhan, R. 244-246
Arutselvan, V. B. S. Chauhan, K. Hanume Gowda, Kalidas Pati, K. Laxminarayana and N.
Nedunchezhiyan
59.
Post Harvest Handling and Storage of Potatoes 247-248
K. Priyatharshini, D. Narmatha and C. Venkatesh
60.
Women in Agriculture: Driving Force for Change in Uttarakhand 249-250
Aksh Tyagi and Gauri Jaguri
CONTENTS
61.
Carbon Farming: Revolutionizing Agriculture for Eco-efficiency 251-253
Shalini Roy
62.
Genome Wide Association Studies on Cucurbit Crops 254-260
Anjali Sharma, Akhilesh Tiwari and B. B. Sharma
63.
Exploring the Link: Diabetes Mellitus and Branched Chain Amino Acids 261-263
Deepak Joshi, Mukesh Kumar and Rajat Singh
64.
Fermented Foods: A Tangy Tradition with Tangible Benefits 264-266
Plant based Diets and Meat Alternatives; Exploring the Rise of a Healthier, More
65. Sustainable Choice 267-269
66.
Ornamental Melons: An Attempt to Make a New Inclusion in Ornamental Plants 270-272
Satyendra Thakur, Nguyen Thuy Toung Vi and Tran Thi Ba
67.
Aeroponics as a Futurisitic Farming System 273-276
Komal Bhatt, Swati Priya, Deeksha Gupta and Mukul Anand Ray
68.
Revolutionizing Agriculture: The Rise of Precision Farming 277-278
Roji Chutia
69.
Economic Pillars on Four Legs: The Role of Camelids in Livelihood Security 279-282
Gadde Sri Harsha and Ramya Koneru
70.
Nickel: An Essential Plant Nutrient and Its Role in Plant Growth and Development 283-287
Britan Rahman Pompy Deka and Perves Ahmed
71.
Jackfruit: The Underutilized Fruit Crop 288-290
N. Sina and Abdul Samad
72.
Heat Stress and It’s Ameliorated Strategies in Farm Animals 291-293
Sharolin Rachel and K. Divya Reddy
73.
Green Manuring is a Boon in Agriculture 294-296
Lokesh Kumar, Usha Kumar and B. S. Poonia
74.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) for Guava Fruit Fly 297-300
Adsul Akshay Ambadas, Adama Thanuja and Pramod Kumar
75.
Role of Plant Breeder in Agriculture 301-304
Arun Kumar, Mainak Banerjee and Meena Wankhade
76.
Insect Architect: An Overview 305-308
Deovrat Singh, Pramod Kumar and Ajay Baldaniya
77.
Ganoderma lucidum: Fungi of Immortality 309-312
Mainak Banerjee, Thamarai Selvi and Shubhangee Ankushrao Waske
78.
Millets for Healthy Life 313-316
Nisha Sapre, Gourav Sabharwal and Hari Shankar Singh
79.
Importance of Birds in Ecotoxicological Experimental Studies: An Overview 317-321
Parimala B., Krishna and Devika Rani H. K.
80.
Underutilized Vegetable Crops: An Overview 322-325
Ranjana Kumari, T. C. Suma and Shalini Naik
CONTENTS
81.
Insect Pest Management in Muga Silkworm 326-329
Rubi Sut, Bidisha Kashyap and Toko Naan
82.
Entrepreneurship Opportunity in Sericulture: An Overview 330-333
Rubi Sut, Bhaswati Saikia and Bidisha Kashyap
83.
Role of Omics Technology in Plant Pathology 334-337
Suhasini Sheelavant, Roshan Sanjay Chandurkar and Shravani N.
84.
Hyperspectral Imaging: A Tool for Plant Disease Detection 338-341
Suresh Patil, Kripalini Ningombam and Suhasini Sheelavant
85.
Fish Preservation and Processing: An Overview 342-346
Swarnadyuti Nath, Hafeef Roshan K. T. and Shivani Dhruwa
86.
Nanotechnology in Pest Management 347-350
Manasij Das, Toko Naan and Snigdha Samanta
87.
Seed Ageing and Its Mechanisms 351-355
Shubham Thapa, Ezhilarasan K. and Ajay Baldaniya
88.
Effects of Shifting Cultivation on Soil Fertility 356-358
A. Pavithra, V. Sowntharya, K. Aswitha and V. Manimaran
89.
Intracellular Symbiotes in Insects with their Transmission and Functions 359-362
B. L. Naga and Akshay Kumar Singh Pratihar
90.
Exploring Phytochemicals as Sustainable Alternatives for Plant Disease Management 363-366
Archana A. M., Gangadhar M. Arkachari, Eramma, Bhavya V. P. and Sindhu R. V.
91.
Biofertilizers Application and Adoption in Dairy Farming: Issues and Strategies 367-371
Asif Mohammad
92.
Remote Sensing in Fruit Crops 372-376
Sushma Sharma and Mahital Jamwal
93.
AI in Horticulture 377-383
94.
Non-Chemical Pest Management in Fruit Crops 384-387
Anil Varma Nalla and Keerthi M. C.
95.
Understanding Gluten Protein in Wheat: Composition, Function and Implications 388-389
Sivendra Joshi, Babita Bhatt, Divya Chaudhary and Nidhi Sharma
Plant Growth-Promoting Microorganisms: Harnessing them as Biocontrol Agents for
96. Plant Diseases 390-393
97.
Combination of Micronutrients on the Wheat Yield Parameters 394-398
Harmandeep Singh, Ravinder Kaur, Aditi Verma and Swati Dudhpuri
98.
Combination of Micronutrients on the Wheat Growth Parameters 399-402
99.
Techniques for Vegetable Seed Production 403-405
Satyapal Singh Yadav and Shahroon Khan
100.
Solar Textiles: Weaving a Greener Future 406-408
Bhumika Lohar and Rupal Babel
CONTENTS
101.
Hydrogel: A Game Changer for Drought Resistant Crop 409-412
Laxman Navi, Santosh Araganji, Harish M. C. and Vineeth M.
Bacterial Endophytic Microbial Consortia Enhancing Plant Defense Mechanisms
102. against Pathogenic Fungi and Bacteria 413-418
103.
The Untold Story of Pesticides: Are they Helping or Harming? 419-421
Divyanshi Rawat
104.
Brooding Management of Chicks 422-424
Tathagat P. Khobragade and Viral V. Gamit
105.
Post-Harvest Handling of Vegetable Crops 425-426
106.
Fruit based Agroforestry Systems in Drylands 427-430
Britney Sapam and Abdul Samad
107.
Methodology for the Processing of Fish Fingers 431-432
Ankit Kumar Gupta, Devesh and Faruk Ansari
108.
Development and Preparation of Fish Sandwich using Catla Fish 433-434
Naman Dev Sahu, Dimpal and Faruk Ansari
109.
Development and Preparation of Fish Mangodi 435-436
Neeraj Kumar Sahu, Khushi Agrawal and Faruk Ansari
110.
Development and Preparation of Fish Cutlet using Rohu Fish 437-438
Rahul Prasad, Nohar Verma and Faruk Ansari
111.
Development and Sensory Quality of Fish Balls 439-440
Rahul Sahu, Rupesh Sahu and Faruk Ansari
112.
Methodology and Preparation of Fish Pickles 441-442
Rajeev Banjare, Kritika Tiwari and Faruk Ansari
113.
Essential Steps for Successful Orchard Planning and Establishment 443-444
Shahroon Khan, Surender Singh, Satyapal Singh and Sonia Singh
114.
Types of Organic Pesticides for Organic Agriculture 445-448
Sunil B. Pawar
115.
The Rise of Ashwagandha Cultivation and Its Health Benefits 449-451
Shahroon Khan, Satyapal Singh and Surender Singh
116.
Crop Rotation: A Profitable Approach for Sustainable Agriculture 452-455
Gangadhar M. Arkachari, Eramma, Bhavya V. P., Archana A. M. and Sindhu R. V.
117.
Nanotechnology in Food Packaging 456-458
Karshana A. V., Sureka R. and C. Venkatesh
118.
Remote Sensing and GIS in Precision Farming: Revolutionizing Agriculture 459-461
Jigyasa Ninama
119.
Nanotechnology in Agronomy: Enhancing Crop Protection and Growth 462-463
Jigyasa Ninama
120.
The Impact of Agricultural Practices on Plant Disease Incidence 464-465
Solanke Krushna Mohanrao
CONTENTS
121.
Maintenance of Genetic Purity during Seed Production 466-467
Koteshi Lamani and V. P. Singh
122.
General Principles of Seed Production 468-470
Adaptation of Environment Friendly Technology by Reducing Pesticide use for
123. Cucumber Insect Pest Management at Farmer’s Level 471-474
Nikki Bhardwaj, Manoj Kumar Sharma and Praveen Bhardwaj
124.
Data-Driven Agriculture: The Power of Regression Models 475-479
S. Damodharan
125.
The Bionomics and Management of Major Insect Pests of Apple 480-482
B. L. Naga and Kiran Kumawat
oha
Utilization of Gene-Splicing Techniques in Different Areas
Radheshyam Kumawat, Nang Priyanka Langkhun and Amarjeet Singh Bhogal
Introduction Agricultural applications of Gene Splicing

In present era (climate changing era) gene Gene Splicing has potential to transformed
splicing holds tremendous potential for addressing a agriculture by enabling the development of
wide range of challenges in different dimensions genetically modified crops (GMOs) with traits of
specially including agricultural science, medical interest. These traits include resistance to diseases,
science, and industry etc. By utilizing the utility of pests, and abiotic stresses (environmental stresses)
the genetic engineering, we can develop innovative such as drought and salinity etc. For example,
rapid solutions to enhance food security, improve genetically engineered crops with genes for insects
human health through nutritional security, and and diseases resistance reduce the need of chemical
promote sustainable development. However, it is pesticides, promoting sustainable farming practices
essential to proceed with attention, considering the and improving farmers socio-economic conditions.
ethical, social, and environmental implications of Furthermore, gene splicing play an important role in
gene-splicing technologies. Through responsible addressing the nutritional scarcity, as demonstrated
research, regulation, and public dialogue, we can by the development of Golden Rice, which contains
maximize the benefits of gene splicing while increased levels of vitamin-A as compare to
minimizing potential risks. There are some success traditional simple rice (Oryza sativa L.).
stories of gene-splicing in different areas are listed in Know time the whole world facing major
below: challenges as ever-increasing world population and
in this situation genome modification technologies
play a crucial role to meet food security as well as
nutritional security to entire world. During the past
three decades, plant breeding and genetics has been
empowered by both novel knowledge on trait
development and regulation (e.g., functional geno-
mics) and new technologies (e.g., biotechnologies
Fig. 1: Applications of Gene Splicing and phenomics).
Radheshyam Kumawat and Nang Priyanka Langkhun

Research Scholar, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, SCI, CPGS-AS, CAU (Imphal), Umiam, Meghalaya
Amarjeet Singh Bhogal
Research Scholar, Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, Assam
E-ISSN: 2583-1755 Volume-3, Issue-10, June, 2024

Gene editing, particularly by clustered it is important to accurately classify splicing
regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats mutations in patient sequencing data. Several
(CRISPR) /CRISPR-associated protein (Cas) and its consortia and healthcare systems have conducted
variants, has become a powerful technology in plant large-scale patient sequencing studies, which
research and may become a game-changer in plant discover novel variants faster than they can be
breeding in present era. Traits are conferred by classified. In addition to applications of this
coding and non-coding genes. From this perspective, technology to consortia sequencing science and
we propose different editing strategies for these two discussing drug screening technologies, the effect of
types of genes. The activity of an encoded enzyme sequence context on splicing in MPRAs and
and its quantity are regulated at transcriptional and technical issues relating to oligonucleotide synthesis
post-transcriptional, as well as translational and post- are discussed (Rhine et al., 2019).
translational, levels. Different strategies are Industrial and Biotechnological Applications: In
proposed to intervene to generate gene functional industrial and biotechnological field, gene splicing
variations and consequently phenotype changes. For plays a crucial role in the production of recombinant
non-coding genes, trait modification could be proteins for various applications. This includes the
achieved by regulating transcription of their own or production of insulin for diabetes treatment and
target genes via gene editing. Also included is a growth hormones for medical purposes. Addition-
scheme of protoplast editing to make gene editing ally, gene splicing techniques are employed in
more applicable in plant breeding (Tan et al., 2020). bioremediation efforts, where microorganisms are
Medical Applications of Gene Splicing: In the field engineered to degrade pollutants and clean up
of medical science, gene splicing has opened up new contaminated environments. Moreover, gene
avenues for treating genetic disorders and diseases. splicing contributes to the production of biofuels
Gene therapy involves introducing functional genes from renewable sources, reducing reliance on fossil
into a patient's cells to correct genetic abnormalities. fuels and mitigating environmental impact. Its
This approach holds promise for treating inherited progress in understanding the starch biosynthesis,
diseases such as cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and isolation of many of the genes involved in this
and muscular dystrophy. Additionally, gene splicing process, has enabled the genetic modification of
techniques are being explored for cancer treatment, crops in a rational manner to produce novel starches
where they can be used to modify immune cells to with improved functionality. For example, potato
target and destroy cancerous cells, as seen in CAR-T starches have been created that contain unpreced-
cell therapy. As up to one third of disease-causing ented levels of amylose and phosphate. Amylose-
mutations are thought to affect pre-mRNA splicing, free short-chain amylopectin starches have also been

Summary of the success’s stories of a Trans-Splicing Strategy for Gene Therapy of Genetic Diseases
Disease Target Gene Mutation Authors
Hemophilia A FVIII Recessive Chao et al., 2003
Huntington’s disease HTT Dominant Rindt et al., 2012
Retinitis pigmentosa RHO Dominant Berger et al., 2015
Severe combined immune deficiency DNA-PKcs Recessive Zayed et al., 2007
Spinal muscular atrophy SMN2 Recessive Shababi et al., 2012
X-linked immunodeficiency with hyper-IgM CD40L Recessive Tahara et al., 2004
developed; these starches have excellent freeze-thaw Rhine, C. L., Neil, C., Glidden, D. T., Cygan, K. J.,
stability without the need for chemical modification Fredericks, A. M., Wang, J., Walton, N. A.
(Jobling et al., 2004). and Fairbrother, W. G. (2019). Future
Pre-mRNA splicing is a fundamental process directions for high‐throughput splicing
that plays a considerable role in generating protein assays in precision medicine. Human
diversity. Pre-mRNA splicing is also the key to the Mutation, 40(9): 1225-1234.
pathology of numerous diseases, especially cancers. Jobling, S. (2004). Improving starch for food and
Genetic engineering approaches are used for gene industrial applications. Current Opinion in
splicing. Gene splicing is mostly useful in diagnosis Pant Biology, 7(2): 210-218.
of many human diseases etc. In this form know time Chao, H., Mansfield, S. G., Bartel, R. C., Hiriyanna,
gene splicing playing important role in all the fields S., Mitchell, L. G., Garcia-Blanco, M. A. and
including agricultural, biotechnological and Walsh, C. E. (2003). Phenotype correction of
industrial application etc. hemophilia A mice by spliceosomemediated
References RNA trans-splicing. Nature Medicine, 9:
Tan, Y. Y., Du, H., Wu, X., Liu, Y. H., Jiang, M., 1015-1019.
Song, S. Y., Wu, L. and Shu, Q. Y. (2020). Rindt, H., Yen, P. F., Thebeau, C. N., Peterson, T. S.,
Gene editing: an instrument for practical Weisman, G. A. and Lorson, C. L. (2012).
application of gene biology to plant Replacement of huntingtin exon 1 by trans-
breeding. Journal of Zhejiang University. splicing. Cellular and Molecular Life
Science. B, 21(6): 460. Sciences, 69: 4191-4204.
Zayed, H., Xia, L., Yerich, A., Yant, S. R., Kay, M. Berger, A., Lorain, S., Josephine, C., Desrosiers, M.,
A., Puttaraju, M., McGarrity, G. J., Wiest, D. Peccate, C., Voit, T., Garcia, L., Sahel, J. A.
L., McIvor, R. S., Tolar, J., et al. (2007). and Bemelmans, A. P. (2015). Repair of
Correction of DNA protein kinase deficiency rhodopsin mRNA by spliceosome-mediated
by spliceosome-mediated RNA trans- RNA trans-splicing: a new approach for
splicing and sleeping beauty transposon autosomal dominant retinitis pigmentosa.
delivery. Molecular Therapy, 15: 1273-1279. Molecular Therapy, 23: 918-930.

Shababi, M. and Lorson, C. L. (2012). Optimization
of SMN transsplicing through the analysis of
SMN introns. Journal of Molecular and
Neuroscience, 46: 459-469.
Tahara, M., Pergolizzi, R. G., Kobayashi, H.,
Krause, A., Luettich, K., Lesser, M. L. and
Crystal, R. G. (2004). Trans-splicing repair
of CD40 ligand deficiency results in naturally
regulated correction of a mouse model of
hyper-IgM X-linked immunodeficiency.
Nature Medicine, 10: 835-841.

Crop Residue Management in Sustainable Agriculture
An essential component of sustainable protects the soil, preserves organic matter, and
agriculture is the right promotes nutrient cycling all of which are critical
handling of agricultural components of sustainable agriculture. It also
wastes. The plant parts, benefits the crops by turning waste into beneficial
such as stalks, leaves, and nutrients.
stems, that remain on the field after harvest are Benefits of crop residue
referred to as crop  Soil health and fertility: Soil nutrients and
residues. Crop residue is organic matter can be obtained from crop wastes.
essential for maintaining It enhances soil fertility through limiting soil
soil health, storing erosion, maintaining soil temperatures that are
carbon and preventing erosion. The productivity of favorable for plant growth, encouraging root
the land and the ecosystem may be greatly impacted development, raising soil pH and making more
by how farmers handle these wastes. micronutrients available for plants, adding
Reducing the frequency and intensity of organic matter to the soil, lessening soil
tillage operations while compaction, and maintaining land fertility.
increasing the quantity of  Reduced soil erosion: By forming a barrier on
residue left over from the soil's surface, crop residue can aid in the
previous harvests is the prevention of soil erosion. This is especially
basis of the crop residue management approach. This crucial in regions that experience high rainfall or
management strategy aims to preserve the quality of steep slopes, since erosion can pose a serious
the soil and water while offering numerous of threat. Farmers can preserve the quality and
additional ecological and financial benefits. Plant production of their land by minimizing soil
waste can be used for compost, thatching, fuel, erosion.
animal feed, and packaging. Crop residue recycling  Water conservation: Because crop leftovers
Gangadhar M. Arkachari and Sindhu R. V.
Agricultural Research Wing, Sri Ramachandrapura Math Hosanagara, Karnataka
Eramma
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kawadimatti, Karnataka
Bhavya V. P.
Research Associate, KSNUAHS, Shivamogga, Karnataka
Kamala D. G.
Research Scholar, UHS, Bagalkot, Karnataka
lessen runoff and evaporation, they can also aid ed erosion.
in the preservation of soil moisture. In areas Methods of Crop Residue Management
where water is limited and irrigation is frequently  No-till farming: When agricultural remnants
required, this is particularly crucial. remain on the surface
 Reduced greenhouse gas emissions: Reducing of the ground and the
greenhouse gas emissions can also be aided by soil is kept undisturbed
effective agricultural residue management. after planting. This minimizes erosion and aids in
Farmers may lessen the quantity of CO2 and other the soil's ability to hold on to moisture and
gases they emit into the environment by minerals.
integrating agricultural wastes into the soil as  Mulching: where crop remains is added to the
opposed to burning them or allowing them to soil's surface in an
break down in the open. effort to retain moisture
 Livestock feed and biofuels: Crop leftovers are and prevent the growth
an important source of bedding and feed for of weeds.
animals. They may also be used as a feedstock  Ridge-tillage: Make raised ridges or beds so that
for biofuels, which can help farmers earn more plant leftovers may
money and lessen their dependency on fossil collect between them.
fuels. As a result, soil erosion
 Happy microbiome: Crop leftovers provide is reduced and water penetration is improved.
food and shelter for helpful bacteria and fungus,  Incorporation: Using tillage equipment, crop
which in turn helps the microorganisms that leftovers are incorporated into the soil by this
inhabit the soil. Overall soil health and nutrient approach. This can provide the soil nutrients and
cycling are enhanced by this flourishing soil aid in accelerating the breakdown process.
microbiota.  Grazing: Using this method, livestock is let to
 Greater Yields: Plants that thrive in healthier graze on agricultural
soil are more robust and fruitful. residue following harvest.
 Reduced Costs: Input costs are decreased when In addition to giving the
there is less dependency on tillage, herbicides, animals a supply of feed, this can aid in lowering
and fertilizers. the quantity of residue left on the field. Over-
 Sustainable Future: Long-term agricultural grazing, however, can weaken the fertility of the
production and environmental advantages are soil and harm its structure.
guaranteed by enhanced soil health and decreas-  Harvesting: This method is gathering crop left-

overs and utilizing them to make biofuels,
bedding, or animal feed. This can lessen the
quantity of residue left on the field and give
farmers alternative revenue streams.
Conclusion
Crop residue management is a sustainable
strategy that is more than simply a trend; it is the key
to realizing the full potential of farmlands and the
ecosystem. One of the most important aspects of
sustainable agriculture is crop residue management.
Adopting techniques that increase crop yields while
minimizing adverse environmental effects is the
ultimate goal of agricultural residue management.
Crop residues can be managed well to increase soil
health, lower greenhouse gas emissions, and provide
renewable energy. Effective management of
agricultural residue allows farmers to support
beneficial insects and microorganisms that help
control pests and minimize the need for pesticides.
References
Mamo, M. and Johnson, L. (2022, December 5).
Crop Residue Removal: Its Effect on Soil and
Water Quality. Univercity of Nebraska-
Linkoln (UNL).
Methods for measuring crop residue. (2002, May
13). Iowa State University (ISU) Extension
and Outreach.Methods for measuring crop
residue. (2002, May 13). Iowa State
University (ISU) Extension and Outreach.
Piccoli, I. et al. (2020, April 17). Crop yield after 5
decades of contrasting residue management.
Nutrient Cycling in Agrosystems, 117: 231.

Regenerative Agriculture and its Necessity for Recent Times
S. Swetha
Introduction of agricultural ideas and methods that strengthens

At present, climate change is forcing us to re- watersheds, boosts biodiversity, enriches soils, and
evaluate all our actions including the practices improves ecosystem services”.
followed in agriculture. Agriculture is responsible Concept of Regenerative agriculture
for about 15% of green house gas emissions (Newton The concept of regenerative agriculture is
et al., 2020). Although, Regenerative agriculture is a closely related with the concepts of organic
term that has been used since 1980 it has again agriculture as well as low external input agriculture.
recently emerged as a solution to this crisis. It has Additionally, it is linked to certain “specific
been suggested that regenerative agriculture is an technologies and systems,” such as crop rotation,
alternate method of food production with potentially integrated pest management (IPM), nitrogen
less negative environmental and/or social effects. fixation, nutrient cycling, and “weed cycling.”
Definition According to Schreefel et al. (2020), the themes of
Although regenerative agriculture is gaining Regenerative Agriculture that crop up most
popularity, the phrase has neither a widely agreed frequently include improvements to soil health, the
definition in common usage nor a legal or regulatory environment as a whole, human health and economic
definition. Rhodes (2017) claims that, The success.
fundamental goal of regenerative agriculture is to Soil health: Stories centred on Regenerative
rehabilitate severely damaged soil or improve soil Agriculture pay special attention to soil health.
health, which symbiotically improves vegetation Indeed, the majority, if not all, of the arguments in
quality, water quality and land production. favour of regenerative agriculture are based on the
Internationally, regenerative agriculture was notion that soil, and soil life in particular, is in
identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate danger. However, there are inherent issues with the
Change as a “sustainable land management practice” term “soil health.” Similar to soil quality, soil health
that emphasises ecological services and “can be is a container notion that needs to be meaningfully
effective in building resilience of agro-ecosystems” dissected. Although it might be viewed as something
in their Special Report on “Climate Change and worthwhile to aim towards, relevant indicators that
Land” (IPCC, 2019). Terra Genesis International are measurable and trackable over extended periods
(2020) have defined regenerative agriculture as “a set of time are necessary for underlying soil functions.
S. Swetha
Assistant Professor (Agronomy), Vanavarayar Institute of Agriculture, Pollachi, Tamil Nadu

Furthermore, there is typically more than one cteristics (such as pH, metal cations, nutrient
direction in soil health; agronomic techniques that elements, and organic matter) also have to be
improve one component of soil health, such soil life, improved. The concentration of organic matter and
frequently have detrimental consequences on other organic carbon (OM and OC), as well as other soil
functions, like nitrate leaching, primary production, chemical properties and nutritional constituents, can
or GHG emissions. be greatly increased by conservation tillage and
Biodiversity: One of the main areas of worry for straw stubble covering.
biodiversity concerns is the influence of pesticides, Maintaining soil cover: The soil cover can be
specifically insecticides, employed in plant improves by a variety of techniques such as
protection. Reiterating Carson's worries about DDT, mulching, cover crops and permaculture. By
it was shown that increases in neonicotinoids in the lowering evaporation, raising moisture retention,
environment were linked to decreases in insecti- controlling temperature, improving nutrient
vorous bird populations. Neonicotinoids have also availability and root absorption, suppressing weeds,
been linked to a novel pesticide cycle, in which a lowering salinity, promoting biological activity, and
decline in natural enemy populations and pesticide managing crop pests and diseases, mulching has
resistance result in a greater reliance on chemical been shown to be effective in improving soil health.
control. The advent of glyphosate for weed Arable systems typically use organic mulch
management was highly praised because it was materials to enhance soil health, but in recent
thought to be less harmful to the environment than decades, the use of inorganic plastic mulch has
other herbicides. Herbicide-resistant weeds have become more widespread. A cover crop is any living
proliferated due to its extensive use in conjunction ground cover that is put beside or after the main crop
with “Round-up Ready” cultivars of soybean, oilseed and is often removed prior to the next crop being
rape, and maize as well as decreased tillage. sown. Occasionally, cover crops involve double-
Agronomic practices in regenerative agriculture cropping one main crop to boost organic matter and
For restoration of soil health reduce soil erosion, weeds, and pests.
Tillage: The long-term health of the soil and the Building soil carbon: Improving soil carbon is an
agricultural ecosystem depend on improving soil important step for restoration of soil health. This can
structure, reducing soil erosion, and increasing soil be achieved through the utilization of biochar,
nutrient content. Conservation tillage techniques like compost, green manures and animal manures.
straw mulching, subsoiling tillage, and zero tillage Biochar can enhance the physical characteristics of
have demonstrated remarkable results in these areas. soil, such as aggregate stability, water retention
To accomplish soil restoration, other chemical chara- capacity, root penetration, and decreased erosion.

It can also increase soil fertility and soil organic chemicals to control the pests have caused numerous
matter due to its wide surface areas, numerous pores, concerns including the loss of population of natural
and varying pore sizes. Application of compost and predators. Hence, following an integrated approach
manures improved soil fertility, water movement and for controlling the weeds, insects and diseases wil;l
retention, and soil temperature regulation do result in improving productivity as well as will not
facilitate better growth and higher productivity of harm the environment. There are several methods to
crops. use IPM techniques to reduce harm. IPM is updated
Sequestration of carbon: Sequestration of carbon is for modern times, when advanced agricultural
a significant practise in regenerative agriculture that technology are essential to the production and
can be achieved through employing agroforestry, consumption of food.
silvipasture etc., which not only restores soil fertility References
but also improves biodiversity. Tree and pasture Rhodes, C. J. (2017). The imperative for regenerative
integration through agroforestryand silvipasture agriculture. Science Progress, 100: 80-129.
yields food, wood, and fodder, as well as a host of IPCC. (2019). “Land degradation,” in Climate
other soil-related ecological services like improved Change and Land: an IPCC Special Report on
soil physical, biological, and chemical qualities and Climate Change, Desertification, Land
increased fertility. Agroforestry can increase Degradation, Sustainable Land Management,
biodiversity more than monocropping by offering a Food Security, and Greenhouse Gas Fluxes in
specific habitat, a haven for epigenic species, a Terrestrial Ecosystems, eds P. R. Shukla, J.
buffering microclimate, soil moisture, and humidity. Skea, et al., 345-436.
Integration of livestock: The practise of rotational Terra Genesis International. (2020). Regenerative
grazing, holistic [Savory] grazing, pasture cropping Agriculture.
and silvipasture instead of monocropping is Newton, P., Civita, N., Frankel-Goldwater, L.,
advantageous and helps considerably in improving Bartel, K. and Johns, C. (2020). What Is
the soil health. Silvopastoral systems, with improved Regenerative Agriculture? A Review of
pasture cultivars such as Brachiaria sp. And other Scholar and Practitioner Definitions Based
multipurpose trees, offer a promising strategy to on Processes and Outcomes. Frontiers in
restore soils and improve livelihoods. Sustainable Food System.
Integrated management of pests: Crop-related Schreefel, L., Schulte, R. P. O., de Boer, I. J. M. et
diseases, weeds, and pests pose a major risk to al. (2020). Regenerative agriculture the soil
agricultural livelihoods, food security, and poverty is the base. Global Food Security, 26:
alleviation initiatives. However, over reliance on 100404.

Significance of Soil Organic Carbon in Agriculture
Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) is the term used agriculture and deforestation. They raise greenhouse
to describe the carbon content found in the organic gas emissions and lower output from agriculture.
matter of soil. It is essential to the health of the soil Factors affecting soil organic carbon levels
and plays a crucial role in several ecological The level of soil organic carbon is influenced
processes. The main sources of SOC include animal by a wide range of circumstances. The most
wastes such leaves, roots, and dead creatures as well important variables control soil carbon levels.
as the breakdown of plants. It is an important Climate: SOC levels are significantly influenced by
measure of the fertility and health of the soil. the climate. Reduced SOC content may result from
SOC influences the soil's ability to retain and organic matter breakdown being vitalized by higher
release essential nutrients. It regulates water-holding temperatures and more precipitation. On the other
capacity and supports microbial activity. It also acts hand, lower temperatures and drier weather typically
as a reservoir for carbon sequestration, helping cause decomposition to proceed more slowly,
mitigate climate change by removing carbon dioxide resulting in greater SOC levels.
from the atmosphere. The soil's capacity to hold onto Vegetation and Land Use: SOC is significantly
and release vital nutrients is influenced by SOC. It impacted by the type of vegetation cover and land
controls the amount of water that may be held and use practices. Compared to farmed areas, natural
promotes microbial activity. In addition, it serves as ecosystems such as forests and grasslands often have
a reservoir for carbon sequestration, which lowers greater SOC levels. Deforestation, overgrazing and
atmospheric carbon dioxide levels and slows down intensive agriculture can all reduce SOC.
global warming Soil Management: SOC levels are directly impacted
It is essential to monitor SOC levels for by agricultural activities. Tillage can decrease SOC
sustainable land management. It is essential to content by speeding up the decomposition of organic
studying the dynamics of carbon. Degraded soils can materials. Conversely, no-till or conservation tillage
be the result of SOC loss from activities like intense techniques can support the preservation of greater
Eramma
Bhavya V. P.
Kamala D. G.
SOC levels. By minimizing disruption and protecting organic materials, and the amount of carbon dioxide
biological materials, this is accomplished. emitted is measured. Though certain equipment is
Soil Texture: The ability of soils to hold onto SOC needed, it yields accurate findings.
is influenced by soil texture. The ability of clay-rich Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS): NIRS is a
soils to retain organic matter is higher than that of quick and non-destructive method that uses light
sandy soils. Organic matter is physically shielded absorption or reflection measurements to analyze
from fast breakdown by clay particles. soil samples. It is appropriate for large-scale research
Soil pH: A key factor in the breakdown of organic since it can immediately produce estimations of SOC
matter, soil pH has an impact on microbial activity. content.
Soils with a pH of 6-7 that are neutral to slightly Carbon Modeling: SOC content is estimated using
acidic often encourage optimal microbial activity mathematical models in carbon modeling appro-
and raise SOC levels. aches. The estimate is dependent on a number of
environmental and soil characteristics. These models
forecast SOC levels by using information on soil
properties, vegetation cover, land use and climate.
Importance of soil organic carbon
Techniques to analyse Soil organic carbon  Soil health and fertility are dependent on soil
Soil Organic Carbon analysis and calculation organic carbon (SOC),
techniques are crucial for evaluating the health of the  It increases soil biodiversity and promotes
soil. They aid in understanding of carbon dynamics. beneficial microbial activity.
They also significantly help in assessing the efficacy  SOC also improves soil structure, water-holding
of land management techniques. There are several capacity and nutrient availability.
techniques for determining the SOC content of soil;  It stores vital nutrients and releases them to plants
a few of these are covered below. gradually.
Walkley-Black Method: The organic matter in the  By sequestering carbon dioxide from the
soil is oxidized in this conventional wet chemistry atmosphere, it helps slow down climate change.
process. It makes it possible to measure the resultant  It encourages sustainable agriculture and lessens
carbon. This method is widely applied and cost- the need for synthetic fertilizers.
effective. But doing so necessitates using dangerous  It strengthens soil, which eventually lowers
chemicals. social erosion.
Dry Combustion: Using this method, soil samples  It supports sustainable land management appro-
are heated to high temperatures in order to burn off aches and helps protect soil quality for future

generations. water retention, and nutrient availability. In addition,
SOC is an essential carbon sink that reduces climate
change by storing carbon in the atmosphere. It is
imperative to acknowledge the significance of soil
organic carbon (SOC) and adopt conservation
Practices to enhance soil organic carbon measures in order to maintain soil health, agricultural
 Incorporation of organic amendments like output, and the health of our planet.
compost or manure. References
 Include cover cropping to provide continuous Barrios, E. (2007). Soil biota, ecosystem services and
organic matter input. land productivity. Ecological Economics,
 Practicing conservation tillage or no-till farming 64(2): 269-85.
to slow the breakdown of organic materials. Johnston, A. E., Poulton, P. R. and Coleman K.
 Avoiding deforestation and excessive grazing, (2007). Soil organic matter: its importance in
which reduce organic carbon. sustainable agriculture and carbon dioxide
 Incorporation of agroforestry systems to build up fluxes. Advances in Agronomy, 101: 1-57.
organic matter over an extended period of time. Lal, R. (2004). Soil carbon sequestration impacts on
Future perspectives and challenges global climate change and food security.
Climate change adaptation, precision agricul- Science, 304(5677): 1623-7.
ture and sustainable practices are the main topics of Wendt, J. and Hauser S. (2013). An equivalent soil
discussion and difficulties in soil science and mass procedure for monitoring soil organic
management. The main problems include tackling carbon in multiple soil layers. Europian
land degradation issues, integrating cutting-edge Journal of Soil Science, 64(1): 58-65.
technology in soil monitoring, and developing novel
approaches for soil carbon sequestration. Working
together, scientists, legislators, and farmers is
essential to overcoming these obstacles and securing
the future resilience and productivity of our soils.
Conclusion
Plant development, soil health and environm-
ental sustainability are all greatly impacted by soil
organic carbon. It supports strong plant development
and production by improving the soil's structure,

Grafting Techniques in Vegetable Crops
K. Rajendar Sagar
Abstract
During the 1920, disease-resistant rootstock was employed to control soilborne diseases, leading
to the emergence of vegetable grafting. Today, this technique remains widely practiced in the Middle
East, Asia, and certain regions of Europe. In India, grafting is the primary method for cultivating most
crops. This article outlines the ways in which vegetable grafting has boosted farmers earnings.
Introduction vegetable grafting represents one of the most

India, as the world's second-largest vegetable effective strategies for ensuring consistent vegetable
producing country after China, encompasses an area production. By employing carefully selected root-
of 28.04 million hectares and yielded a total of stocks, this method mitigates soil-borne pathogen
355.25 million tonnes of vegetables in the 2013-24 infections, enhances resilience to environmental
period, as reported by the National Horticulture stresses, and promotes plant vigor, early maturity,
Board (NHB). These vegetables originate from yield, quality, and survival rates. Consequently, the
diverse plant families, ranging from annual, biennial adoption of vegetable grafting, which utilizes
to perennial herbaceous plants. Besides their leafy vigorous and disease-resistant rootstocks to ensure
and fruity parts, these edible portions also include adequate harvests despite biotic and abiotic
other soft and tender plant components such as roots, challenges, is spreading globally, particularly for
stems, petioles, fruits, or flowers. Both types of crops such as cucurbits, tomatoes, eggplants, and
vegetables can be consumed raw or cooked, and they peppers.
are vital as protective foods, supplying essential Methods of grafting
nutrients like carbohydrates, proteins, fiber, The choice of grafting method is influenced
vitamins, and minerals. With the growing demand by various factors, such as the type of crop, the
for high-quality horticultural products, research farmer's expertise, personal preferences, the quantity
efforts are focused on improving the quality of of grafts required, the purpose of grafting, labor
vegetable production. Unlike fruit tree grafting, a availability, and the presence of infrastructure and
practice that has existed in Pomology for millennia, machinery (Lee et al., 2010). Despite the emergence
vegetable grafting is a relatively recent technique. of numerous machines and grafting robots, manual
The utilization of resistant rootstocks in commercial grafting continues to be the predominant and comm-
K. Rajendar Sagar
Research Scholar, Department of Horticulture, CoH, Venkataramannagudem, Dr. YSR Horticultural University, Andhra
Pradesh

15
only employed technique (Lee et al., 2010). cucurbits are two common applications for this
Cleft grafting: This technique, also referred to as method.
apical or wedge grafting, involves cutting the lower Pins grafting: Grafting techniques encompass pin
stem at an angle to create a tapering wedge. After grafting and splice grafting. In pin grafting, the
inserting the scion into the split, a clip is then used to grafted site is secured using specialized pins rather
secure the scion to the rootstock. Generally, this than grafting clips (Maurya et al., 2019).
method is utilized for solanaceous crops. Table1: Grafting methods and Rootstocks Used
in Vegetable Crops
Tongue/Approach Grafting: This grafting method Scion Rootstock Methods
involves using scion material that is equal in size to plant
Eggplant Solanum torvum S. Tongue and cleft
the rootstock. Scion seeds are typically sown 5-7 sissymbrifolium method. Cleft method
Solanum khasianum Both tongue and cleft
days earlier than rootstock seeds to ensure methods
Tomato L. pimpinellifolium S. Only Cleft method
synchronized growth. While popular among farmers nigrum Tongue and cleft
methods
and small nurseries, this method is labor-intensive
Cucumber C. moschata, Cucurbita Hole insertion and
and requires more space due to its high seedling maxima tongue method tongue
method
survival rate. However, it is not suitable for Water Benincasa hispida, C. Hole insertion and cleft
melon moschata, C. melo, C. method Hole insertion
rootstocks with hollow hypocotyls. moschata × C. maxima, and cleft method
Lagenaria siceraria Cleft method Hole
Hole Insertion/Top insertion grafting: For insertion method
cucurbits, especially when scion and rootstock with Splice Grafting
Bitter C. moschata, Hole insertion and
hollow hypocotyls are preferred, this technique is gourd Lagenaria siceraria tongue method Hole
insertion
most frequently utilized. This is because the Post-graft healing environment: To improve the
rootstock of bottle gourd or squash is larger than success rate of the grafting process, young grafted
watermelon seedlings, making it particularly suitable plants must receive proper care. Maintaining high
for grafted watermelon transplant production. An humidity, especially around 95% in the first two
optimal temperature range of 21-36°C is days, is crucial to prevent water loss from the scion,
recommended for transplanting. This method has which could lead to wilting and graft failure.
become extremely popular in China due to its higher Following grafting, the grafted plants should be
vascular connection and firmer union compared to wrapped with black plastic sheeting for five to seven
tongue grafting (Oda, 1994). days to increase humidity, reduce light intensity, and
Tube grafting: Farmers and commercial grafted promote healing. On a commercial scale, healing
transplant producers typically select this technique. rooms, often constructed of plastic tubes, can achieve
It can be carried out manually or with machinery for a success rate of around 95% in grafting (Kyriacou
most vegetables. Solanaceous vegetable crops and et al., 2017). During the recovery period, grafted

plantlets should not be exposed to direct sunlight. scion and stock is crucial in the grafting technique.
Graft compatibility and survival rate: Graft While vegetable grafting has been practiced
compatibility refers to the genetic closeness between extensively for many years, the cultivation area with
the stock and the scion, which is essential for a grafted plants has been steadily expanding.
successful graft union, provided that other Acquiring a comprehensive understanding of grafted
requirements such as technique, timing, temperature, plants would be immensely beneficial for developing
etc., are met. For instance, Pofu and Mashela suitable rootstocks that promote sustainable
discovered that a 36% intergraft survival rate was agriculture. Further research on communication over
achieved when highly nematode-resistant wild long distances and the interaction between stock and
cucumber (C. myriocarpus) and watermelon scion is necessary to enhance grafted plant
(Citrullus lanatus) seedling rootstocks were adaptability. The persistence of incompatibility
intergrafted onto highly nematode-susceptible underscores the need for additional research into cell
cultivars Congo and Charleston Gray. recognition, the connection between the connective
Problems faced during vegetable grafting: Some tissues of the scion and stock, and the potential role
of the challenges that could arise in the planning and of growth regulators and how they interact with other
distribution of grafted grafts includes the following: metabolic enzymes or phenols.
 Skilled labor is required to perform this labor- References
intensive procedure. Dash, R., Jena, C., Pramanik, K. and Mohapatra, P.
 Correct time management is essential for P. (2021). Vegetable grafting: A noble way to
planting scion and rootstock seeds. enhance production and quality.
 A controlled condition is required during graft Kyriacou, M. C., Rouphael, Y., Colla, G., Zrenner,
healing. R. and Schwarz, D. (2017). Vegetable
 Grafting in nurseries can make diseases more grafting: The implications of a growing
probable to propagate, particularly diseases agronomic imperative for vegetable fruit
which are spread through seed. In addition, quality and nutritive value. Frontiers in Plant
grafting workers in greenhouses and growth Science, 8: 741.
chambers frequently experience in heat stress Maurya, D., Pandey, A. K., Kumar, V., Dubey, S.
and discomfort, particularly during the months of and Prakash. (2019). Grafting techniques in
April through June, September, and October. vegetable crops: A review. International
Conclusion Journal of Chemical Studies, 7(2): 1664.
There exists a beneficial correlation between Oda, M. (1995). New grafting methods for fruit-
crop yield and grafting. Careful selection of both bearing vegetables in Japan. JARQ (Japan).

Agritourism Policies in India
Introduction tourism that controls the issues and other manage-

To achieve economic sustainability for ment problems that generate through mass tourism
farming communities, there is a need to ensure (visit to temples, sea areas, hill stations) endeavour
viable, long-term sources of income for them, and through different agencies and institutions. Here,
agritourism is one of how we can achieve this. The tourism ministry of Government of India promotes
overarching goal of agritourism is to catalyze rural the agritourism sector through demand and supply
development by leveraging agricultural tourism, rationalisation of tourists. Agritourism is a connect-
thereby driving the overall progress of the state ing link among all the segments in the rural sector
through the enhancement of rural communities. For development and its growth that is majorly enthused
better growth, individual approach is highly required by ministry of rural development, Government of
with collective temperament which will help in faster India. The Ministry of Environment and Forests is
growth of agritourism venture. This would not only responsible for framing laws and regulations for the
increase tourist footfall but also boost the economy environment and forests and has a key role in
through increased revenue and employment. development of sustainable tourism and one of the
Agritourism will also increase the visibility of beneficiaries is the agritourism sector. The Ministry
indigenous products and will promote the central of Culture is responsible for preserving, promoting,
government’s vision of going “vocal for local”, and disseminating all forms of art and culture in the
“double the farmers’ income”, “agro-entrepre- country. Agritourism will play an important role in
neurship”, “make in India” and many more. nurturing our rural culture by the support of the
Agritourism typically involves a wide range of ministry of culture. The Ministry of Development of
activities and aspects that require coordination and the North-eastern can help the development of
collaboration across multiple government sustainable tourism in the region. North-eastern
departments or ministries. A synergistic effort by all region of our country has a natural serenity and
stakeholders is needed for the growth and resting cleanliness through its peculiar landscapes
development of agritourism. that create an opportunity for agritourism in that
Central Government policies for promoting Agri- region. Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepre-
tourism in India neurship provides training and skill development
Agritourism is one of the examples of micro programs for farmers and rural entrepreneurs involv-
International Agribusiness Management Institute, AAU, Anand, Gujarat

ed in agritourism to enhance their capabilities and Ministry of New and Renewable Energy can
ensure quality experiences for visitors. Ministry of provide support for greater use of renewable energy
Textiles is responsible for the promotion of in the tourism sector. It is an important input without
handicrafts and handlooms. As the source of many which it is difficult to imagine any sectoral growth as
agricultural outputs like cotton, jute, silk, and banana it impacts on cost and price of a products. In a
fibres, the interconnection of agritourism with textile nutshell, each ministry has their paramount
sector will generate a synergy in the overall output of importance for the agritourism sectorial develop-
the sector. Ministry of Agriculture, Cooperation and ment. Similarly, different state governments also
Farmers Welfare also help to stimulate agritourism have their own policies for bringing more agritourists
sector in coming days by liberalising and giving extra in to their domain through various schemes and
impetus to the sector. Indian education must be supportive mechanisms.
inclusive one and far reaching to each corner of the State Government Policies for promoting Agri-
society. The ministry of education will be a key tourism in India
institution for agritourism sector in India by State Governments have a key role for the
empowering the stakeholders. Ministry of Tribal development of tourism in their respective states.
Affairs can provide support to indigenous people to Many states have taken important measures for the
benefit from agritourism as their alternative liveli- development of sustainable and responsible
hood. Proper road, infrastructure, connectivity, agritourism.
means of communication and commerce make our Maharashtra: The state of Maharashtra is the
country a proper place for investment and its pioneer state to develop and promote agritourism in
replication for agriculture and rural sector the country. After understanding the potential of
development must be observed through trickle down agritourism centres, the Maharashtra government in
approach. Agritourism be benefitted with the support September 2020 cleared an agritourism policy.
of ministry of commerce in future. Ministry of Civil Individual farmers, agriculture cooperative societies,
Aviation can provide policies for green fuels and agriculture research centers, agriculture universities,
other measures for more sustainable air transport for or farmer companies can set up agro-tourism centers
tourists. Udaan scheme is a step in the right direction in the state. The Tourism Department will certify
in which foot fall will increase a lot in due course of these centres after which they can be eligible for
time across the India and agritourism industries. loans and other tax benefits.
Ministry of transportation helps to generate In recent amendments, an agricultural land in
accessibility in rural areas for agritourists and ensure the state if given on lease for 10 years, the lessee can
last-mile connectivity. apply to run an agritourism center on that land with

the NOC (No Objection Certificate) of the lessor. 500 farm tourism units and 5,000 homestay farms
Earlier, the registration of an agritourism center was (integrated agriculture units in the compounds of
allowed only in the name of the owner of the land. houses) by March 31, 2023. Authorities also ensured
This according to Agritourism promoters will allow the marketing of such farms' produce by connecting
small and medium farmers who are fund starved to them with tourism initiatives. 'Responsible Tourism'
develop the required agritourism infrastructure in is another project, which has bought great fame to the
their farms to enter a lease partnership with a private Kerala Tourism Department.
investor to develop the required infrastructure. As Enhancing agricultural production with the
per the new amendment, the agritourism projects in help of responsible tourism, the government was able
the state would not require any permissions from the to initiate agricultural activities in those lands that
town planning authority to build up to 8 accommo- were left fallow because of low yield, low demand
dation units in their agritourism centers. It is a win- for agricultural products, etc. The department
win for small and medium farm owners and approached the kudumbashree volunteers and made
investors. The requirements to register under the them take up paddy cultivation in 55 acres of land.
policy include owning an area of two to five acres They also initiated the Grama Panchayat to boost
with residential arrangements and facilities for meal vegetable cultivation in another 30 acres. Now this
supply. The projects of up to 8 rooms plus a kitchen helped the farmers to return to agricultural
within five acres of land will not require a non- production and to increase the cultivations. Thus
agricultural certificate. responsible tourism indirectly began to push farm
Kerela: Kerala has a prominent place in the tourism tourism in Kerala. The unused ponds were cleaned
map of India. Kerala launched Sustainable, Tangible, and promoted for fish cultivation and lotus
Responsible, Ethnic Tourism (STREET) in May cultivation. This indirectly improved the living
2022, a project that pioneered in offering of tourists conditions of the local community. The RT cell
a taste of experiential tourism in the unexplored rural initiated the hotel industry to purchase products from
lands of the state. The Minister also inaugurated a locals. This thus promoted the local products and
state level training program to create trained gave financial benefits to the common. The farming
manpower to strengthen farm tourism. community was also asked to make use of organic
The Agri Tourism Network-Farm Tourism of farming, thus reducing the consumption of chemicals
the state will function based on UNWTO's in agricultural production. The RT cell has developed
declaration that sees a future in responsible tourism two packages in Kumarakom. They are ‘Village Life
that emphasizes on the experiential aspect of tour and Experience at Kumarakom’ and ‘A Day with
travel. Under the network, authorities tried to set up Farmers’. The first one will make the tourists to

experience real village life through guided tours in provided to tourists through activities like agriculture
the village. The second one will allow them to be and horticulture work, camel farms, horse farms, bird
close to the farm activities. and livestock, crop sowing, handicrafts, gardens, etc.
Rajasthan: The 'Rajasthan Rural Tourism Scheme' Camping sites can be set up on a minimum of 1,000
announced by the state government to promote square meters and a maximum of one hectare on
tourism in rural areas. Through the scheme, tourism agricultural land. Temporary accommodation will be
units showcasing the life, art culture and heritage of arranged in tents for 10 percent of this. The
villages has been promoted by the state government. remaining part will have activities like camel
Through the scheme, tourism units will be farming, horse farming, livestock, gardening, etc. A
established in rural areas to promote local folk art caravan park can be set up on a minimum of 1,000
and preserve handicrafts. Stamp duty will be square meters and a maximum of 1 hectare on
exempted by 100 percent. Complete reimbursement agricultural land. On this, basic facilities for parking
of SGST payable and deposited will be done for 10 of guests' vehicles will be developed. The home stay
years. Under the 'Chief Minister Small Industries (Paying Guest House) scheme issued earlier by the
Promotion Scheme', a 9 percent interest subsidy will Tourism Department is also applicable in rural areas.
be given instead of 8 percent on loans up to Rs 25 Under this, accommodation facility will be provided
lakh. Rural tourism units will not require land to tourists up to 5 rooms in their own accommodation
conversion and building plan approval. Promotion of by the housing owner. In this way, Rajasthan
rural tourism in the area under the Forest Department government is promoting agritourism with the
will be done as per the provisions of the State Eco blanket of rural tourism and ecotourism concept
Tourism Policy, 2021.Local folk artists and which can be replicated in the promotion of
handicraftsmen and rural startups will be given agritourism in the other states.
priority in approval and benefits payable. As per the Goa: As per the policy, the total area of construction
'Rajasthan Rural Tourism Scheme', rural guest whether temporary or permanent in nature should not
houses will be registered in rural areas, which will exceed 10 percent of the total area of the farm.
have 6-10 rooms. These rooms will be available for Residences or cottages for guests should be built with
rent for tourists to stay. There will also be eco-friendly material and should mirror Goan
arrangements for food for tourists in the guest house. (village) architecture. Multistoried buildings will not
The approved tourism unit (Agriculture Tourism be permitted. Activities such as fish and poultry
Unit) on agricultural land will be set up on minimum farming, as well as beekeeping and farm stays will
of 2,000 square meters and a maximum of 2 hectares. be open for visitors and tourists.
In 90 percent of this, the rural environment will be Gujarat: Gujarat yet does not have a specific agri-

tourism policy. However, the government is Scheme. Home Stay Units which are in rural areas
providing capital subsidies and incentives for rural- and registered by the Department of Tourism will be
based experience tourism. Assistance of Rs 5 lakh provided incentives/exemptions which include
per year per Rural Tourism Fair Organizer, for exemption from luxury and sales tax/Vat, domestic
organizing all-inclusive annual fairs for showcasing rates for electricity and water would be charged. The
indigenous culture, dance, handlooms, handicrafts, owner of the Home Stay Unit shall always maintain
etc. within Gujarat. the minimum standards of cleanliness, sanitation,
Punjab: Punjab farm tourism scheme envisages quality food, etc. They also have to maintain a bill
providing tourists with a clean, hygienic, and book/ Home Stay pad for issuing the bills to the
comfortable stay in the farmhouses spread across the tourists with a stamp.
state of Punjab. The scheme also aims to provide a Assam: The government of Assam is promoting Tea
cultural experience to the domestic and foreign & Golf tourism in the state as tea gardens are an
tourist through their exposure to village life. The integral part of Assam’s landscape. Each of these
government will provide on-site training during the thousands of lush green tea gardens in Assam is a
first year of the farm/homestay operations. Domestic treasure house of the exotic beauty of nature with
rates for electricity and water would be charged as colourful people and their enchanting songs and
per the Punjab Industrial Policy 2009. The dances, sprawling bungalows and residential
government help in the promotion of the farm stays facilities.
through various media like website marketing, Conclusion
brochure, and leaflet printing & distribution, and The Success of agritourism in an area
even film and TV whenever possible. depends on the proper implementation of individual
Himachal Pradesh: Take tourism to the rural and programs and their linkage with agritourism. The
interior areas of the state government launched the appropriate measures should be taken for the
Himachal Pradesh Home Stay Scheme in 2008. The convergence of various government programs (both
scheme shall be operative in the entire rural areas of central and state) to reach rural areas. The
the State. The incentives/exemptions under the convergence could be across connectivity, civic
scheme shall be available in the countryside infrastructure, local mobility, skill development,
locations of such houses only in rural areas of the products and experience being developed under
state. Any private house located in rural areas of the various central government schemes by different line
state in good condition and easily accessible in the ministries. Before starting agritourism center in any
countryside i.e. within the Farm House, Orchards, area, proper holistic feasibility analysis should be
Tea-Gardens, etc. will primarily qualify under the done. It should be sustainable in all three aspects i.e.

environmental, socio-cultural, and economic. As
Indian farmers are having small land holding and
they cannot start agritourism individually on their
farm, so cooperative approach should be promoted.
The success of this collaborative approach will
motivate other fellow farmers.

Controlled Environment Agriculture: A Hope for Future Agriculture
Pallabi Das, Pallavi Deka and Sinki Barman
Introduction carefully monitored and regulated. This approach

Humans want diets that encompass nutritious allows for the optimization of growing conditions to
foods, consisting of fruits, vegetables and nuts to maximize crop yields, quality and consistency
decrease their chance of fitness issues. However, regardless of external weather conditions or seasonal
feeding the sector a nutrient-wealthy eating regimen changes.
affords demanding situations for several reasons like CEA techniques are not simpler than older
growing population, decreasing arable land and an systems for growing plants. Indeed, they demand
escalation in climate extremes from weather change. sound knowledge of chemistry, horticulture,
Since traditional soil-based agriculture is engineering, plant physiology, plant pathology,
resource-intensive and arable land is a diminishing computers and entomology. CEA encompasses
resource, therefore, we need another avenue of various types of facilities designed to provide
growing crops as a potential solution to mitigate food optimal growing conditions for plants such as
insecurity. There are five innovative agricultural Greenhouses, Vertical farms, Aquaponics systems,
production methods as potentially sustainable Hydroponic systems, Aeroponic systems and
alternatives to soil-based agriculture. Out of them, Polytunnels.
Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) was
more feasible than the other four methods of cellular
agriculture, northern agricultural expansion, insects
as a food source or entomophagy and seaweed
aquaculture.
Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA)
refers to the practice of growing crops within a
Fig. 1: Illustration of the main components of a CEA
controlled environment, typically indoors or in setup
greenhouses, where various environmental factors Six main elements are needed for CEA
such as temperature, humidity, light and nutrients are setups: 1) a structure that is thermally insulated with
Pallabi Das
Assistant Professor, Department of Extension Education, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, Assam
Pallavi Deka
Senior Scientist and Head (I/C), Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Udalguri, Assam
Sinki Barman
Subject Matter Specialist, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Nagaon, Assam

non-transparent walls; 2) a multi-tiered system that round production of crops, independent of seasonal
accommodates crops and lighting; 3) pumps to changes and weather conditions. This continuous
remove heat generated by lights and dehumidify the production ensures a more consistent food supply
unit; 4) carbon dioxide delivery unit to enhance and reduces reliance on specific growing seasons
photosynthesis; 5) nutrient delivery system; and 6) Optimized growing conditions: In CEA,
environmental control units for electric and pH environmental factors such as temperature, humidity,
regulation to support nutrient flows. light and nutrients can be precisely controlled and
Factors that have contributed to the emergence of optimized for maximum plant growth and yield.
CEA Water efficiency: CEA systems can be designed to
Food consumption driven by rising populations: recycle and reuse water efficiently. Techniques such
Population growth has increased the rate of food as hydroponics or aeroponics minimize water usage
consumption resulting in searching for other options by delivering water directly to plant roots, reducing
for food production. overall water consumption compared to traditional
Increase in Wealth: Wealthier individuals tend to soil-based agriculture.
eat more nutritious and healthy diets. Purchasing Space utilization: CEA techniques such as vertical
power increases as incomes rise, which places farming maximize space utilization by growing
additional pressure on the food production system, crops in stacked layers or shelves. This vertical
all while natural resources such as land and water arrangement allows for higher crop densities and
face stiff competition. increased production per square meter of land,
Urbanization: The population is denser in cities, making it suitable for urban environments or areas
which means that food consumption is higher than in with limited arable land.
rural areas. This urban concentration is predicted to Reduced environmental impact: By controlling
grow to 68 percent by 2050 as the trend towards factors such as water usage, pesticide use and land
urbanization in countries such as India. requirements, CEA can minimize environmental
Consumer preferences: There is increasing impacts associated with traditional farming.
consumer demand for fresh, locally grown and Pest and disease management: Enclosed CEA
pesticide-free produce. CEA can cater to these environments help prevent pest infestations and
preferences by providing high-quality, year-round diseases, reducing the need for chemical pesticides
produce. and herbicides.
Advantages of controlled environment agricul- Crop quality and consistency: The controlled
ture over traditional farming environment in CEA ensures consistent growing
Year-round production: CEA allows for year- conditions, resulting in higher-quality crops with

uniform size, appearance and taste. governing CEA in India may be fragmented or
Adaptability to climate change: CEA provides unclear, leading to uncertainty and compliance
resilience against climate change by shielding crops challenges for entrepreneurs.
from extreme weather events, temperature Market Access and Distribution Networks:
fluctuations and other adverse conditions. Accessing markets and establishing distribution
Challenges faced by controlled environment networks for CEA products can be challenging for
agriculture entrepreneurs in India entrepreneurs, particularly small-scale growers or
Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) new entrants.
entrepreneurs in India face several challenges, Technical Support and Infrastructure: Entre-
including: preneurs may face challenges in accessing technical
Limited Awareness and Technical Expertise: support, research facilities and infrastructure for
Many farmers and entrepreneurs in India lack CEA development and innovation.
awareness and technical expertise in CEA practices Climate Change and Environmental Risks:
and technologies. There is a need for capacity Climate change and environmental risks such as
building, training programs and knowledge extreme weather events, pests and diseases can
dissemination initiatives to educate entrepreneurs impact CEA operations and pose risks to crop
about the benefits and best practices of CEA. production.
Access to Land: Securing suitable land for CEA Scale-Up and Scalability: Scaling up CEA
operations can be challenging, especially in urban or operations from pilot or demonstration projects to
peri-urban areas where land availability is limited commercial-scale production can be challenging for
and land prices are high. entrepreneurs.
Energy Costs: High energy costs, especially in Status of CEA in India
regions with unreliable or expensive electricity India is a major producer of fruit and
supply can impact the profitability of CEA vegetables and a variety of other agricultural
operations and pose challenges for entrepreneurs in commodities. Nonetheless, despite being the world's
managing operational expenses. one of the largest producers. The per capita
Water Availability and Quality: CEA systems like availability of vegetables remains below the ICMR's
hydroponics and aeroponics rely on water for plant recommended rate of 275gms for females and
growth and ensuring access to sufficient water 300gms for males. Vertical farming has recently
resources of adequate quality can be a challenge for been started in India.
entrepreneurs. ICAR scientists are exploring the idea of
Regulatory Framework: The regulatory framework vertical farming' in soil-less environments, in which

food crops can be managed to grow even on multi- ation, jobs and social and economic benefits from
story buildings in metros such as New Delhi, nearby CEAs, in addition to health benefits from the
Mumbai, Kolkata, and Chennai without the use of available supply of fresh foods that will add nutrients
soil or pesticides. On a small scale has been also to their diets.
witnessed in Nadia, West Bengal, and Punjab. References
Bidhan Chandra Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya in Nadia Agbonlahor, M. U., Momoh, S. and Dipeolu, A. O.
has had initial success with brinjal and tomato (2007). Urban Vegetable Crop Production
cultivation. Vertical farming has also been successful and Production Efficiency. International
in growing potato tubers in Punjab. Journal of Vegetable Science, 13: 63-72.
Idea farms, an Indian design-in-tech firm, Posivakova, T., Svajlenka, J., Hromada, R. and
produces vertical farms and is liked because their Korim, P. (2019) Ecological Urban
food is organic of high quality and the supply is Agriculture from the Point of View Basic
dependable. Greenopia, a Bengaluru-based firm, Elements of Sustainability. IOP Conference
sells packages that include smart self-watering Series: Materials Science and Engineering,
containers, enriched soil and the required seeds. U- 603, Article ID: 022022.
Farm Technologies, a Mumbai-based start-up is Heffernan, J. B., Soranno, P. A., Angilletta Jr., M. J.,
customizing a modular farm for an individual Buckley, L. B., Gruner, D. S., Keitt, T. H. and
housing complex or a supermarket utilizing Weathers, K. C. (2014) Macrosystems
hydroponic gardening techniques. Ecology: Understanding Ecological Patterns
Conclusion and Processes at Continental Scales.
Increasing population growth is driving the Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment,
need for sustainable food production systems which 12: 5-14.
has prompted an interest in controlled environment Wadumestrige Dona, C. G., Mohan, G. and Fukushi,
agriculture. CEAs are possible solutions for the food K. (2021). Promoting Urban Agriculture and
insecurities caused by food deserts in urbanized Its Opportunities and Challenges: A Global
areas. CEAs allow for year-round crop production Review. Sustainability (Switzerland), 13:
that uses very little space and recycles water, making Article 9609.
them ideal for urban settings. As technological
advances continue to make CEA components more
affordable, the use and implementation of this type
of food production system will become more
accessible. Urban residents will profit from the educ-

Tiny Honey Bee with Big Impact
S. Gopi, Shivanand D. Ainapur, R. Navya Shree, Sai Kumar U. S., Noothan R. Gowda and Siddu A.
Nyamgoud
Abstract
A small tiny bee is involved in the shaping of the entire ecosystem, without these tiny soldier
ecosystems, habitats and the earth would not exist at all. “Be busy like a bee”, every day they will be
engaged in their duty sincerely. Hence, we are human beings we should learn from bees that we should
do/follow our karma/work/duty every day, and automatically we will get/achieve what we want. Many
living organisms rely on honey as a food source and it wouldn’t exist without tiny honey bees. Human
activities, pollution, pests and diseases impacts on honey bees causing danger to the environment.
Immediate actions to be implemented/need of the hour to ensure this does not harm the honey bees and
environment.
Introduction and have wax glands and a sting. Honey bees collect
Honey bees and their usefulness are known to flower nectar and turn it into honey on the other hand
man from prehistoric times. Bee is mentioned in the simultaneously pollination will occur. Bees live in a
Vedas, Ramayana and Quran. India is the center of colony which consists of three casts viz., queen,
origin for Apis and accounts for 80% of total insect drone and worker. When bees feel threatened/
pollination. Honey bees are very good flying insects attacked by enemies they will defend the colony by
having hamuli type of wing coupling mechanism and stinging and releasing venom into the victim's
they are found on each and every place on earth skin/body and the bee dies. Performs bee balling
surface. These are the only bees that produce food for mechanism to kill the hornet attack. Bee balling is a
humans, having three segmented body viz., head, process in which several bees are grouped around the
thorax and abdomen. Head with two compound eyes predatory wasp and form a ball-like structure to kill
and three ocelli, geniculate type of antennae, the wasp. During the bee balling temperature was
chewing and lapping mouth parts, specialized monitored from the bee ball and inside thoracic
mandibular and pharyngeal glands with three pairs of muscles of the captured predatory wasp by keeping
modified legs. Worker bee's fore legs are modified thermosensors and found that the internal thoracic
into antennae cleaner, middle leg for picking wax temperature (45.8 ± 2.32°C) was higher than that of
and comb shaping and hind leg for pollen collection the bee ball (44.0±0.96°C) Hosono et al. (2017).
S. Gopi, Shivanand D. Ainapur, R. Navya Shree, Sai Kumar U. S., Noothan R. Gowda and Siddu
A. Nyamgoud
College of Horticulture, Bengaluru, University of Horticultural Sciences, Bagalkote, Karnataka

To protect its entire colony, they will sacrifice their fer the pollen from the pistil of the flower to the
own life. This is another one learning lesson we stigma of the other female flowers, during which
should learn from bees because we are living in a cross-pollination occurs. Hence, pollination is
society. difficult without bees in selected crops. Without
Enemies/predators, insect pests and diseases of cross-pollination, 30% of the world’s food crops and
honey bee 90% of wild plants would not be available today.
Due to bees are very small and they store There was a co-evolution between the host plants and
sweet honey in their comb, they will attract many honey bees. Plants attract the bees through their
predators like the Asian giant hornet, bee-hunter bright colorful petals, fragrance, rich amount of
wasp, dragonfly, robber fly, bee-eater bird, monkey, pollen and nectar. In turn, bees pollinate the plants
bear, etc. Insect pests like ecto and endo parasitic and provide habitats for all the living organisms on
mites, lesser and greater wax moths, death head moth the earth's surface. Hence bees are a vital/core part of
larvae and adult and wax beetles, etc. Human beings the ecosystem that supports life. Their role is
during harvesting they will burn the entire colony to essential/must in pollination because 1/3rd of the
get honey. Honey bees suffers from some diseases human population's food depends on pollination.
like European and American foul brood, stone and Honey bee pollination contributed to earning more
chalk brood and Thai sac brood virus. Due to above- money in the agricultural market and produce sold,
mentioned biotic agents result in losing their queen, for this reason we should maintain the bee
comb/home, honey, brood and the death of colony population. Honey bees are in high demand to help
members. farmers pollinate their crops because they increase
Importance and role of honey bee the yield by up to 50%. However, human activities
There are 20.925 species of honey bees are create a high risk of becoming endangered, among
there in the world (estimate: 25000 species). 755 them irregular application of insecticides/pesticides,
species in India (3.61%). There is a myth that plants fungicides and herbicides is the major reason. During
bear flowers which become fruits but its wrong, bee visits to the flowers after spraying fumes of
flower visitors need to pollinate flowers. There are insecticides and pesticides will be inhaled which
an estimated 2,95,383 species of flowering plants in weakens their immune system and makes them more
the world (Joppa et al., 2011), of which 87.5% of susceptible to pests. Further, chemicals after
species entirely or partially depend on flower visitors spraying naturally mixes with the nectar and pollen
for successful seed sets (Ollerton et al., 2011). of the flowers. The same pollen and nectar will be
Honey bees forage for nectar and pollen from collected and stored in the comb. If we consume this
flowering plants, during this process they will trans- kind of honey it will be a threat to our health. Hence,

presently pesticidal poisoning is a major threat to heat of summer.
bees and beekeeping. Symptoms of bee poisoning  Bee will communicate with one another by bee
are bees becoming paralytic, looses power of dance. Round (< 100 m) and wag-tailed dance (>
orientation showing uncoordinated movements, 100 m) which shows the direction and distance of
aggressiveness, dead brood and the queen may stop the food source.
laying the eggs. This is where the application and  Apart from honey we also get bee wax, bee
limitations of scientific knowledge needs to be venom, propolis, royal jelly, bee pollen and sting
applied. This should enable farmers to gain a greater which have medicinal value.
understanding and more knowledge of what is Conclusion
impacting the bee population, this will help scientists Hence immediate actions need to be
to develop solutions and to make discoveries to implemented to restore the bee population in the
design solutions. Hence it is crucial and need of the environment. Application and limitations of
hour to protect our tiny bees, which needs individual chemicals knowledge and understanding need to be
support and cooperation to spread the importance of upgraded to ensure farmers what they are doing for
honey bees and its role. Albert Einstein stated, “If the the honey bees and need to be made aware of how to
bees disappear from the surface of the earth, man help and find solutions. There are many ways to help
would have no more than four years to live”. and restore the bee population such as practicing
Important facts about honey bee alternative insect pest management practices like
 Honey bee stroke wings 11,400 times min-1. cultural, mechanical, physical and biological
 Two million times bees will tap flowers to make approaches, and reducing/need bases application of
one pound of honey. chemicals if the application of chemicals is
 Over 55,000 miles distance bees will travel to extremely necessary, then use those are less harmful
bring nectar to prepare one pound of honey. to the bees or using green labeled chemicals,
 1/12 teaspoon of honey will make one worker bee application of granular formulations are safest to
in her lifetime. bees compared to dust and aerial application, use
 Honey bees will travel about 15 miles speed hour- repellents to discourage bees from foraging on the
1
. treated crop, avoiding the application of chemicals
 In a single collection trip bee will visit about 50- during the active period of honey bees such as in the
100 flowers, in one-day bees will visit 1500 morning time, practicing chemicals spraying during
flowers Each trip will take 1 hour and 10 trips late evening hours, avoid application of pesticides at
day-1. crop active blooming stage, encouraging organic
 The queen can lay up to 2000 eggs per day in the farming, avoiding deforestation and encouraging

reforestation, restoring wild habitats and anyone can
help honey bees by planting a verity of flowering
plants with nectar and pollen-rich plants in and
around home or farm field.
Not a single bee has ever sent you an invoice.
And that is part of the problem - because most of
what comes to us from nature is free, because it is not
invoiced because it is not priced, because it is not
traded in markets, we tend to ignore it. Hence, we
own bees and act accordingly.
References
Hosono, S., Nakamura, J. and Ono, M. (2017).
European honeybee defense against Japanese
yellow hornet using heat generation by bee-
balling behavior. Entomological Science, 20:
163-167.
Ollerton, J., Winfree, R. and Tarrant, S. (2011). How
many flowering plants are pollinated by
animals? Oikos, 120(3): 321-326.
Joppa, N. L., Roberts, L. D., Pimm, L. S. (2011).
How many species of flowering plants are
there? Proceedings of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences, 278(1705): 554-559.

Harnessing Potential of Seaweed Farming: A Step Closer to Sustainability
Shohaib Sheikh Ayub Chauhan, Ayesha Siddiqa and Bichhinna Maitri Rout
Abstract
The article discusses the multifaceted benefits and potential of seaweeds as a renewable
resource in India's aquaculture sector. Highlighting their role in nutrition, industry, and environmental
sustainability, it emphasizes the need to harness their vast potential for economic growth and farmer
livelihoods. Despite India's extensive coastline and favorable conditions, current seaweed production
falls short of its immense capacity. The government's initiative to boost production and investment in
research and development signifies a promising step forward. However, realizing the full benefits of
seaweeds requires widespread awareness, farmer education, market stability, and supportive policies.
Ultimately, leveraging seaweeds' diverse applications and economic opportunities can propel India
towards sustainable development and global leadership in seaweed production.
Introduction dweep. This huge and phenomenal coastline, along

Seaweeds, large multicellular algae found in with numerous freshwater and brackish water bodies
marine and coastal waters, serve as a versatile including lakes, rivers, lagoons and deltas makes
resource for food, energy, chemicals, and medicines. India an economically sound nation with regard to its
Termed as the “Medical Food of the 21st Century”, aquaculture production. It plays a pivotal role in
they are utilized in laxatives, pharmaceutical supporting India’s economy by contributing its share
capsules, goiter treatment, cancer therapy, bone in fishing, aquaculture, shipping and effective
replacement and cardiovascular surgeries. With tourism which in turn provides livelihood for
manifold applications in nutrition, industry, bio- millions, and on the other hand supporting the
medicine, agriculture and personal care, seaweeds nations GDP.
are vital to diverse sectors. In India, there exist 46
seaweed-based industries, 21 for Agar and 25 for
Alginate production, yet they operate below capacity
due to raw material shortages. India, a country with
vast coastline stretching approximately a length of
about 7516.6 km, comprising the Indian mainland
and the islands of Andaman and Nicobar and Laksha- Fig. 1: Tying seedlings of seaweed on bamboo raft
Shohaib Sheikh Ayub Chauhan
Assistant Professor, Sharad College of Agriculture, Jainapur, Maharashtra
Ayesha Siddiqa and Bichhinna Maitri Rout
ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi

However, the invisible threat is continuously Seaweeds play a crucial role in marine
knocking the door in the form of climate change ecosystem, providing habitat and food for a wide
which is arising innumerable questions which needs range of marine organisms”. Seaweeds are found in
to be answered as it is restricting our day-to-day wide array of water bodies ranging from salt water,
activities, and one among this is it poses a huge threat brackish water to even in fresh water. Globally, their
for aquaculture production, which is reducing the demand is increasing at a rate of 10% per annum,
benefits of our water bodies despite having a wide hence can act as an excellent source of alternate
potential. The dangers of climate change not only income to the farmers.
impact the natural world but also is fast approaching Present status and potential of seaweeds in India
demon for the entire ecosystem and human India's seas host approximately 844 seaweed
civilization. The proverb “To dig one’s own grave” species, totaling about 58,715 tons in standing stock.
suits well with the present-day context, as humans Among these, there are 434 Red Algae species, 194
are majorly responsible for the changes in climate Brown Algae species, and 216 Green Algae species.
and weather patterns. So, when there is still time to Notably, Red Algae like Gelidiella acerosa and
rectify the past done mistakes, and to combat climate Gracilaria species are cultivated for Agar product-
change there is a need to give value and to practice ion, while Brown Algae such as Sargassum spp. and
sustainability, which is only possible through small Turbinaria spp. are used for alginates and seaweed
steps, but taking the first step, a step closer to fertilizer. However, the current seaweed supply falls
sustainable life is always crucial. This dream of short of industry demands, leading to over
achieving sustainability and combating the ill effects exploitation of natural stocks, particularly along
can be done through one of those such steps like Tamil Nadu's southeastern coast. To address this,
giving boost to the cultivation of seaweeds. seaweed cultivation offers a lucrative solution,
employing simple, cost-effective methods with short
growth cycles.
Seaweeds drag us one step closer to sustain-
ability and are an essential source for the survival of
our mother Earth. Studies have shown that marine
algae alone are responsible to produce anywhere
between 50 to 80% of the entire globe’s oxygen
along with playing a key role in sequestering CO2 of
approximately 200 million tonnes a year and enhan-
Fig. 2: Targeted seaweed species cing the ecological balance of our mighty planet.

They have also proven to have wide range of
applications in various industries including food,
pharmaceutical, cosmetics, paper and even the
fertilizers. For example, some of these seaweeds are
in high demand in the East Asian countries due to Fig. 3: Harvesting of seaweeds
their widespread use in cuisines. Over 55% of the Seaweeds are abundant along the Tamil Nadu
global commercial seaweed market is held by the and Gujarat coasts and around Andaman & Nicobar
Asian Pacific region, mostly by the food industry. Islands and Lakshadweep. Rich seaweed beds occur
They have also been reported to be utilized as around Mumbai, Goa, Ratnagiri, Karwar, Vizhinjam,
thickeners and food additives, such as alginates and Varkala and Pulicat in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh
carrageenan. As per the FAO report of 2019, the and Chilka in Orissa. India has a potential of
cultivation of seaweed accounted for almost 30% of producing around 9.7 million tons of seaweed per
the 120 million tons of aquaculture production annum, despite such huge potential India is still in its
worldwide. In addition to being the sole non-fish early stages of production. The global production of
source of natural Omega-3 long chain fatty acids, seaweed was close to 35 million tons, with a worth
these seaweeds are also highly nutritious, including of 16.5 billion USD in 2022, and China being the
a variety of minerals such as iron, calcium, iodine, leading producer contributes 20 million tons to the
potassium, selenium, and vitamins A, C, and B-12. It seaweed production solely. Whereas India with vast
has been observed that certain seaweeds, such as potential had only 34,000 tonnes of production per
Asparagopsis taxiformis, significantly lower enteric annum.
methane emissions when fed to cattle. Additionally, Table 1: Global algae (including seaweeds and
microalgae) production, 2019
they help prevent eutrophication, reduce pollutants Country/area Total (cultivated and Share of world
along the coastline, and serve as a habitat for fish wild) production (t) total (%)
World 35,818961 100.00
populations, all of which contribute significantly to Asia 34,881600 97.38
China 20,351442 56.82
the fight against acidification of the oceans. They Indonesia 9962900 27.81
Korea, Republic 1821475 5.09
also lower the concentration of certain dangerous
Philippines 1500 326 4.19
substances, such as nitrates. It is also used in Korea, Dem. 603000 1.68
People's Rep.
agriculture as it supplies growth-promoting Japan 412300 1.15
Malaysia 188110 0.53
chemicals like auxins, gibberellins, and cytokinins India 34000 0.09
which are abundant in seaweed extracts and can There is a need to rightly harness the actual
promote the growth and development of plants, and potential of seaweed, which will not only contribute
also has supplement soil fertility. to the growth of economy and also provide alternat-

ive support to farmers in boosting their incomes.
Way forward
The government of India has come up with a
package of 640 crores to scale up the production to
1.12 million tonnes by the year 2025. There is still
much that has to be done to reap the advantages of
the wonders of seaweed, by following various steps
like spreading awareness about its importance,
utilizing it in our day to day life, by educating
farmers about its numerous and potential benefits
and various practices to be followed by incorporating
seaweed cultivation, providing a stable market with
promising prices for the produce, investing in
research and development activities to bring
indigenous varieties and their production, along with
this the government and private organisations should
build a firm ground by providing incentives and
support activities related to seaweed cultivation, so
that India will one day in the near future will become
the leading producer and exporter of seaweed, and
move one step closer towards sustainability.
References
FAO. (2021). FAO Global Fishery and Aquaculture
Production Statistics (FishStatJ; March 2021;
www.fao.org/fishery/statistics/software/fishs
tatj/en).
Krishnan, M. and Kumar, R. N. (2010). Socio-
economic dimensions of seaweed farming in
India. Central Marine Fisheries Research
Institute.
Mohamed, G. (2015). Current trends and prospects
of seaweed farming in India.

35
Climate Change and Its Impact on Vegetable Crop Production

Chandrasekhar Manikala, Namratha M. R., Ashwini and Iyappan M.
Abstract
Climate change significantly affects vegetable crop production, posing challenges for global
food security. Rising temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and increased frequency of extreme
weather events disrupt growth cycles, reduce yields, and impact crop quality. Heat stress can impair
photosynthesis, while altered rainfall can lead to water shortages or flooding, both detrimental to crops.
Additionally, climate change fosters the proliferation of pests and diseases, further threatening
vegetable production. Sustainable agricultural practices, such as crop diversification, improved
irrigation techniques, and the development of resilient crop varieties, are essential to mitigate these
impacts and ensure a stable food supply. Understanding and addressing these challenges is crucial for
adapting agricultural systems to the changing climate and safeguarding future food security.
Introduction induced changes. Vegetables are essential compo-

Climate change, characterized by significant nents of human diets, providing vital nutrients and
alterations in global contributing to food
weather patterns over security. However,
extended periods, their sensitivity to
poses a critical threat environmental con-
to agricultural systems worldwide. These changes ditions makes them
result from human activities, primarily the emission susceptible to the
of greenhouse gases (GHGs) like carbon dioxide adverse effects of
(CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O), climate change. This article explores the
which enhance the natural greenhouse effect, leading multifaceted impacts of climate change on vegetable
to global warming and climate anomalies. The crop production, examines specific crop vulner-
agricultural sector, particularly vegetable crop abilities and discusses adaptation strategies to
production, is highly vulnerable to these climate- mitigate these challenges.
Chandrasekhar Manikala
M. Sc. (Ag.) Student, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, SHUATS, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh
Namratha M. R.
Assistant Professor, Department of Crop Physiology, KSNUAHS, Irruvakki, Shivamogga, Karnataka
Ashwini N.
Research Scholar, Department of Fruit Science, Faculty of Horticulture, Dr. PDKV, Akola, Maharashtra
Iyappan M.
Assistant Professor, Department of Statistics, St. Fracis College, Bengaluru, Karnataka
Rising Temperatures: Global temperatures have in significant yield reductions.
increased significantly over the past century, with Elevated CO2 Levels: While elevated atmospheric
projections indicating continued warming. Elevated CO2 levels can enhance photosynthesis and
temperatures can directly impact vegetable crops by potentially increase crop yields (a phenomenon
accelerating their developmental stages, leading to known as CO2 fertilization), this benefit is often
shorter growing seasons and reduced yields. Heat offset by the negative impacts of other climate
stress can impair photosynthesis, disrupt flowering factors. Higher CO2 levels can alter plant physiology,
and fruit set, and increase respiration rates, thereby affecting nutrient content and water-use efficiency.
diminishing crop productivity. For instance, high Moreover, the positive effects of CO2 fertilization are
temperatures can cause bolting in leafy greens like less pronounced in vegetable crops compared to
lettuce and spinach, reducing their market value. other staple crops like wheat and rice.
Changes in Precipitation Patterns: Climate change Impacts on Vegetable Crop Growth and Develop-
is altering precipitation regimes, causing variability ment
in rainfall distribution and intensity. In some regions, Temperature Stress (Heat and Cold): Temperature
this results in prolonged droughts, while others may extremes can have profound effects on vegetable
experience excessive rainfall and flooding. Drought crops. Heat stress can lead to poor germination,
conditions can lead to water stress, inhibiting plant impaired growth, and reduced yield and quality. For
growth, reducing leaf area, and decreasing yields. On instance, tomatoes and peppers are highly sensitive
the other hand, excessive rainfall can cause water- to high temperatures, which can cause blossom drop
logging, leading to root hypoxia and increased and fruit sunscald. Conversely, cold stress can
susceptibility to root diseases. The erratic nature of damage seedlings, delay planting schedules, and
precipitation also affects soil moisture levels, further reduce crop yields. Frost events can be particularly
complicating irrigation management. detrimental to sensitive crops like cucumbers and
Increased Frequency of Extreme Weather beans.
Events: The frequency and intensity of extreme Water Stress (Drought and Flooding): Water
weather events, such as hurricanes, cyclones, and availability is critical for vegetable crop production.
heatwaves, are rising due to climate change. These Drought stress can limit water uptake, reduce
events can cause immediate and severe damage to transpiration, and inhibit nutrient absorption, leading
vegetable crops, leading to substantial economic to stunted growth and lower yields. Prolonged
losses. For example, hurricanes can devastate entire droughts can also lead to soil degradation and
fields, uprooting plants and causing physical increased salinity, further affecting crop health.
damage, while heatwaves can scorch crops, resulting Flooding, on the other hand, can cause root damage,

reduce oxygen availability, and increase the causal agents, and how climate change factors (such
incidence of soil-borne diseases. Crops like carrots as temperature and precipitation changes) contribute
and potatoes are particularly vulnerable to water- to these diseases (Table 1).
logged conditions, which can lead to rot and reduced Vegetable pests influenced by climate
marketability. change, including the pest name, affected crops,
Soil Degradation: Climate change can exacerbate causal agents, and how climate change factors (such
soil degradation through erosion, loss of soil organic as temperature and precipitation changes) contribute
matter, and nutrient depletion. Extreme weather to these pest outbreaks (Table 2).
events, such as heavy rains and storms, can Specific Impacts on Major Vegetable Crops
accelerate soil erosion, reducing soil fertility and Leafy Greens (Lettuce, Spinach): Leafy greens are
structure. This degradation affects root development highly sensitive to temperature extremes and water
and overall plant health, leading to lower stress. High temperatures can induce bolting, where
productivity. Maintaining soil health through plants prematurely produce flowers and seeds,
sustainable practices like cover cropping, reduced reducing leaf quality and market value. Water stress
tillage, and organic amendments is crucial for can cause wilting, reduced leaf size, and lower
mitigating these impacts. yields. Additionally, these crops are prone to fungal
Pests and Diseases Proliferation: Warmer diseases like downy mildew, which thrive in humid
temperatures and altered precipitation patterns create conditions.
favourable conditions for the proliferation of pests Root Vegetables (Carrots, Potatoes): Root veget-
and diseases. Insects like aphids, whiteflies, and ables are particularly vulnerable to soil moisture
caterpillars thrive under warmer conditions, fluctuations. Drought conditions can result in smaller
increasing the risk of infestations. Similarly, fungal root size and reduced yields, while waterlogging can
and bacterial diseases can spread more rapidly in cause root rot and other diseases. Temperature
humid and warm environments. For example, late extremes can also affect root development and
blight in tomatoes and potatoes, caused by the quality. For example, high temperatures can cause
pathogen Phytophthora infestans, is more prevalent deformities in carrots and reduce tuber formation in
under wet and warm conditions. Integrated pest potatoes.
management strategies and the development of Fruiting Vegetables (Tomatoes, Peppers): Fruiting
disease-resistant varieties are essential to address vegetables are highly susceptible to temperature and
these challenges. water stress. High temperatures can cause blossom
Vegetable diseases influenced by climate drop, fruit sunscald, and poor fruit set in tomatoes
change, including the disease name, affected crops, and peppers. Water stress, both drought and excess

Table 1: Vegetable diseases influenced by climate change
Disease Name Affected Crops Causal Agents Climate Change Factors Impacting Disease
Downy Mildew Lettuce, spinach Bremia lactucae Increased humidity and rainfall
Late Blight Tomatoes, potatoes Phytophthora infestans Higher temperatures and humidity
Powdery Mildew Cucumbers, peas Erysiphe spp. Warm and dry conditions
Root-knot Nematodes Various vegetables Meloidogyne spp. Warmer soil temperatures
Bacterial Wilt Tomatoes, peppers Ralstonia solanacearum Higher temperatures and increased rainfall
Fusarium Wilt Tomatoes, cucumbers Fusarium oxysporum Warmer temperatures and drought stress
Alternaria Leaf Blight Carrots, crucifers Alternaria spp. Increased humidity and temperature
Anthracnose Beans, peppers Colletotrichum spp. Warm and wet conditions
White Mold Beans, lettuce Sclerotinia sclerotiorum High humidity and cooler temperatures
Verticillium Wilt Tomatoes, potatoes Verticillium dahliae Warmer temperatures
Bacterial Leaf Spot Peppers, tomatoes Xanthomonas spp. Increased temperatures and humidity
Clubroot Crucifers (cabbage, broccoli) Plasmodiophora brassicae Increased soil moisture and temperature
Pythium Root Rot Various vegetables Pythium spp. Waterlogged soils and warmer conditions
Grey Mold Lettuce, beans Botrytis cinerea High humidity and moderate temperatures
Rhizoctonia Root Rot Beans, carrots Rhizoctonia solani Increased soil moisture and temperature
Table 2: Vegetable pests influenced by climate change
Pest Name Affected Crops Causal Agents Climate Change Factors Impacting Pest
Spread
Diamondback Moth Crucifers (cabbage, broccoli) Plutella xylostella Warmer temperatures and extended growing
seasons
Colorado Potato Beetle Potatoes, tomatoes Leptinotarsa Warmer temperatures and milder winters
decemlineata
Spotted Wing Soft fruits, tomatoes Drosophila suzukii Warmer temperatures and increased humidity
Drosophila
Fall Armyworm Various vegetables Spodoptera frugiperda Warmer temperatures and increased droughts
Aphids Various vegetables Aphididae family Warmer temperatures and increased CO2
levels
Whiteflies Tomatoes, peppers Bemisia tabaci Warmer temperatures and increased humidity
Thrips Onions, peppers Thripidae family Warmer temperatures and increased droughts
Cabbage Loopers Crucifers (cabbage, broccoli) Trichoplusia ni Warmer temperatures and increased CO2
levels
Tomato Leaf Miner Tomatoes, eggplants Tuta absoluta Warmer temperatures and extended growing
seasons
Two-spotted Spider Various vegetables Tetranychus urticae Warmer temperatures and increased droughts
Mite
Root-knot Nematodes Various vegetables Meloidogyne spp. Warmer soil temperatures
Leafhoppers Beans, lettuce Cicadellidae family Warmer temperatures and increased humidity
Cutworms Various vegetables Noctuidae family Warmer temperatures and milder winters
Flea Beetles Crucifers, solanaceous crops Chrysomelidae family Warmer temperatures and extended growing
seasons
Slugs and Snails Leafy greens, root vegetables Gastropoda class Increased humidity and milder winters
moisture, can lead to blossom-end rot and other fruit temperatures can cause flower drop and reduce pod
disorders. These crops are also vulnerable to pests development, while water stress can inhibit nitrogen
like aphids and diseases such as tomato blight, which fixation, a critical process for legume growth.
can devastate yields. Diseases like powdery mildew and pests such as bean
Legumes (Beans, Peas): Legumes are sensitive to beetles are also significant threats under changing
temperature extremes and water stress, which can climate conditions.
affect flowering, pod set, and overall yield. High Socio-Economic Consequences

Impact on Smallholder Farmers: Smallholder temperature extremes, water stress, and pest and
farmers, who rely heavily on vegetable crop disease pressures is crucial for adapting to climate
production for their livelihoods, are particularly change. Advances in plant breeding, including
vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Limited traditional breeding methods and modern biotech-
access to resources, technology, and financial nological approaches, can help create resilient crops.
support makes it challenging for them to adapt to For example, breeding efforts have led to the
changing conditions. Crop failures due to extreme development of heat-tolerant tomato varieties and
weather events can lead to significant income losses drought-resistant beans.
and food insecurity, exacerbating poverty in rural Sustainable Agricultural Practices: Implementing
areas. sustainable agricultural practices can enhance the
Changes in Crop Prices and Food Security: resilience of vegetable crops to climate change.
Climate change-induced variability in vegetable crop Practices such as crop rotation, intercropping, and
production can lead to fluctuations in market supply, agroforestry can improve soil health, reduce pest and
affecting crop prices and food security. Reduced disease incidence, and enhance water-use efficiency.
yields and crop quality can increase prices, making Conservation agriculture, which involves minimal
vegetables less affordable for consumers, particul- soil disturbance and maintaining soil cover, can also
arly in low-income communities. This can lead to help mitigate the impacts of extreme weather events.
reduced dietary diversity and nutritional deficie- Technological Innovations in Farming: Techno-
ncies, undermining public health. logical innovations can play a significant role in
Economic Losses and Adaptation Costs: The adapting vegetable crop production to climate
economic losses associated with reduced vegetable change. Precision agriculture techniques, such as
crop production due to climate change can be remote sensing and soil moisture monitoring, can
substantial. Farmers may face increased costs for optimize water and nutrient management. Protected
irrigation, pest control, and other adaptive measures. cultivation methods, like greenhouse farming and
Additionally, investments in research and develop- hydroponics, can provide controlled environments
ment of climate-resilient crops and technologies for growing vegetables, reducing the risks associated
require significant financial resources. Governments with climate variability.
and institutions need to allocate funds and support to Policy and Institutional Support: Effective policy
help farmers adapt and mitigate these impacts. and institutional support are essential for enabling
Adaptation Strategies farmers to adapt to climate change. Governments can
Breeding Climate-Resilient Vegetable Varieties: implement policies that promote sustainable farming
Developing vegetable varieties that can withstand practices, provide financial incentives for adopting

resilient technologies, and support research and production. These tools can help identify vulnerable
development in climate-smart agriculture. Extension regions, assess risks, and develop targeted adaptation
services and capacity-building programs can also strategies. By incorporating climate projections into
help farmers access the knowledge and resources agricultural planning, stakeholders can make
needed for adaptation. informed decisions to enhance resilience.
Case Studies Long-Term Strategies for Sustainability: Long-
Successful Adaptation Practices in Different term strategies for sustaining vegetable crop
Regions: Several regions have implemented production in the face of climate change involve a
successful adaptation practices to mitigate the combination of technological, ecological, and social
impacts of climate change on vegetable crop approaches. Investing in agricultural research,
production. For example, in parts of Africa, farmers promoting sustainable practices and enhancing
have adopted drought-resistant varieties of maize community resilience are critical components.
and beans, along with conservation agriculture Collaboration between governments, research
practices, to improve resilience. In India, the institutions, and farmers is necessary to develop and
introduction of drip irrigation systems has helped implement these strategies effectively.
farmers manage water resources more efficiently, Conclusion
reducing the impacts of drought on vegetable crops. Climate change poses significant challenges
Lessons Learned from Past Climate Events: Past to vegetable crop production, affecting growth,
climate events provide valuable lessons for future yields, and quality. The impacts of rising temper-
adaptation efforts. The 2003 European heatwave, atures, altered precipitation patterns, and increased
which caused significant crop losses, highlighted the frequency of extreme weather events are profound,
need for heat-tolerant crop varieties and improved necessitating urgent and coordinated efforts to adapt
irrigation infrastructure. Similarly, the 2010 Russian and mitigate these effects. Developing climate-
drought underscored the importance of diversified resilient crops, adopting sustainable farming
cropping systems and water management strategies. practices, and leveraging technological innovations
Analyzing these events can inform the development are essential strategies for ensuring the future
of effective adaptation measures. sustainability of vegetable crop production. Policy-
Future Prospects makers, researchers, and farmers must work together
Predictive Modelling and Future Climate Scena- to address these challenges, ensuring food security
rios: Predictive modelling and climate scenario and the livelihoods of millions of people worldwide.
analysis are essential for understanding the potential Continued research and investment in climate-smart
future impacts of climate change on vegetable crop agriculture will be crucial for building a resilient

agricultural system capable of withstanding the Bhardwaj, M. L. (2012). Effect of climate change on
impacts of climate change. vegetable production in India. Vegetable
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Technology, 14(4): 923.

Successful Management of Lumpy Skin Disease in a Calf
J. Shashank, N. Rajanna and J. Saikiran
Abstract
This study discuss about the clinical management of lumpy skin disease (LSD) in a calf. On 04
January 2024, a six month old calf with a body weight of approximately 70 kg was noticed with nodular
lesions on different parts of the body. Thorough physical examination revealed that the calf was febrile
with a rectal temperature of 106˚F and was full of medium-sized circumscribed nodules on different
parts of the body particularly in the neck and body area. Swellings of the prescapular and femoral
lymph nodes were also observed. Based on history and clinical findings, the case was confirmed as
lumpy skin disease. The calf was managed with antibiotics, anti-inflammatory, anti-histamines,
ivermectin, tribivet and vitamin-c along with application of charmil herbal ointment. After a period of
two months the calf was completely recovered.
Introduction ection (Singh, 2019). Lumpy skin disease first

Lumpy skin disease is a Trans boundary, reported in 1929 at Zambia. But during the past few
infectious, eruptive, occasionally fatal disease of years this disease has spread through the Middle East
cattle and buffalo. It is caused by the lumpy skin into Southest Europe, Southest Russia and Western
disease virus of the capripox virus genus in the Asia (Ochwo et al., 2019). After the monsoon in
poxviridae family. LSD virus is identical to sheep India, humidity becomes very high during moist
pox virus, and goat pox viruses which are closely weather which is directly related with vector
related although differ phyto-genetically (Gibbs, abundance (Gari et al., 2011). On average, the
2021). LSD virus is also known as Neethling virus morbidity in LSD is very high and varies from 5-
and it is transmitted mechanically by arthropod 45% (sometimes up to 100%), whereas the mortality
vectors such as blood-sucking stable flies (Stomoxys rate is usually low 1-5% but can be occasionally
calcitrans), mosquitoes (Aedes aegypti), and hard high, especially in unattended cases (Coetzer, 2004).
ticks (Rhipicephalus and Amblyomma species). This is an economically important disease of cattle
The virus is highly host specific and does not and buffalo causes chronic debility in the infected
have zoonotic aspect. There is no sex and age predil- animal, severe or permanent damage of hides due to
J. Shashank
SMS (Veterinary Medicine), KVK, P. V. Narsimha Rao Telangana Veterinary University, Mamnoor, Warangal, Telangana
N. Rajanna
Programme Coordinator & Head, KVK, P. V. Narsimha Rao Telangana Veterinary University, Mamnoor, Warangal,
Telangana
J. Saikiran
SMS (LPM), KVK, P. V. Narsimha Rao Telangana Veterinary University, Mamnoor, Warangal, Telangana

skin nodules, severe emaciation, marked decreased es. The animal showed lameness due to presence of
milk production and in some cases death of the nodules on the hind limbs.
infected animal. The treatment of LSD is supportive Diagnosis & Treatment
to prevent the secondary bacterial infection with The case was diagnosed as lumpy skin
antibiotics and in dressing of the lesions to prevent disease based on history, clinical findings and
fly strike (Zeynalova et al., 2016; Feyisa, 2018). eruption of similar cases in other areas. The calf was
Case report treated with combination therapy as inj. Benzathin
A six month old local breed of calf from pencillin @ 11,000 U kg-1 (5 ml BID), intra-
Thimmapur village, Warangal district, was examined muscularly for three successive days, Inj. Sulphatrim
on 04 January 2024, with nodular eruption on @ 24 mg kg-1 b.wt. (5 ml BID), deep intramuscularly
different parts of the body particularly at the neck for three successive days, Inj. Ivermectin @ 200 mcg
region. Amnesis received from the farmer reveled kg-1, subcutaneously three occasion, 7 days interval,
that the calf reduced its feed intake and it was kept in Inj Meloxicam @ 0.2 mg kg-1 b.wt, intramuscularly
communal grazing land with other herds. It has no for 3 successive days, inj. Pheniramine maleate @
vaccination record of any disease. On physical 0.2 mg kg-1 b.wt, intramuscularly for 7 successive
examination, it was observed that calf is in an days, Tribivet @ 3 ml intramuscularly for three days
emaciated, depressed and lethargic condition. Upon and Tab. Vitamin-C one gram day-1 for 7 days,
clinical examination there was high fever (106o F), Orally. Charmil herbal ointment (anti-microbial and
increased heart rate and respiration rate, along with fly repellent) was applied topically twice daily until
swollen lymph nodes. Closer examination revealed the nodules were disappeared. With the above
there was a different sized nodule on all over the mentioned line of treatment and good managemental
body particularly at the neck region ranging from practices followed by the farmer helped the calf to
small coin sized (Fig. 1). recover within two months i.e. the nodules are
disappeared, appetite is normal and animal is in
healthy condition but left with few scars on skin
(Fig. 2).
Fig. 1: Lumpy skin disease affected calf (A)

Circumscribed nodules on different parts of the body
(B) Enlarged prescapular lymph node
The nodules are randomly distributed and
Fig. 2: Recovery of calf after treatment (A) Scar
some nodules were fused to performed larger nodul- formation (B) Calf with cattle

Discussion al., 2022).
The principle manifestation of LSD are small Conclusion
to large sized nodular growth on the different body Lumpy Skin Disease is an economically
parts involving head, neck, limbs, genitalia etc. The important viral disease of cattle and buffalo
regional lymph nodes are enlarged which are easily characterized by nodular skin lesions on different
palpable. The affected animals may show high rise body parts. Consequence of this disease is very
of body temperature (104˚F to 106˚F), lacrimation, important on the aspect of hide industry as it reduces
increased nasal and pharyngeal secretions, anorexia, the hide quality. Dairy industry will be high risk if
depression and lameness. LSD is not associated with the animals are not treated timely as it causes marked
high mortalities (1-3%), but the economic losses is decreased in milk production which shows high
higher due to decrease feed intake, which causes economical impact. As LSD is a viral disease, no
chronic debility, reduced milk production, infertility, particular curative drug is there, but supportive
damage the quality of hide caused by nodular therapy with antibiotic, antihistamine, anti-inflamm-
eruption on all over the body. Therefore systemic atory and multivitamins can be given to avoid the
antibiotics and anti-inflammatory drugs are obligat- further complication and saving the life of the
ory for skin infections, cellulitis or pneumonia and animals in time.
considerably to avoid further complications and References
economic losses. There are no specific antiviral Gibbs, P. (2021). Lumpy Skin Disease in Cattle.
drugs available but, supportive treatment can be MSD Manual and MSD Veterinary.
given to the infected animals which include the Singh, R. (2019). Outbreak of Lumpy Skin Disease
treatment of the skin lesions and antibiotics against (LSD) in Cattle in Chhotanagpur Platue
secondary bacterial infection and pneumonia, and Region (India).
some anti-inflammatory drugs (Vinothraj et al., Ochwo, S., VanderWaal, K., Munsey, A., Nkam-
2020). Treatment of LSD virus with ivermectin wesiga, J. and Ndekezi. (2019). Seropreval-
reduced the number of infectious virions at the ence and risk factors for lumpy skin disease
attachment, penetration and replication stages. virus seropositivity in cattle in Uganda. BMC
Ivermectin strongly inhibit the in vitro replication Veterinary Research, 15:1-9.
stage of the lumpy skin disease virus (99.82% Gari, G., Bonnet, P., Roger, F. and Waret-Szkuta, A.
inhibition) and sheep pox virus (99.87% inhibition). (2011). Epidemiological aspects and
It was determined that ivermectin was statistically financial impact of lumpy skin disease in
more effective on LSD virus than sheep pox virus at Ethiopia. Prev. Veterinary Medicine, 102:
the virus attachment and penetration stage (Toker et 274-283.

Coetzer, J. A. W. (2004). Lumpy skin disease. In J.
A. W. Coetzer, & R. C. Tustin (Eds.),
Infectious diseases of livestock, (2nd ed.).
University Press Southern Africa, p. 1268-
1276.
Zeynalova, S., Asadov, K., Guliyev, F., Vatani, M.
and Aliyev, V. (2016). Epizootology and
molecular diagnosis of lumpy skin disease
among livestock in Azerbaijan. Frontiers in
Microbiology, 7: 1022.
Feyisa, A. F. (2018). A case report on clinical
management of lumpy skin disease in bull.
Journal of Veterinary Science and Techno-
logy, 9: 538
Vinothraj, S., Preethi, A. J., Alagesan, P., Siva, M.,
Srinivasan, R. D., Saravana, S. K. and
Thirumoorthi, M. (2020). A case study on
lumpy skin disease and its management. The
Pharma Innovation Journal, 9(9): 411-412
Toker, E. B., Ates, O. and Yesilbag, K. (2022).
Inhibition of bovine and ovine capripox-
viruses (Lumpy skin disease virus and
Sheeppox virus) by ivermectin occurs at
different stages of propagation in vitro. Virus
Research. doi: 10.1016/j.virusres.2021.1986
71.

Exploiting the Nutritional Value of Milk
or
Milk is Synonymous with Nutrition
Shanker Suwan Singh
Milk provides nutrition to the world. In the protein, minerals, fat-free solids. If we talk about the
process of nutrition, organisms use nutrients. Diet is water present in milk, the highest amount of water is
required to live. Diet or food should be pure, found in donkey milk at 91.5%, mare at 90.1%,
nutritious and fresh. The main objectives of diet or human at 87.4%, cow at 87.2%, camel at 86.5%, goat
food are 1. To provide energy or power to the body. at 86.9%. Milk contains calcium, magnesium, zinc,
2. To rebuild cells or tissues in the body. 3. To phosphorus, iodine, iron, potassium, folates, vitamin
increase the immunity of the body. Health is closely A, vitamin D, riboflavin, vitamin B-12, protein etc.
related to diet. If nutrients are not present in our food Cow's milk contains 3.14 milligrams of cholesterol
in proper quantity, then the body will become ill. per gram. Cow's milk is thin. Which is easily
Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals- digested in the body. No single food item supplies
salts and water are the main nutrients. Nutrition is a everyone, but milk supplies almost everyone. The
process that provides nutrients to the body. Nutrition theme of World Milk Day in the year 2024 is - The
refers to the right mixture of nutrients. Good important role played by dairy in providing quality
nutrition is a sign of a healthy body. Milk is a food in nutrition to nourish the world. World Milk Day was
which all the nutrients are found in balanced celebrated with great enthusiasm with this objective
quantities. French scientist Lavoisier is considered or theme. Cow is considered worshipful in Hindu-
the father of nutrition. He discovered metabolism in ism. Cow is worshipped, milk is a complete diet in
1770 AD. He demonstrated that energy is obtained itself. Panchagavya is made from cow's milk, curd,
from food due to its oxidation. Milk provides instant ghee, urine and cow dung. These five things related
energy to the body. Amino acids and fatty acids are to cow have special significance in Hinduism.
present in milk. Milk is a complete diet. Life is Diseases are cured by consuming medicines made
incomplete without milk. Milk is an opaque white from Panchagavya. Products made from Pancha-
liquid which is produced by the mammary glands of gavya are completely chemical free and are benefi-
females. A newborn baby depends on milk until it is cial for health. Sattva particles are continuously
unable to consume other substances. The compo- emitted from the body of cow; therefore medicines
nents present in milk are water, solids, fat, lactose, and products made from Panchagavya are Satvik.
Shanker Suwan Singh

Assistant Professor, Department of Food Science and Technology, SHUATS, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh

47
Their use gives Satvikta. Satvikta develops virtues. It applying clay/cow dung paste is used to keep the
gives good sense. It reduces stress and improves body healthy. The use of clay pots has increased. The
memory. Milk is a factor of divinity. Therefore it is use of cow dung cakes has increased. Cow dung has
called Amrit. Just by the touch of a cow, stress and antibacterial properties. The use of clay pots is the
blood flow in the body are relieved. The body is best for drinking water. This Panchagavya provides
formed by the combination of five elements of nutrition to our body. Milk derivatives such as ghee,
Panchabhuta, fire, air, sky, water and earth. The body curd, buttermilk, cheese, lassi etc. increase the
is formed from Panchabhuta and Panchagavya is importance of dairy. Cow milk derivatives are
made to protect the body. Panchagavya increases the symbols of nutrition. When milk from the cowshed
immunity. Panchagavya and Panchabhuta are goes to the dairy industries, the number of milk
proportional to each other. That is, both of them derivatives increases there. Milk is processed in the
represent each other. Milk, curd, ghee, cow urine and dairy industries and put into the market for a long
cow dung (components of Panchagavya) represent time. Due to which the shelf life of processed milk
fire, air, sky, water and earth (components of increases. This prevents the milk from getting
Panchabhuta) respectively. Fire, air, sky, water and spoiled. If there are no cowsheds, then it is
earth represent bile, vata, void, phlegm and soil impossible to have dairy industries. Milk industries
(paste) respectively. Void is stress reliever. Void is a are running from cowsheds. The state governments
symbol of peace. It means that milk destroys bile in have brought many schemes for proper maintenance
the body. Curd removes air disorders. Ghee destroys of cowsheds and increasing their number. Proper
stress. When there is a balance of vata and bile in the arrangements have been made to give loans through
body, then the body develops immunity. A healthy these schemes. People will get self-employment
body is a sign of being stress free. Cow urine opportunities through these schemes. Self-employ-
represents water. Water is a symbol of phlegm. ment is a symbol of self-reliance. Self-reliance shows
Therefore, cow urine is a phlegm reliever. It self-respect. Self-respect is the mother of independ-
maintains the balance of phlegm in the body. Due to ence. It is futile to imagine milk industries without
which the respiratory process remains healthy. Cow cowsheds. It is futile to imagine milk products and
urine eliminates poison in the body. Cow dung their maintenance without milk industries. The
represents earth. Earth is a symbol of soil (paste). If quality check of these products proves the quality
cow dung is applied in the house, then positivity nutrition of the products. If the health of cows in the
increases in the house. In old times, cow dung was cowshed is good, then it is natural that the quality of
applied on the threshold of the house. Cow dung milk will also be full of nutrition. Special care has to
doubles the power of soil. Nowadays, the practice of be taken to ensure that the milk is not contaminated.

Contaminated milk is a symbol of contaminated can cause serious diseases like kidney disease, heart
lifestyle. Contaminated milk is just white poison. diseases, organ damage, poor vision and cancer. Urea
Pure milk is Amrit. The quality of a substance or weakens the strength of milk. A substance called
food is its suitability for use. The quality of a food is melamine is added to increase the amount of protein
when it conforms to its special characteristics. For in milk. Melamine is a type of marble stone powder.
example, the special characteristic of sour curd is People are getting kidney problems by drinking
sourness. Therefore, sour curd conforming to its melamine-containing milk. Nowadays, the number
special characteristics proves the quality of curd. of kidney patients has increased a lot. A chemical
Similarly, milk contains 87.7% water, 4.9% lactose called formalin is added to milk to make it last
(carbohydrate), 3.4% fat, 3.3% protein and 0.7% longer. This increases the shelf life of milk. That is,
minerals. These are its special characteristics. If milk milk can be kept for a longer time. People are getting
conforms to its special characteristics, then it is a skin related diseases and fatal diseases like cancer
symbol of quality nutrition. Nowadays, it is seen that due to consumption of milk containing formalin.
milkmen generally mix water in milk and distribute Starch is another common adulterant found in milk.
it from house to house. This is well known. The Starch is added to increase the density of milk. It also
quantity of milk increases by mixing water in milk. helps in preventing the detection of external water
Despite this, people generally believe that milk added to milk. It can cause diarrhea. Excess starch
mixed with water is not contaminated. Whereas, the accumulation in the body increases the risk of
fat content of milk decreases when water is mixed in diseases like diabetes. Detergent is usually used to
milk. Water mixed from an external source also prevent milk from curdling and to increase its shelf
contaminates milk. This reduces the quality of milk. life (to keep it for a long time). The use of detergent
The thickness of milk (fat) decreases on adding (washing powder) in milk causes many infections
water, so to increase its thickness (fat), the dairy and gastrointestinal complications. Therefore, it is
industry adds urea to milk. Urea is an organic very important to check whether your milk is
compound. Its colour is white and it is used in the adulterated with detergent or not. You can check
production of crops. It is an odourless, poisonous and these adulterations in the following way-
tasteless chemical. Adding it to milk does not change Check for urea in milk: Put one spoon of milk in a
the colour of milk. Adding it thickens the milk. It is test tube. Add half a teaspoon of soybean or pigeon
used to increase the fat content in milk. This pea powder to it. Mix the mixture well. After 5
chemical has many serious disadvantages. It can minutes, put red litmus paper in the test tube.
damage your intestines and harm the digestive Remove the paper after half a minute. If the color of
system. Keep in mind that drinking adulterated milk the red litmus paper changes, that is, it becomes blue,

then understand that poisonous urea has been mixed starch or not, add two teaspoons of salt or iodine to 5
in the milk. ml of milk. If the color of the milk turns blue, it
Testing of water in milk: Lactometer is a scientific means that the milk is adulterated with starch.
instrument. Lactometer is an instrument to measure To check the presence of formalin in milk,
the purity of milk. This instrument was invented by take 10 ml of milk in a test tube and add 2-3 drops of
Dickas of Liverpool. It is a small instrument made of sulfuric acid to it. If a blue ring appears at the top, the
glass. Through this, the purity and impurity of milk milk is adulterated otherwise not.
is determined on the basis of the density of milk. The World Health Organization had issued
Through this instrument, it can be easily detected an advisory to the Indian government against
whether water has been mixed in the milk or not. A adulteration of milk and said that if adulteration of
sample of milk is taken to measure the purity of milk. milk and milk products is not checked, then about 87
After this, the lactometer is dipped in the milk and percent of the country's population can fall prey to
the reading is taken on the instrument. Generally, the dangerous and life-threatening diseases like cancer
reading of pure milk is 32. The amount of water in by 2025. Adulterated milk is white poison. Decrease
milk is 87 percent. Due to this, there is a possibility in the quality of milk indicates contaminated milk. If
of adding more water to it. Taking advantage of the drinking water is contaminated, it will quench thirst
liquidity of milk, some adulterators add water to it. but will not satisfy the soul. It will cause many
Due to this, the customer is cheated. By adding extra diseases in the body. Similarly, when milk is
water, the natural liquidity of milk changes and its contaminated, it becomes white poison. Therefore,
density also changes. If the density is measured, it the nutritional quality of milk and milk products
can be easily detected whether water has been mixed should not be tampered with. Therefore, it will not be
in the milk or not. Lactometer works on the basis of surprising to say that community health is the wealth
Archimedes principle. Due to this, the change in the of the nation. Regarding adulterated milk, we can say
natural density of milk is detected and adulterated that the nutritional value of milk is being exploited.
milk is identified.
Testing for melamine: A liquid chromatography
triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry (LC-
MS/MS) method for melamine residues consists of
initial extraction with 2.5% aqueous formic acid,
followed by a series of filtration, centrifugation and
dilution steps.
To check whether the milk is adulterated with

Genetically Modified Rice: Prospects and Controversies
Chethan Kumar K. B., N. R. Kiran, Jesmon Raj N. and Lokesh J.
Abstract
The development of genetically modified (GM) rice has introduced both significant potential
benefits and substantial controversies. On one hand, GM rice varieties, such as Vitamin A-enriched
Golden Rice and pest-resistant strains, promise to enhance nutritional content, improve yields, and
reduce the need for chemical pesticides, contributing to global food security and sustainable
agriculture. On the other hand, these advancements raise environmental concerns, including the risk
of gene transfer to wild rice species and potential biodiversity loss. Additionally, socioeconomic
issues, such as the impact on smallholder farmers' seed sovereignty and increased dependence on
biotech companies, fuel ongoing debates. Public perception and regulatory approaches to GM rice
vary widely, influencing its adoption and acceptance across different regions. This paper aims to
provide a balanced evaluation of GM rice's scientific progress, potential advantages, and the complex
environmental, economic, and ethical challenges it presents, aiding in informed decision-making and
policy development.
Introduction
Rice is a staple food for over half of the
world's population,
particularly in Asia,
where it forms the
cornerstone of diets.
Despite advances in eased yield, and improved resistance to pests and
agriculture, challenges such as malnutrition, food diseases. However, the adoption of GM rice is highly
security, and environmental sustainability persist. controversial, raising concerns about environmental
Genetically modified (GM) rice presents a promising impact, socioeconomic consequences, and ethical
solution, offering enhanced nutritional content, incr- implications. This article explores the prospects and
Chethan Kumar K. B.
Research Scholar, Department of Plant Genetic Resources, ICAR-IARI, New Delhi
N. R. Kiran
M.Sc. Student, Department of Biotechnology, UAS, Bangalore, Karnataka
Jesmon Raj N.
Assistant Professor, Department of Commerce, St. Francis College, Bangalore, Karnataka
Lokesh J.
Teaching Associate, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, ANGRAU, Andhra Pradesh

controversies surrounding GM rice, delving into temperatures. These traits are crucial for adapting
scientific advancements, potential benefits, and the to climate change and ensuring stable rice
multifaceted challenges it poses. production in varying environmental conditions.
Scientific Advancements in GM Rice Potential Benefits of GM Rice
The genetic modification of rice involves the The potential benefits of genetically modified
insertion of specific genes to impart desired traits. (GM) rice are multifaceted, encompassing nutrit-
Key advancements in GM rice include: ional, agricultural, environmental, and economic
 Golden Rice: One of the most notable examples aspects. These benefits are critical in addressing
is Golden Rice, engineered to produce beta- global challenges such as malnutrition, food security,
carotene, a precursor of Vitamin A. Vitamin A and sustainable agriculture. Here is an in-depth look
deficiency is a major public health issue in at the potential benefits of GM rice:
developing countries, leading to blindness and Nutritional Benefits
increased mortality. Golden Rice aims to combat Golden Rice: One of the most prominent examples
this deficiency by providing a biofortified food of GM rice is Golden Rice, which has been bio
source. fortified to produce beta-carotene, a precursor of
 Pest-Resistant Varieties: Another significant Vitamin A. Vitamin A deficiency is a severe health
development is the creation of pest-resistant rice issue in many developing countries, leading to
strains. These varieties incorporate genes from conditions such as blindness and increased mortality
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), a soil bacterium that rates, particularly among children and pregnant
produces toxins harmful to specific insect pests. women. Golden Rice can significantly improve
Bt rice reduces the need for chemical pesticides, public health outcomes by providing a readily
promoting environmentally friendly farming available source of Vitamin A, helping to alleviate
practices and reducing farmers' costs. these deficiencies.
 Herbicide-Tolerant Rice: Herbicide tolerance Enhanced Nutritional Content: Beyond Golden
is another trait introduced into GM rice, allowing Rice, other GM rice varieties are being developed to
farmers to control weeds more effectively. These address various micronutrient deficiencies. For
rice varieties can withstand applications of instance, efforts are underway to create rice enriched
certain herbicides, making weed management with iron and zinc to combat anaemia and other
easier and potentially increasing crop yields. nutrient deficiencies. By enhancing the nutritional
 Stress Tolerance: Research is ongoing to profile of a staple food, GM rice can play a vital role
develop rice varieties that can withstand abiotic in improving overall diet quality and health,
stresses such as drought, salinity, and extreme particularly in regions where rice is a primary food

source. ght, salinity, and extreme temperatures. These traits
Increased Yield and Food Security are essential for maintaining rice production in the
Higher Yields: GM rice varieties are designed to face of climate change, which poses significant
have higher yields compared to conventional rice. challenges to agriculture. Stress-tolerant rice can
These higher yields can be achieved through traits help ensure stable yields and food supply in regions
such as enhanced photosynthesis efficiency, prone to adverse environmental conditions.
improved nutrient uptake, and better resistance to Sustainable Farming Practices: By reducing the
pests and diseases. Increased yields are crucial for reliance on chemical inputs and improving crop
meeting the growing global demand for food, which resilience, GM rice can promote more sustainable
is projected to rise significantly with the world farming practices. This includes conservation of
population expected to reach 9.7 billion by 2050. natural resources, improved biodiversity in agricul-
Enhanced Resistance to Pests and Diseases: One tural landscapes, and enhanced resilience of farming
of the significant advancements in GM rice is the systems to environmental changes.
development of pest-resistant varieties, such as those Economic Benefits for Farmers
incorporating genes from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). Cost Savings: GM rice can provide economic
These varieties can effectively resist damage from advantages to farmers by reducing input costs. Pest-
insects like the rice stem borer, reducing crop losses resistant varieties decrease the need for expensive
and increasing overall productivity. Disease-resistant chemical pesticides, while herbicide-tolerant strains
GM rice varieties are also being developed to combat simplify weed management, reducing labour and
fungal and bacterial infections that can devastate rice herbicide costs. These cost savings can increase
crops. farmers' profitability and contribute to their
Environmental Sustainability economic well-being.
Reduced Chemical Usage: The introduction of Increased Productivity: The higher yields and
pest-resistant and herbicide-tolerant GM rice improved resistance to pests and diseases associated
varieties can significantly reduce the need for with GM rice can lead to increased productivity per
chemical pesticides and herbicides. This reduction in unit of land. This can be particularly beneficial for
chemical use has several environmental benefits, smallholder farmers in developing countries, who
including decreased soil and water pollution, often operate on limited land resources. Higher
improved soil health, and reduced harm to non-target productivity can enhance food security at the
organisms such as beneficial insects and wildlife. household level and increase farmers' incomes.
Stress Tolerance: GM rice varieties are being Market Opportunities: The adoption of GM rice
developed to withstand abiotic stresses such as drou- can open up new market opportunities for farmers,

particularly in regions where there is demand for ies and challenges associated with GM rice.
higher-yielding and nutritionally enhanced rice Environmental Concerns
varieties. Access to such markets can further boost Gene Transfer and Biodiversity: One of the major
farmers' incomes and contribute to economic environmental concerns is the potential for gene
development in rural areas. transfer from GM rice to wild rice species. This
Social and Public Health Benefits horizontal gene transfer could result in the spread of
Improved Public Health: By addressing micro- modified traits into wild populations, potentially
nutrient deficiencies, GM rice can lead to improved disrupting local ecosystems and reducing bio-
public health outcomes, reducing the burden of diversity. Such genetic contamination may lead to
diseases associated with malnutrition. This has the unintended creation of “superweeds” or new
broader social benefits, including enhanced invasive species that could be difficult to manage.
cognitive development in children, reduced health- Non-Target Effects: The introduction of GM rice
care costs, and improved productivity and quality of with pest-resistant traits, such as those expressing Bt
life for affected populations. toxins, raises concerns about non-target effects.
Empowerment of Women and Children: Impro- These toxins, while intended to target specific pests,
ved nutrition and food security can have particularly could inadvertently harm beneficial insects and other
positive impacts on women and children. Enhanced non-target organisms, potentially disrupting
access to nutritious food can contribute to better ecological balances. The long-term ecological
maternal and child health, supporting development impacts of such changes are not fully understood and
and educational outcomes. Additionally, the warrant further research.
economic benefits of GM rice can empower women Ecological Risks: The cultivation of GM rice may
farmers, who play a crucial role in agriculture in lead to unforeseen ecological risks. For instance, the
many developing countries. reduction in pest populations due to pest-resistant
Controversies and Challenges varieties could affect the food web and predator-prey
The adoption of genetically modified (GM) relationships in the ecosystem. Additionally, the use
rice, while promising in terms of potential benefits, of herbicide-tolerant rice varieties could encourage
is fraught with controversies and challenges that the overuse of herbicides, leading to herbicide-
must be carefully navigated. These issues span resistant weed populations and soil degradation.
environmental, socioeconomic, regulatory, and Socioeconomic Implications
ethical dimensions, each posing significant barriers Seed Sovereignty and Farmer Dependency: The
to the widespread acceptance and utilization of GM commercialization of GM rice often involves paten-
rice. This section delves into the primary controvers- ted seeds developed by large biotech companies.

This raises concerns about seed sovereignty and the Navigating these complex regulatory environments
dependency of farmers on these corporations. can be time-consuming and costly for developers and
Smallholder farmers, who traditionally save seeds farmers.
from one harvest to the next, may be forced to Ethical Considerations: Ethical concerns about GM
purchase new seeds each season, increasing their rice involve issues of consumer rights, health risks,
financial burden and dependency on multinational and environmental stewardship. Consumers often
companies. demand the right to know whether their food is
Economic Disparities: The introduction of GM rice genetically modified, leading to debates over
could exacerbate existing economic disparities labeling requirements. Additionally, questions about
between large-scale commercial farmers and the long-term health impacts of consuming GM
smallholder farmers. While larger operations may be foods remain, despite extensive research indicating
able to afford and benefit from GM technologies, their safety. Ethical frameworks are needed to guide
smallholders may struggle with the costs associated the responsible development and commercialization
with purchasing seeds and necessary inputs. This of GM rice.
could lead to greater inequality in the agricultural Intellectual Property Rights: The use of patented
sector. GM rice seeds raises ethical questions about
Market Access and Trade: The adoption of GM intellectual property rights and their implications for
rice can affect market access and trade dynamics. farmers' traditional practices. Patents on GM seeds
Countries with strict regulations or bans on GM can restrict farmers' ability to save and reuse seeds,
crops may reject imports of GM rice, affecting export challenging traditional agricultural practices and
markets for countries that grow GM rice. This can potentially leading to legal and financial conflicts.
create economic uncertainties and trade tensions, Public Perception and Acceptance
impacting farmers and economies dependent on rice Misinformation and Scepticism: Public perception
exports. of GM foods, including GM rice, is often shaped by
Regulatory and Ethical Issues misinformation and scepticism. Concerns about
Regulatory Hurdles: The regulatory landscape for "Franken foods" and perceived health risks can lead
GM crops varies significantly across regions. While to widespread resistance against GM crops. This
some countries have established frameworks for the scepticism is fuelled by activist groups and media
approval and commercialization of GM crops, others coverage that emphasize potential dangers without
impose stringent regulations or outright bans. These equally presenting scientific evidence supporting the
discrepancies create challenges for the global safety and benefits of GM technology.
adoption and trade of GM rice. Cultural and Social Factors: Cultural and social

factors play a significant role in the acceptance of public acceptance remain significant barriers.
GM rice. In many regions, rice is more than just a Countries like Nigeria and Uganda are exploring
staple food; it is deeply embedded in cultural and the potential of GM rice through field trials and
culinary traditions. Changes to traditional rice research, but commercial adoption is still limited.
varieties through genetic modification can face  Europe: Europe has some of the strictest
resistance from communities that value heritage and regulations on GM crops, influenced by strong
traditional agricultural practices. public opposition and precautionary principles.
Consumer Preferences: Consumers' preferences The European Union's regulatory framework
and attitudes towards GM foods influence market requires extensive safety assessments and
dynamics and acceptance. In regions where organic labelling, making it challenging for GM rice to
and non-GM foods are preferred, the introduction of gain approval. Despite this, research continues in
GM rice may face significant market barriers. some European countries, focusing on potential
Educating consumers about the benefits and safety of benefits and safety.
GM rice is crucial for improving acceptance and  North and South America: The Americas
integration into the food system. present a mixed picture, with countries like the
Case Studies: Global Perspectives on GM Rice United States and Brazil adopting a more
The adoption and regulation of GM rice vary permissive stance toward GM crops. The U.S.
significantly across different regions, reflecting has a well-established regulatory system that has
diverse perspectives and approaches. approved several GM crops, including rice for
 Asia: As the largest rice-producing and research purposes. Brazil, a major agricultural
consuming region, Asia is at the forefront of the exporter, is also open to GM technology,
GM rice debate. Countries like China and India recognizing its potential for enhancing
have made significant investments in GM rice productivity and competitiveness.
research and development. China has approved The Future of GM Rice: Pathways and Solutions
GM rice for research and production, recognizing Addressing the controversies and challenges
its potential to enhance food security. India, associated with GM rice requires a multifaceted
however, remains cautious, with ongoing debates approach involving scientific research, regulatory
and regulatory hurdles delaying the commerc- frameworks, public engagement, and ethical
ialization of GM rice. considerations.
 Africa: In Africa, where food security is a Advancing Scientific Research: Continued resea-
critical issue, GM rice could offer substantial rch is essential to improve the safety, efficacy, and
benefits. However, regulatory frameworks and environmental sustainability of GM rice. This inclu-

des developing new traits, conducting long-term environmental, socioeconomic, regulatory, and
ecological studies, and improving gene editing ethical dimensions. By advancing scientific research,
techniques to minimize unintended effects. establishing robust regulatory frameworks, engaging
Robust Regulatory Frameworks: Establishing with the public, and considering ethical implications,
clear and transparent regulatory frameworks is the potential benefits of GM rice can be realized
crucial for the safe and responsible development and while mitigating its risks. The future of GM rice
commercialization of GM rice. These frameworks depends on collaborative efforts to navigate these
should balance innovation with safety, ensuring challenges and harness its potential for the greater
rigorous assessments while facilitating access to good.
beneficial technologies. References
Public Engagement and Education: Building Kumar, A. and Mallick, S. (2019). Contentions and
public trust and acceptance requires proactive confirmations over genetically modified
engagement and education. Transparent communi- technology: Socio-political construal of
cation about the benefits, risks, and safety of GM rice innovations in rice biotechnology research in
can help dispel myths and misinformation. Involving India. Asian Journal of Social Science, 47(4-
stakeholders, including farmers, consumers, and 5): 607-630.
civil society, in the decision-making process can Shahzadi, F., Malik, M. F. and Raza, A. (2015).
foster a more inclusive and informed debate. Genetically modified food controversies: A
Ethical Considerations: Ethical considerations review. International Journal of Scientific &
must be at the forefront of GM rice development. Engineering Research, 6(1): 2072-2089.
This includes respecting farmers' rights to save Kumar, K., Gambhir, G., Dass, A., Tripathi, A. K.,
seeds, ensuring informed choice for consumers, and Singh, A.,... and Rakshit, S. (2020).
addressing potential health risks. Ethical frameworks Genetically modified crops: current status
should guide research, development and commercia- and future prospects. Planta, 251(4): 91.
lization practices to promote fairness and Blagoevska, K., Ilievska, G., Jankuloski, D.,
sustainability. Dimzoska, B. S., Crceva, R. and Angeleska,
Conclusion A. (2021, October). The controversies of
Genetically modified rice holds significant genetically modified food. In IOP conference
promise for addressing global challenges related to series: earth and environmental science (Vol.
nutrition, food security and environmental sustain- 854, No. 1, p. 012009). IOP publishing.
ability. However, the controversies and challenges it Ghimire, B. K., Yu, C. Y., Kim, W. R., Moon, H. S.,
faces are complex and multifaceted, encompassing Lee, J., Kim, S. H. and Chung, I. M. (2023).

Assessment of benefits and risk of
genetically modified plants and products:
current controversies and perspective.
Sustainability, 15(2): 1722.
Shan, P. (2024). Application and Prospect of
Genetically Modified Technology in
Agriculture. GMO Biosafety Research, 15.
Choudhury, A. R., Das, K., Ghosh, S., Mukherjee, R.
N. and Banerjee, R. (2012). Transgenic
plants: benefits and controversies. Journal of
Botanical Society Bengal, 66: 29-35.

Conventional Vs Molecular Plant Breeding: A Comparative Analysis
Kavya Thottempudi, N. R. Kiran, Hirematada Gangadhar, Bhavanasi Sai Meghana, Arshad
Khayum and Ayesha Siddiqua
Abstract
Conventional plant breeding and molecular plant breeding represent two distinct approaches
to improving crop varieties, each with its strengths and limitations. Conventional breeding relies on
traditional methods of crossing and selection to achieve desired traits over successive generations.
This approach harnesses natural genetic variability within plant populations, emphasizing traits like
yield, disease resistance, and adaptation to specific growing conditions. While conventional
breeding has been successful in developing a wide array of crop varieties tailored to local
environments, it is often time-consuming and relies heavily on natural genetic diversity, which can
be limited. In contrast, molecular plant breeding integrates advanced biotechnological tools to
manipulate plant genomes at the molecular level. Techniques such as marker-assisted selection
(MAS) and genetic modification (GM) allow breeders to identify and introduce specific genes
responsible for desired traits directly into crop genomes. This precision enables rapid trait
introgression, precise trait stacking, and the development of cultivars with tailored attributes such
as improved nutritional content, enhanced stress tolerance, and reduced susceptibility to pests and
diseases. Molecular breeding thus accelerates the breeding process, overcoming some of the
limitations of conventional methods, such as the lengthy breeding cycles and unpredictable
outcomes associated with traditional breeding. However, both approaches face challenges and
considerations. Conventional breeding benefits from broad acceptance, established breeding
methodologies, and minimal regulatory hurdles compared to genetic modification. It also preserves
natural genetic diversity crucial for long-term crop resilience.
Kavya Thottempudi
Research Scholar, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore, Karnataka
N. R. Kiran
M.Sc. Student, Department of Plant Biotechnology, UAS, Bangalore, Karnataka
Hirematada Gangadhar
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, KSNUAHS, Iruvakki, Shivamogga, Karnataka
Bhavanasi Sai Meghana
M.Sc.(Horti.) Student, Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, Dr. YSR Horticultural University, Andhra Pradesh
Arshad Khayum
Assistant Professor, Department of Post Harvest Management, College of Horticulture, Mudigere (KSNUAHS,
Shivamogga), Karnataka
Ayesha Siddiqua
Assistant Professor, Department of Fruit Science, Sri Krishnadevaraya College of Horticultural Sciences, Ananthapuramu,
Andhra Pradesh (Affiliated to Dr. YSR Horticultural University, West Godavari, Gudem, Andhra Pradesh)

59
Introduction environments. The Mendelian principles of

Plant breeding has been a cornerstone of inheritance laid the foundation for modern breeding
agriculture for millennia, practices, leading to the development of diverse crop
allowing humans to select varieties suited to various agricultural landscapes
and cultivate crop and climates.
varieties with desirable Molecular Plant Breeding: The advent of
traits for food, fibre, and molecular biology in the mid-20th century
fuel. Over time, the revolutionized plant breeding. Molecular techniques
methods and technologies allowed scientists to delve deeper into the genetic
used in plant breeding have evolved significantly, makeup of plants, identifying specific genes
from traditional crossing and selection techniques to responsible for key traits. Marker-assisted selection
modern biotechnological approaches that manipulate (MAS) emerged as a powerful tool, enabling
genes at the molecular level. This article provides a breeders to select plants based on genetic markers
comprehensive comparative analysis of conventional linked to desired traits without the need for extensive
plant breeding and molecular plant breeding, field trials. Genetic modification (GM) further
exploring their methodologies, strengths, limitations, expanded the possibilities by introducing genes from
applications and broader implications for agriculture, unrelated organisms to confer traits like herbicide
food security, and sustainability. tolerance, pest resistance, and enhanced nutritional
content. The historical evolution of plant breeding
spans millennia, marked by gradual advancements in
agricultural practices and the deliberate selection of
desirable traits in plants. This evolution can be
categorized into several key phases, each
Historical Evolution of Plant Breeding contributing to the development of diverse crop
Conventional Plant Breeding: Conventional plant varieties essential for human sustenance and
breeding dates back thousands of years, starting with agricultural progress.
early farmers selecting wild plants with favourable Early Beginnings: Prehistoric Agriculture: Plant
traits for cultivation. Over centuries, humans breeding traces its origins to the dawn of agriculture,
developed systematic breeding methods involving approximately 10,000 years ago, when early humans
controlled pollination, selection of superior progeny, transitioned from nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyles
and hybridization to enhance desirable traits such as to settled farming communities. During this period,
yield, disease resistance, and adaptation to different known as the Neolithic Revolution, humans began

60
cultivating wild plants for food. They selected seeds Austrian monk, conducted ground breaking
from plants with larger, more nutritious, or easier-to- experiments with pea plants, establishing the
harvest seeds, unintentionally beginning the process principles of inheritance and the laws of segregation
of artificial selection. Examples include the and independent assortment. Mendel's work laid the
domestication of wheat (Triticum spp.), barley foundation for modern genetics, demonstrating that
(Hordeum vulgare), and rice (Oryza sativa) in traits are passed down in predictable patterns from
various regions around the world. one generation to the next.
Ancient Civilizations: Systematic Selection: Early 20th Century: Hybridization and Selection:
Ancient civilizations such as those in Mesopotamia, Advancements in hybridization techniques gained
Egypt, China, and the Indus Valley refined momentum in the early 20th century, driven by the
agricultural techniques and began systematically pioneering work of scientists such as Luther Burbank
selecting and propagating plants with desirable traits. in the United States and Ivan Michurin in Russia.
This period saw the emergence of rudimentary Burbank developed hundreds of new plant varieties
breeding practices aimed at improving crop yields, through hybridization and selection, contributing
disease resistance, and adaptation to local significantly to agricultural productivity and
environmental conditions. Farmers saved seeds from diversity. Meanwhile, Michurin emphasized the
plants that exhibited superior characteristics, importance of environmental factors in plant
gradually altering the genetic composition of crops development, advocating for the hybridization of
over generations. local varieties with wild plants to improve resilience.
Classical Period: Early Breeding Techniques: The Green Revolution: Modern Plant Breeding: The
classical period of plant breeding, spanning from mid-20th century witnessed the advent of the Green
antiquity to the 18th century, witnessed the Revolution, a period of rapid agricultural advance-
application of more deliberate breeding techniques. ment characterized by the development of high-
The ancient Greeks and Romans documented yielding crop varieties and intensive farming
methods for cross-pollination and hybridization to practices. Plant breeders focused on increasing yields
enhance crop traits. Notably, the Roman writer of staple crops like wheat, rice, and maize through
Columella described grafting techniques to improve the use of hybrid seeds, chemical fertilizers, and
fruit trees, demonstrating an early understanding of irrigation technologies. Scientists Norman Borlaug,
plant genetics and propagation. known as the father of the Green Revolution, and
Scientific Revolution: Mendelian Inheritance: others introduced dwarfing genes to reduce plant
The 19th century marked a pivotal era in the scientific height and prevent lodging, thereby increasing grain
understanding of plant breeding. Gregor Mendel, an production.

61
Biotechnological Era: Molecular Techniques: The  Marker-Assisted Selection (MAS): Using

late 20th century to the present day has seen the molecular markers linked to specific traits to
integration of molecular biology and biotechnology guide breeding decisions.
into plant breeding. Molecular techniques such as  Genetic Modification (GM): Introducing
marker-assisted selection (MAS), genetic modifi- foreign genes into plants to confer new traits such
cation (GM), and genome editing (e.g., CRISPR- as resistance to pests, diseases, or environmental
Cas9) allow breeders to identify and manipulate stresses.
specific genes responsible for desired traits. These  Genome Editing: Precision tools like CRISPR-
technologies offer precision and efficiency in Cas9 for targeted gene modifications without
developing crops with enhanced resistance to pests introducing foreign DNA.
and diseases, improved nutritional content, and Comparative Analysis of Conventional vs
tolerance to environmental stresses such as drought Molecular Plant Breeding
and salinity. Advantages of Conventional Plant Breeding
Methodologies of Conventional and Molecular  Natural Genetic Diversity: Utilizes existing
Plant Breeding genetic variability within plant populations,
Conventional Plant Breeding Methods: Convent- preserving biodiversity.
ional plant breeding relies on natural genetic  Low Regulatory Hurdles: Generally accepted
variability within plant populations. Breeders cross and regulated less strictly than genetic
plants with complementary traits, select offspring modification.
with desired characteristics, and continue breeding  Broad Acceptance: Familiarity and long history
over successive generations to stabilize traits. of successful applications.
Techniques include: Limitations of Conventional Plant Breeding
 Cross-pollination and Hybridization: Control-  Time-Consuming: Breeding cycles can take
led pollination between plants with desired traits. years or decades to achieve desired traits.
 Selection: Identifying and propagating plants  Limited Precision: This relies on chance genetic
with superior traits. recombination and may require multiple
 Hybridization: Crossing genetically distinct generations to fix traits.
parents to combine favourable traits.  Unpredictable Outcomes: Resulting traits can
Molecular Plant Breeding Techniques: Molecular vary due to complex genetic interactions.
plant breeding integrates advanced biotechnological Advantages of Molecular Plant Breeding
tools to manipulate plant genomes at the molecular  Precision: Allows precise manipulation of
level. Key techniques include: specific genes to introduce desired traits.

62
Aspect Conventional Plant Breeding Molecular Plant Breeding

Definition Selective breeding methods based on Integration of biotechnological tools to manipulate plant
natural genetic variation within plant genomes at the molecular level.
populations.
Cross-Pollination: Controlled mating of Marker-Assisted Selection (MAS): Use of molecular
plants with desired traits. markers linked to specific traits for breeding decisions.
Selection: Choosing plants with superior Genetic Modification (GM): Introduction of foreign genes
traits for propagation. to confer new traits such as pest resistance or enhanced
Techniques
nutritional content.
Hybridization: Crossing genetically Genome Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 for precise
distinct parents to combine desired traits. modification of target genes without introducing foreign
DNA.
Time Frame Several generations to stabilize desired Shortened breeding cycles due to precise gene manipulation.
traits.
Precision Relies on chance genetic recombination Allows precise manipulation of specific genes to achieve
and natural variation. desired traits.
Outcome Less predictable due to genetic variability More predictable outcomes due to targeted gene editing and
Predictability and environmental factors. selection.
Applications Broadly applicable across different crop Targeted development of traits such as disease resistance,
species and environments. drought tolerance, and enhanced nutritional content.
Regulatory Generally less stringent regulatory Requires rigorous regulatory scrutiny and compliance due to
Oversight requirements compared to GM crops. genetic modification.
Public Perception Widely accepted with minimal public Faces public concerns over safety, ethics, and environmental
resistance. impact of GMOs.
Development of hybrid maize varieties Creation of Bt cotton with built-in pest resistance through
for increased yield. genetic modification.
Examples
Selective breeding of disease-resistant Editing soybean genes to enhance oil content and nutritional
tomato varieties. value.
 Rapid Trait Introgression: Accelerates breed- Applications and Case Studies

ing cycles, reducing time to develop new Applications of Conventional Plant Breeding
varieties.  Golden Rice: Conventional breeding efforts to
 Enhanced Traits: Enables the introduction of enhance Vitamin A content in rice, addressing
novel traits not achievable through conventional nutritional deficiencies in developing countries.
breeding.  Wheat Varieties: Development of high-yielding
Limitations of Molecular Plant Breeding wheat varieties through traditional breeding
 Regulatory Challenges: GM crops face methods, supporting global food security.
stringent regulatory requirements and public Applications of Molecular Plant Breeding
scrutiny.  Bt Cotton: Genetic modification to confer
 Public Perception: Concerns over safety, ethics, resistance to pests, reducing pesticide use and
and environmental impact of genetic modific- improving yield.
ation.  Drought-Tolerant Maize: Development of
 Intellectual Property: Patents and ownership maize varieties using molecular techniques to
issues may limit access to technologies and withstand drought conditions, crucial for
seeds. climate-resilient agriculture.

63
Implications for Agriculture and Sustainability bioinformatics to accelerate breeding efforts and
Food Security: Both conventional and molecular address emerging agricultural challenges.
plant breeding contribute to global food security by Conclusion
improving crop yields, resilience to pests and In conclusion, conventional and molecular
diseases, and adaptation to climate change-induced plant breeding each offer unique advantages and
stresses. challenges in the quest to develop improved crop
Sustainability varieties for sustainable agriculture and global food
 Environmental Impact: Molecular breeding security. Conventional breeding harnesses natural
can reduce chemical inputs like pesticides and genetic diversity and is widely accepted, albeit time-
fertilizers, promoting sustainable agricultural consuming and less precise. Molecular breeding, on
practices. the other hand, allows for precise manipulation of
 Resource Efficiency: Both approaches aim to plant genomes and the introduction of novel traits,
maximize resource use efficiency, such as water yet faces regulatory, ethical, and public perception
and nutrients, to minimize environmental impact. challenges. The future lies in integrating these
Challenges and Future Directions approaches synergistically, leveraging their
Challenges respective strengths to address the complexities of
 Regulatory Frameworks: Harmonizing regula- modern agriculture and meet the evolving needs of a
tions to facilitate the development and adoption growing global population.
of genetically modified crops globally. References
 Public Perception: Addressing concerns and Lamichhane, S. and Thapa, S. (2022). Advances
building trust in the safety and benefits of from conventional to modern plant breeding
genetically modified organisms (GMOs). methodologies. Plant Breeding and Biotech-
 Equity and Access: Ensuring equitable access to nology, 10(1): 1-14.
advanced breeding technologies for farmers, Lema, M. (2018). Marker assisted selection in
especially in developing countries. comparison to conventional plant
Future Directions breeding. Agriculture Research Technology
 Integration of Approaches: Synergistic use of 14: 555914.
conventional and molecular breeding methods to Ali, F., Kanwal, N., Ahsan, M., Ali, Q. and Niazi, N.
harness natural genetic diversity and precision K. (2015). Crop improvement through
breeding tools. conventional and non-conventional breeding
 Emerging Technologies: Continued advance- approaches for grain yield and quality traits
ments in genome editing, synthetic biology, and in Zea mays. Life Science Journal, 12(4): 38.

64
Moose, S. P. and Mumm, R. H. (2008). Molecular

plant breeding as the foundation for 21st
century crop improvement. Plant Physiology,
147(3): 969-977.
Gupta, P. K., Kumar, J., Mir, R. R. and Kumar, A.
(2010). 4 Marker-assisted selection as a
component of conventional plant breed-
ing. Plant Breeding Reviews, 33(4): 145-217.
Lusser, M. and Davies, H. V. (2013). Comparative
regulatory approaches for groups of new
plant breeding techniques. New Biotech-
nology, 30(5): 437-446.
Lörz, H. and Wenzel, G. (Eds.). (2007). Molecular
marker systems in plant breeding and crop
improvement.

65
Innovations in Coffee Cultivation: Modern Techniques for Better Yields

M. A. Suchitra, Bhuvaneshwari D. S. and S. A. Nadaf
Abstract
Growing demand for high-quality coffee and the increasing pressures of climate change, pests,
and diseases, innovation in coffee cultivation has become essential. Modern agriculture incorporates
successful new technologies to increase the coffee yields and minimize the impacts on environment.
Modern techniques are transforming traditional coffee farming modern agriculture to enhance crop
productivity, sustainability and quality. Current agricultural techniques in coffee cultivation includes
Precision Agriculture, Genetic Improvements and Breeding, Genetic Improvements and breeding,
sustainable farming practice, Integrated pest management and post-harvest Innovations. There are
different trait specific coffee varieties which are higher cupping score and good yielding across the
bean belt. Still there are several challenges remain in the widespread adoption of modern techniques
in coffee cultivation.
Introduction manage crop health, soil conditions and micro-

Coffee cultivation is a critical agricultural climates with unprecedented precision for higher
practice that supports the livelihoods of millions of coffee production.
farmers globally and fuels a significant part of the
world's economy. With the growing demand for
high-quality coffee and the increasing pressures of
climate change, pests, and diseases, innovation in
coffee cultivation has become essential. Modern
techniques are transforming traditional coffee
farming, enhancing productivity, sustainability, and Fig. 1: Arabica Coffee is grown under the shade trees
quality. Traditional methods of coffee farming often Historical Context of Coffee Cultivation
rely on traditional farming practices, but today's Coffee cultivation has a rich history that dates
coffee producers are exploring new techniques to back to the ancient coffee forests of Ethiopia. A
optimize yield, quality and sustainability. Advances famous narrative tells the story of a young goat
in precision agriculture have revolutionized the way herder named Kaldi, who noticed his goats were
coffee is grown, allowing producers to monitor and overly energetic after consuming bright red berries
M. A. Suchitra and Bhuvaneshwari D. S.
Young Professional, Division of Agricultural Chemistry, Coffee Research Sub Station, Chettalli, North Kodagu, Karnataka
S. A. Nadaf
Research Scientist, Division of Agricultural Chemistry, Coffee Board, CRSS, Kodagu, Karnataka

66
from a certain tree in Ethiopia. From there, it spread pest infestations, and water stress early, allowing
to the Arabian Peninsula and eventually to Europe for targeted interventions. With help of remote
and the Americas. Traditional coffee farming relied sensing coffee cultivating area can be delineated
heavily on manual labour and natural environmental remotely by using remote sensing data.
conditions, with limited technological intervention.  Soil and Plant Sensors and IoTs: Soil and plant
Over the centuries, farmers developed various sensors measure moisture, soil pH levels, total
practices to improve yields and combat challenges, nutrient content, and other critical parameters in
but these methods often lacked scientific backing and real-time with the help of Internet of Things
efficiency. (IoTs). This data enables farmers to optimize
The Importance of Innovation in Coffee irrigation and fertilization, reducing waste and
Cultivation enhancing plant and soil health.
The global coffee industry faces numerous  Geographic Information Systems (GIS): GIS
challenges, including climate change, fluctuating technology maps and analyses spatial data, these
market prices, and the constant threat of pests and data will help for the coffee growers for decisions
diseases. Innovations in coffee cultivation are vital to making and precise planning for irrigation,
address these challenges and ensure the sustain- fertilizer application and pest management by
ability and profitability of coffee farming. Modern using GIS techniques. GIS can also predict the
techniques can improve yield, quality and impact of environmental changes, aiding in
environmental sustainability, benefiting both farmers proactive farm management in large and small
and consumers. holdings.
Modern Techniques in Coffee Cultivation Genetic Improvements and Breeding: There are
Precision Agriculture: Precision agriculture uses many limitations in coffee breeding techniques.
technology to monitor and manage crops with high Especially in Arabica coffee is facing multiple
accuracy. In coffee cultivation, precision agriculture threats including the interrelated challenges of
involves: climate change and transboundary pests and diseases
 Remote Sensing and Machine learning things: infestation. Under the advances in genetic research
Remote sensing technologies and machine and breeding techniques are producing coffee
learning things are equipped with cameras and varieties that are more resilient and productive.
sensors provide detailed information about the  Traditional Breeding: Traditional breeding
health and condition of coffee plants. These tools involves selecting plants with desirable traits and
help to identify the problems and issues cross-breeding them to develop improved
recommendations such as nutrient deficiencies, varieties. This method has produced high-yield,

67
disease-resistant coffee varieties such as the crops. This practice enhances biodiversity,
Chandragiri in India, Castillo in Colombia and improves soil health, and provides additional
SL28 are from Kenya. income sources for farmers. Shade-grown coffee,
 Molecular Breeding and Marker-Assisted a type of agro-forestry, also improves coffee
Selection: Molecular breeding uses genetic quality by extending the maturation period of the
markers to identify and select desirable traits in beans. There by improves the cup quality. Shade
coffee plants. This technique accelerates the trees protect coffee plants against adverse
breeding process and increases the precision of environmental stresses such as high soil
developing new varieties. This technique is used temperatures and low relative humidity. How-
across the world in the coffee breeding by using ever, shade induced differences in the
the selected markers. physiological behavior of coffee plants, such as
 Genetic Engineering and CRISPR: Genetic improved photosynthesis and increased leaf area
engineering and Clustered regularly interspaced index, resulting in better performance than in
palindromic repeats CRISPR (refers to sequences direct sunlight. As a result, coffee plants grown
in the bacterial genome) technology allow for the under shade trees produce larger and heavier
direct modification of coffee plant genomes. fruits with better bean quality than those grown
These methods can introduce traits such as in direct sunlight. Additionally, shaded plants
disease resistance, drought tolerance, and have a higher biochemical and physiological
improved flavour profiles with unprecedented capacity for higher dry matter production, which
accuracy and early development of variety. helps maintain higher coffee yields in the long
Sustainable Farming Practices: Sustainable coffee run. If growing coffee under shade trees allows
incorporates environment friendly practices like the production of other sources of income such as
better crop and manages soil and water for the future. traditional fruit, timber and fuelwood, it is more
Sustainable farming practices are essential for socially acceptable, more economically viable
maintaining soil health, biodiversity, and long-term and more environmentally sustainable under the
productivity without affecting the environment. changing climatic condition.
 Agroforestry: Indian Coffee is shade-grown  Organic Farming: Organic farming avoids
coffee, grown under two tire canopy of forest- synthetic chemicals, relying instead on natural
like trees, is a production system that is pest control, composting for nutrient manage-
environmentally sustainable and allows for ment and crop rotation. This approach promotes
biodiversity conservation. Agro-forestry invol- soil health, reduces environmental impact, and
ves integrating coffee plants with other trees and meets the growing consumer demand for organic

68
products. However, the coffee growing area  Cultural Practices: Cultural practices such as
requires terracing, contour planting, soil covers regular pruning, proper spacing, and sanitation
and mulching to prevent erosion; integrated reduce the risk of pest and disease outbreaks.
shade planting in organic farming management; Removing infected plants and debris helps
microclimate regulation and improvement of prevent the spread of pathogens.
ecological diversity to control pests and diseases;  Chemical Control: When necessary, targeted
Use of pest and disease resistant clones or chemical treatments can be used to manage pests
seedlings. Increasing organic matter using and diseases. The key is to use them judiciously
legumes or shade tree loppings and nutrient and in combination with other IPM methods to
returns using mineral balance calculations. In minimize environmental impact.
short, organic farming requires active,
sustainable farm management. Not just the coffee
but the whole farm has to change.
 Water Management: Efficient water manage-
ment is critical in coffee cultivation, especially in
regions facing water scarcity. Techniques such as Post-Harvest Innovations: Post-harvest handling
drip irrigation, rainwater harvesting, and and processing significantly impact coffee quality
mulching help conserve water and maintain soil and market value.
moisture levels. Water management techniques  Improved Drying Techniques: Innovations in
will impact on soil coverings, soil conditioners, drying techniques, such as
and controlled-release fertilizer on the growth solar dryers and mechanical
and yield of coffee plants dryers, ensure consistent
Integrated Pest Management (IPM): IPM and efficient drying of coffee
combines biological, cultural, and chemical methods beans. Proper drying prevents
to manage pests and diseases in an environmentally mould growth and preserves
sustainable way. the quality of the beans.
 Biological Control: Biological control involves  Advanced Sorting and Grading: Automated
using natural predators or sorting and grading machines use optical and
pathogens to control pest electronic sensors to classify coffee beans based
populations. For example, on size, colour, and quality. This technology
introducing parasitic wasps ensures uniformity and enhances the market
can help manage coffee berry borer infestations. value of the coffee.

69
 Fermentation Control: Controlled fermentation Rica has been a pioneer in sustainable coffee
techniques improve the flavour profile and production. The country's adoption of agroforestry
consistency of coffee. Precision fermentation systems, organic farming practices, and water
processes monitor and regulate temperature, management techniques has led to high-quality,
humidity and microbial activity during environmentally friendly coffee. Certification
fermentation, leading to superior coffee quality. programs like Rainforest Alliance and Fair Trade
Case Studies of Successful Innovations have further boosted the market appeal of Costa
Colombia: Castillo Variety: The development and Rican coffee.
widespread adoption of the Castillo variety in Challenges and Future Prospects
Colombia is a prime example of successful Despite the advancements, several challenges
innovation. This variety, breed for its resistance to remain in the widespread adoption of modern
coffee leaf rust, has significantly improved yields techniques in coffee cultivation:
and reduced the reliance on chemical fungicides, Access to Technology: Smallholder farmers, who
benefiting both the environment and farmers' produce the majority of the world's coffee, often lack
incomes. access to advanced technologies due to high costs
Brazil: Precision Agriculture: Brazil, one of the and limited infrastructure. Bridging this gap is
largest coffee producers, has embraced precision essential for equitable development in the coffee
agriculture on a large scale. The use of drones, sector.
remote sensing, and GIS has transformed farm Knowledge Transfer: Implementing new techni-
management, resulting in higher yields and more ques requires training and education. Extension
efficient resource use. These technologies have services and farmer cooperatives play a critical role
helped Brazilian coffee farmers remain competitive in disseminating knowledge and best practices.
in the global market. Effective knowledge transfer is crucial for the
Ethiopia: Genetic Diversity Conservation: successful adoption of innovations.
Ethiopia, the birthplace of coffee, has focused on Climate Change: Climate change poses a
conserving its rich genetic diversity. Projects such as significant threat to coffee cultivation, altering
the Ethiopian Coffee Improvement Program (ECIP) growing conditions and exacerbating pest and
have catalogued and preserved numerous wild coffee disease pressures. Ongoing research and innovation
varieties. These efforts are crucial for future breeding are needed to develop climate-resilient coffee
programs and maintaining genetic resilience in varieties and sustainable farming practices.
coffee crops. Market Dynamics: Fluctuating coffee prices and
Costa Rica: Sustainable Coffee Production: Costa market demand can impact farmers' willingness to

70
Coffee varieties, highlighting their key traits, countries of origin, and notable features
Variety Name Country Key Traits Notable Features

Starmaya Colombia High yield, rust-resistant Hybrid variety, shorter breeding cycle
H1 Hybrid variety, high cup quality, climate
Central America High yield, rust-resistant
Centroamericano resilience
High yield, rust and nematode-
Obatá Brazil Adapted for high altitudes, high cup quality
resistant
Marsellesa Central America Rust-resistant Hybrid variety, high yield, good cup quality
Tupi Brazil Rust and nematode-resistant Good yield, disease resistance
Catimor Central America, Asia High yield, rust-resistant Hybrid of Caturra and Timor, early maturity
Improved cup quality, adapted for various
Batian Kenya High yield, disease-resistant
altitudes
Parainema Honduras Rust-resistant, high yield Hybrid variety, complex flavor profile
SL28 Kenya Drought and disease-resistant High cup quality, suitable for diverse climates
High cup quality, rust- Renowned for unique flavor profile, high
Geisha Ethiopia, Panama
sensitive altitude adaptation
S 795 India Resistant to coffee leaf rust Hybrid variety, high yield, good cup profile
CxR India High yielding Hybrid variety, good yielding potential
Sln 9 India Good cup quality, rust Early Ripener
tolerance
S 274 India High yielding Contains A grade beans
invest in new technologies. Stable and fair market Obatá

conditions are necessary to encourage innovation Country of Origin: Brazil
and investment in coffee cultivation. Key Traits: High yield, rust and nematode-resistant
Detailed Overview of Selected Varieties Notable Features: Obatá is particularly suited for
Starmaya high-altitude regions and is valued for its high cup
Country of Origin: Colombia quality. It is a product of crossbreeding between
Key Traits: High yield, rust-resistant Timor Hybrid and Villa Sarchi.
Notable Features: Starmaya is a hybrid variety Marsellesa
developed through collaboration between CIRAD Country of Origin: Central America
and ECOM. It offers a shorter breeding cycle Key Traits: Rust-resistant
compared to traditional varieties, making it easier for Notable Features: Marsellesa is a hybrid variety
farmers to adopt. that offers high yield and good cup quality. It was
H1 Centroamericano developed to combat the widespread coffee leaf rust
Country of Origin: Central America epidemic in Central America.
Key Traits: High yield, rust-resistant Tupi
Notable Features: Known for its climate resilience, Country of Origin: Brazil
H1 Centroamericano is a hybrid variety that Key Traits: Rust and nematode-resistant
combines disease resistance with high cup quality. It Notable Features: Tupi provides good yield and
has gained popularity for its ability to thrive under disease resistance, making it a reliable choice for
varying environmental conditions. Brazilian coffee farmers. It is a result of crossbreed-
71
ing Catuai and the Timor Hybrid. flavour profile and high altitude adaptation. Despite
Catimor its susceptibility to rust, it commands high market
Country of Origin: Central America, Asia prices due to its exceptional quality.
Key Traits: High yield, rust-resistant Arabica Variety: S. 795
Notable Features: Catimor is a hybrid of Caturra Country: India
and the Timor Hybrid. It is known for its early Key Traits: Grow vigorously and resistant to coffee
maturity and adaptability to different growing leaf rust race for I and II
conditions. Notable Features: Hybrid variety, high yield, good
Batian cup profile
Country of Origin: Kenya Arabica Variety: Sln 9
Key Traits: High yield, disease-resistant Country: India
Notable Features: Batian is an improved variety Key Traits: Grow vigorously with dropping
developed by the Kenya Coffee Research Institute. It branches, Good cup quality, tolerance leaf rust,
offers better cup quality and is adaptable to various drought hardy and widely adoptable across the coffee
altitudes. region
Parainema Notable Features: Early Ripener and possessing
Country of Origin: Honduras distinct flavour in cup with good liquor quality
Key Traits: Rust-resistant, high yield Robusta variety: CxR
Notable Features: Parainema is a hybrid variety Country: India
known for its complex flavour profile and resistance Key Traits: Grow vigorously with dropping
to coffee leaf rust. It is part of the IHCAFE 90 branches and high yielding
breeding program in Honduras. Notable Features: Hybrid variety, good yielding
SL28 potential, uniform and early ripener and easy to
Country of Origin: Kenya harvest and liquor is soft, neutral with light to fare
Key Traits: Drought and disease-resistant acidity and good cup quality
Notable Features: SL28 is renowned for its high cup Robusta Varieties: S. 274
quality and suitability for diverse climates. It is a Country: India
popular choice among specialty coffee producers. Key Traits: Grow vigorously with large tree with
Geisha high yielding
Country of Origin: Ethiopia, Panama Notable Features: Late Ripener and produce more
Key Traits: High cup quality, rust-sensitive A grade beans and good for rain fed condition.
Notable Features: Geisha is famous for its unique Conclusion

72
Innovations in coffee cultivation are McCook, S. (2017). Environmental history of coffee

transforming the industry, offering solutions to in Latin America. In Oxford Research
enhance yields, quality, and sustainability. Precision Encyclopedia of Latin American History.
agriculture, genetic improvements, sustainable Mohammed, M. K. (2018). Analysis of adoption of
farming practices, integrated pest management, and improved coffee technologies in major coffee
post-harvest innovations are key areas driving this growing areas of Southern Ethopia. Innovat-
transformation. While challenges remain, the ive Systems Design and Engineering, 9(5): 1-
successful implementation of these techniques can 9.
ensure the long-term viability and prosperity of Van der Vossen, H., Bertrand, B., and Charrier, A.
coffee farming. As the global coffee community (2015). Next generation variety development
continues to innovate and collaborate, the future of for sustainable production of arabica coffee
coffee cultivation looks promising, promising better (Coffea arabica L.): A Review. Euphytica,
yields and higher quality for generations to come. 204(2): 243-256.
References Van der Vossen, H. A. M. (2005). A critical analysis
Breitler, J. C., Etienne, H., Léran, S., Marie, L. and of the agronomic and economic sustainability
Bertrand, B. (2022). Description of an of organic coffee production. Experimental
Arabica coffee ideotype for agroforestry Agriculture, 41(4): 449-473.
cropping systems: A guideline for breeding Zylbersztajn, D., Giordano, S. R., and De Vita, C. L.
more resilient new varieties. Plants, 11(16): R. (2020). Farm innovation: Nine cases of
2133. Brazilian coffee growers. In Coffee
Etienne, H., Breton, D., Breitler, J. C., Bertrand, B., Consumption and Industry Strategies in
Déchamp, E., Awada, R. and Ducos, J. P. Brazil (pp. 125-148). Woodhead Publishing.
(2018). Coffee somatic embryogenesis: how
did research, experience gained and
innovations promote the commercial
propagation of elite clones from the two
cultivated species?. Frontiers in Plant
Science, 9: 1630.
Guadarrama-Zugasti, C. E. (2000). The transform-
ation of coffee farming in central Veracruz,
Mexico: sustainable strategies?. University
of California, Santa Cruz.

73
Organic Coffee Farming: Benefits and Challenges

Bhuvaneshwari D. S., M. A. Suchitra and S. A. Nadaf
Abstract
Organic coffee farming represents a sustainable agricultural practice that eschews synthetic
chemicals in favour of natural methods to manage pest, improve soil fertility management and also
overall farm management. The benefits of this approach are manifold, including improved soil health,
enhanced biodiversity, reduced environmental pollution, and often superior coffee quality production,
which can command premium market prices. Organic farming also supports the well-being of farmers
by reducing their exposure to the harmful chemicals and often provides access to niche markets with
higher economic returns. However, the transition to and maintenance of organic coffee farming pose
significant challenges. These include the need for comprehensive knowledge of organic farming
techniques, the initial cost of certification, potential yield reductions during the transition period, and
the increased labour required / requirement for organic practices. Furthermore, organic farmers must
navigate market volatility and the sometimes limited availability of organic inputs. Balancing these
benefits and challenges is critical for the widespread adoption and success of organic coffee farming.
Introduction nic products continues to grow, understanding the

Organic coffee farming is the method of benefits and challenges of organic coffee farming
cultivating coffee that becomes crucial for farmers, policymakers, and
prioritizes the natural consumers alike. This comprehensive article
processes for ecological explores the multifaceted aspects of organic coffee
balances. Organic coffee farming, delving into its advantages, obstacles, and
farming has emerged as a the future outlook.
vital component of Historical Context of Organic Coffee Farming
sustainable agriculture, offer- Organic farming is not a new concept but
ing a promising alternative to rather a return to traditional agricultural practices
conventional farming practices. before the advent of synthetic chemicals. Initially,
It emphasizes the use of natural coffee was grown organically by default without any
inputs, conservation of resources, and maintenance imputes like soil nutrients or fertilizers, pest and
of ecological balance. As consumer demand for orga- disease management, relying on natural processes
Bhuvaneshwari D. S. and M. A. Suchitra

Young Professional, Division of Agricultural Chemistry, Coffee Research Sub Station, Chettalli, North Kodagu, Karnataka
S. A. Nadaf
Research Scientist, Division of Agricultural Chemistry, Coffee Board, CRSS, Kodagu, Karnataka

74
and local knowledge. The rise of industrial and protect environment from the synthetic
agriculture introduced chemical fertilizers, pesticides chemicals. In coffee plantation different species
and herbicides, leading to plant protection measure shade trees are the unique characteristic of
and increased yields but also significant farming which protects the biodiversity.
environmental and health concerns. In the recent past  Soil Health: The application of composting,
coffee growing condition has been shifted towards green manures, and organic amendments are key
open (exposed to sun) cultivation by neglecting the tools for maintaining and improving soil fertility
shade grown coffee to increase yields by maximizing and soil health. As organic imputes contains all
sunlight exposure to coffee plants. However, this led the essential nutrients required by the plants.
to deforestation, soil degradation and increased  Pest and Disease Management: Utilizing
reliance on chemical fertilizers, herbicides and natural pest control methods such as biological
pesticides. By the late 20th century, the environ- control, chemical control, crop rotation, and
mental consequences of conventional coffee farming habitat management. Different plant disease can
became a growing concern. The modern movement be control through organic imputes and by
emphasizes not just avoiding chemicals but also producing microorganisms in situ or by
promoting biodiversity and ethical sourcing, making externally.
it a more comprehensive approach to sustainable  Water Conservation: Implementing efficient
coffee production by using organic products. The irrigation, rain harvesting techniques and water
organic movement, gaining momentum in the latter management practices maximizes resource
half of the 20th century, advocated for a return to conservation to conserve resources. Organic
natural methods, driven by growing awareness of the imputes can hold soil moisture and supply to
adverse effects of conventional farming practices to plants during adverse climatic condition which is
environment and human health. The certification of very unfavourable to plants.
organic products, including coffee, began in the late  Sustainability: Ensuring long-term agricultural
20th century, setting standards and fostering a productivity without compromising crop
market for sustainably grown coffee. production / environmental health or farmer
Principles of Organic Coffee Farming well-being.
Organic coffee farming is grounded in Benefits of Organic Coffee Farming
several core principles that guide its practices: Environmental Benefits
 Biodiversity: Fostering diverse ecosystems with Enhanced Soil Health Condition: Organic coffee
biota within coffee plantation to strengthens the farming improves soil structure, fertility and bio-
resilience and promotes the ecological balance diversity. However, coffee grown under the shade

75
is common in India and leaf litter of the shade trees hold soil moisture for long period which promotes
contribute a large quantity of organic matter to the for the conservation of water under often-stressed
soil. The use of different types of compost, green coffee growing regions.
manures and organic mulches enriches the soil with Economic Benefits
essential nutrients and organic matter. This promotes Premium Market Prices: Organic coffee typically
a healthy soil microbiome, enhances water retention commands higher prices in the market due to its
capacity of soil and reduces soil erosion and perceived health benefits and environmental sustain-
improves the soil productivity. ability. This premium can enhance farmers' incomes
Reduced Chemical Pollution: By avoiding and provide financial stability.
application of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers, Market Access: The growing demand for organic
organic coffee farming minimizes chemical runoff products opens new market opportunities for organic
into waterways, reducing pollution and protecting coffee farmers. Certification as organic can provide
aquatic ecosystems. It also mitigates soil and water access to niche markets and long-term trade relation-
contamination and preserving the natural environ- ships with buyers seeking sustainably produced
ment. coffee.
Biodiversity Conservation: Organic farms often Reduced Input Costs: While organic farming can
incorporate agroforestry practices, planting shade involve higher labour costs, it often reduces the need
trees and maintaining natural habitats. This supports for expensive synthetic inputs in coffee. Over time,
diverse plant and animal species, contributing to the use of on-farm resources like compost and green
overall biodiversity. Shade-grown coffee, in manure can lower production costs and proper
particular, provides habitat for migratory birds and utilisation of farm resources. Overall, Farmers can
other wildlife. earn higher profits, reduce costs and build a
Climate Change Mitigation: An organic farming sustainable future, while consumers gain access to a
practice in coffee is sequestering carbon emission in premium product and support environmentally
/ from the soil through increased / incorporating friendly practices.
organic matter. Additionally, the reduced reliance on Social Benefits
synthetic nitrogen fertilizers lowers greenhouse gas Healthier Working Conditions: Organic farming
emissions. Agroforestry systems also act as carbon reduces farmers and workers exposure to harmful
sinks, capturing atmospheric carbon dioxide. chemicals, promoting better health and safety. This
Water conservation: Organic is particularly important in regions where protective
methods of coffee cultivation equipment and health care may be limited.
typically require less water and Community Well-being: Organic coffee farming

76
can strengthen rural communities by promoting crop rotation can help suppress weeds but may not be
sustainable livelihoods and fostering social cohesion. as effective or efficient as chemical herbicides.
Farmer cooperatives and organic certification Economic Challenges
programs often provide training and support, Certification Costs: Obtaining organic certification
enhancing community resilience. involves fees for inspection, certification, and annual
Preservation of Traditional Knowledge: Organic renewal. These costs can be prohibitive for
farming often aligns with traditional agricultural smallholder farmers, especially in developing
practices, preserving local knowledge and cultural countries. Additionally, the transition period to
heritage. This can empower farmers and reinforce organic farming can result in reduced yields and
community identity. income before certification is achieved.
Challenges of Organic Coffee Farming Unstable Market: Organic coffee farmers face
Agronomic Challenges market volatility and fluctuating prices. While
Pest and Disease Management: Managing pests organic coffee can command premium prices, market
and diseases without synthetic chemicals can be demand and prices are subject to change, influenced
challenging. Organic farmers rely on integrated pest by consumer preferences and economic conditions.
management (IPM) strategies, which require Labour Intensity: Organic coffee farming is often
knowledge and vigilance. Biological control agents, more labour-intensive than conventional farming by
crop rotation, and resistant varieties are essential using herbicides and insecticides. Practices such as
tools but may not always provide immediate or manual weeding, composting, and pest monitoring
complete control. require additional time and effort. Labour shortages
Soil Fertility Management: Maintaining soil and higher labour costs can impact profitability and
fertility in organic systems requires careful planning scalability.
and management. Organic amendments like compost Lower yields: Organic coffee farming practices
and green manure take time to decompose and often result in lower yields compared to conventional
release nutrients. Farmers must balance nutrient methods using synthetic fertilizers and pest control.
availability with crop demands, which can be This can translate to lower overall production and
complex and labour-intensive. However, shade tree income for farmers, especially during the transition
leaf litter are contributes almost 10 ton ha-1 year-1 in period when the soil is building fertility.
coffee plantation. Social Challenges
Weed Control: Weed management in organic coffee Knowledge and Training: Successful organic
farms is often manual or mechanical, requiring coffee farming requires specialized knowledge and
significant labour. Cover cropping, mulching, and skills. Farmers need training in organic methods, pest

77
and disease management, and soil fertility practices. 2001, COMSA has pioneered sustainable farming
Access to education and extension services is crucial practices and holistic organic management. The
but may be limited in rural areas. cooperative emphasizes soil health, biodiversity, and
Community Acceptance: Transitioning to organic community well-being. COMSA's organic coffee is
farming can be challenging in communities where highly regarded in the specialty market, and the
conventional practices are deeply entrenched. cooperative provides extensive training and support
Farmers may face resistance from peers or to its members. The success of COMSA has inspired
scepticism about the viability and benefits of organic other farmers in the region to adopt organic practices.
methods. Peru: Cenfrocafe: Cenfrocafe, a cooperative in the
Policy and Institutional Support: Effective organic Cajamarca region of Peru, has made significant
farming requires supportive policies and institutions. strides in organic coffee farming. Founded in 1999,
Inadequate government support, lack of research and Cenfrocafe represents thousands of smallholder
extension services, and limited access to credit and farmers dedicated to producing high-quality organic
markets can hinder the adoption and success of coffee. The cooperative has implemented sustainable
organic coffee farming. farming practices, improved processing methods,
Case Studies and Success Stories and achieved organic certification. Cenfrocafe's
Ethiopia: Yirgacheffe Coffee Farmers’ Cooper- coffee is recognized for its excellent flavour profile,
ative Union (YCFCU): The YCFCU is a successful and the cooperative has established strong
example of organic coffee farming in Ethiopia. relationships with international buyers, ensuring fair
Formed in 2002, the cooperative union consists of prices and market stability for its members.
multiple primary cooperatives, representing Mexico: FIECH: FIECH, a federation of indigenous
thousands of smallholder farmers. The union focuses coffee cooperatives in Chiapas, Mexico, has been a
on producing high-quality organic coffee and has leader in organic coffee production since its
achieved significant market success, exporting to establishment in 1994. The federation focuses on
international markets and securing premium prices. promoting sustainable farming practices, preserving
The YCFCU supports its members with training, traditional knowledge, and empowering indigenous
organic certification, and market access, enhancing communities. FIECH provides training, technical
their livelihoods and promoting sustainable assistance, and organic certification support to its
agriculture. members. The federation's organic coffee is highly
Honduras: COMSA: COMSA, a cooperative in valued in the specialty market, and its success has
Marcala, Honduras, is known for its innovative contributed to the socio-economic development of
approach to organic coffee farming. Established in indigenous communities in Chiapas.

78
Araku Coffee of India: Coffee growing areas in make informed decisions, improving efficiency and
Andhra Pradesh and Orissa (non-traditional area - productivity.
NTA) are characterized by undulating topography Climate-Resilient Varieties: Breeding and develop-
with terraced slopes having narrow valleys with ment of climate-resilient coffee varieties will be
scattered coffee farms across the elevation of the crucial for the future of organic coffee farming.
Eastern Ghats of Vishakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh) Varieties that can withstand extreme weather
and Koraput (Orissa) districts in India by the local conditions, pests, and diseases will enhance the
tribal growers without any external inputs. In this resilience and sustainability of organic coffee
region a pure Arabica coffee is grown with a rare systems.
aromatic profile with smooth and well-balanced cup Market Expansion: The organic coffee market is
and famous for the fruity flavour because of its expected to continue expanding, driven by consumer
cultivation under Micro Climate. Further Araku awareness and demand for sustainable products.
Coffee contributes to the socio-economic develop- Increased market access, fair trade initiatives, and
ment of local tribal community of the region. certification programs will provide opportunities for
Devan's Coffee of India: Coffee is grown in organic coffee farmers to reach global markets and
Traditional coffee growing region of Karnataka and secure premium prices.
this plantation is in Chikmagalur district of Policy Support: Governments and international
Karnataka. The Arabica coffee is produced under the organizations can play a vital role in promoting
shade trees (Jungle trees) and that are certified as organic coffee farming through supportive policies,
organic. Their coffee is known for its complex flavor research, and extension services. Financial
profile with hints of citrus and spice incentives, access to credit, and investment in
Future Outlook for Organic Coffee Farming infrastructure will be essential to facilitate the
The future of organic coffee farming looks adoption and success of organic practices.
promising, driven by increasing consumer demand Collaborative Initiatives: Collaboration among
for sustainable and ethically produced products. farmers, cooperatives, researchers, NGOs, and the
Several trends and developments are likely to shape private sector will be crucial for advancing organic
the future of organic coffee farming: coffee farming. Knowledge sharing, capacity
Technological Advancements: Emerging technolo- building, and joint efforts in research and
gies in agriculture, such as precision farming, remote development will drive innovation and sustainability
sensing, and data analytics, can enhance organic in the organic coffee sector.
coffee farming. These technologies enable farmers to Focus on regenerative agriculture: There is a
monitor crop health, optimize resource use, and growing movement within the coffee industry towar-

79
ds regenerative agriculture, which goes beyond coffee production, certification and

organic practices to rebuild soil health and marketing systems: Ethiopia as a main
Ecosystem resilience. This Aligns well with the long indicator: a review. Asian Journal of
term sustainability goals of organic coffee farming. Agricultural Research, 8(4): 170-180.
Conclusion Jouzi, Z., Azadi, H., Taheri, F., Zarafshani, K.,
Organic coffee farming offers a sustainable Gebrehiwot, K., Van Passel, S. and Lebailly,
and environmentally friendly alternative to P. (2017). Organic farming and small-scale
conventional coffee cultivation. It provides farmers: Main opportunities and Challenges.
numerous benefits, including improved soil health, Ecological Economics, 132: 144-154.
biodiversity conservation, reduced chemical Martínez-Torres, M. E. (2008). The benefits and
pollution, and enhanced economic opportunities for sustainability of organic farming by peasant
farmers. However, organic coffee farming also coffee farmers in Chiapas, Mexico.
presents challenges, such as pest and disease Martinez-Torres, M. E. (2006). Organic coffee:
management, certification costs, and labour sustainable development by Mayan farmers
intensity. Overcoming these challenges requires (Vol. 45). Ohio University Press.
knowledge, training, policy support, and market Ortiz Miranda, D. and Moragues Faus, A. M. (2015).
access. It fosters a healthier environment, empowers Governing fair trade coffee supply: dynamics
farmers and potentially yields unique and flavourful and challenges in small farmers'
coffee beans. Successful examples of organic coffee organizations. Sustainable Development, 23
farming in Ethiopia, Honduras, Peru, Mexico, Araku (1): 41-54.
and Devan’s organic coffee in India demonstrate the Sick, D. (2008). Coffee, farming families, and fair
potential of organic approach to enhance livelihoods trade in Costa Rica: New markets, same old
and promote sustainable agriculture. As consumer problems?. Latin American Research Review
demand for organic products continues to grow, the 43(3): 193-208.
future of organic coffee farming looks promising, Valkila, J. (2009). Fair Trade organic coffee
with opportunities for technological advancements, production in Nicaragua Sustainable
market expansion, and collaborative initiatives. development or a poverty trap?. Ecological
Embracing organic coffee farming can contribute to Economics, 68(12): 3018-3025.
a more sustainable and resilient coffee industry, Wahyudi, T. and Jati, M. (2012). Challenges of
benefiting farmers, consumers, and the environment. sustainable coffee certification in
References Indonesia. International Coffee Council 109th
Ayalew, T. (2014). Characterization of organic Session (September): 1-14.

80
Mechanisms of Plant Defense: The Role of PAMPs and DAMPs in Innate

Immunity
Snata Kaushik, Sudharshan Keralapura Ramachandra, Hans Austin and Dnyaneshwar Madhukar
Firake
Abstract
All living organisms have evolved protective mechanisms against abiotic and biotic threats.
Microbes use systems to manage foreign DNA and detoxify harmful substances. Multicellular
organisms have developed innate immunity, involving cell surface receptors that recognize conserved
molecules specific to foreign organisms, known as Microbe-Associated Molecular Patterns (MAMPs)
or Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns (PAMPs). These patterns are detected by pattern
recognition receptors (PRRs), which activate signaling pathways to trigger defense responses.
Examples of PAMPs include bacterial lipopolysaccharide, flagellin, and fungal chitin. Additionally,
organisms face abiotic stresses like mechanical damage, drought, and salinity. Endogenous molecules
released due to damage, known as Damage-Associated Molecular Patterns (DAMPs), can also activate
the innate immune system.
The Concept of Plant Immunity that overcomes these obstacles is subject to

Plants are sessile organisms that cannot hide molecular recognition by plant cells. Plants lack
or escape when attacked but are, like all other circulating cells specialised in microbe recognition
multicellular organisms, continuously threatened by such as macrophages. Instead, each cell is able to
potential pathogens. Unlike animals, plants do not recognise and respond to pathogens autonomously.
have a recombinatorial adaptive immune system In addition, systemic signalling can be triggered in
with a diverse repertoire of B and T lymphocytes. response to microbial stimuli that prepare naı¨ve
Plants lack the adaptive immunity mechanisms of tissue for imminent attack. Overall, plant innate
jawed vertebrates, so rely on innate immune immunity is very efficient and most plants are
responses for defense. As sessile organisms they are resistant to most microbes.
subject to changing environmental conditions Primary innate immunity in plants
including constant pathogen attack. However, Plants have developed a two-layered innate
would-be pathogens must first penetrate barriers immune system for defense against pathogens.
such as wax layers or rigid cell walls. A pathogen Primary innate immunity, the first line of defense of
Snata Kaushik, Sudharshan Keralapura Ramachandra and Hans Austin
School of Crop Protection, College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, Umiam, Meghalaya (CAU, Imphal)
Dnyaneshwar Madhukar Firake
ICAR-Directorate of Floricultural Research, Pune, Maharashtra

81
plants, is achieved through a set of defined receptors, model lies in the gene-for-gene resistance
also referred to as pattern recognition receptors hypothesis proposed by H. H. Flor in 1942. Flor
(PRRs), that recognize conserved microbe- proposed that plants may express resistance (R)
associated molecular patterns (MAMPs). With the proteins that recognise avirulence (Avr) proteins
primary immune system, plants recognize microbe from pathogens, thus making them resistant to
associated molecular patterns (MAMPs) of potential pathogen invasion. His hypothesis has since been
pathogens through pattern recognition receptors confirmed by the identification of multiple Avr-
(PRRs) that mediate a basal defense response. Plant R gene pairs. Some Avr proteins are direct
pathogens suppress this basal defense response by ligands for receptors encoded by the R genes,
means of effectors that enable them to cause disease such as the Leu-rich repeat receptors (LRRs).
Phases of plant immunity Other Avr proteins, called effectors, act to
 PAMP -triggered immunity (PTI): PAMP- modify host proteins and those modifications that
triggered immunity (PTI) constitutes the first are sensed by R proteins on the host plant side to
layer of plant immunity that restricts pathogen initiate effector-triggered immunity.
proliferation. It is canonically triggered through Zig-Zag Model for Evolution of the Plant Immune
the detection of non-self microbial signatures, System
which are called pathogen-associated molecular The interplay between the plant defense sys-
patterns (PAMPs). PTI signaling components tems and its suppression by pathogens has been
often are targeted by various Pseudomonas portrayed as a “zigzag model” by Jones and Dangl
syringae virulence effector proteins, resulting in (2006). According to the Zig‐Zag model, disease
diminished plant defenses and increased bacterial susceptibility is a consequence of the suppression of
virulence. host immunity during the evolutionary arms race
 Effector triggered susceptibility (ETS): between plants and pathogens.
Effector-triggered susceptibility (ETS) can occur Pathogen associated molecular pattern (PAMP)
if an effector protein is able to block the immune Pathogen-associated molecular patterns
response triggered by Pattern Recognition (PAMPs) are small molecular motifs conserved
Receptors (PRR) and evade immunity, allowing within a class of microbes, but not present in the host.
the pathogen to propagate in the host. PAMPs are conserved, indispensable molecules that
 Effector triggered immunity (ETI): ETI is are characteristic of a whole class of microbes and
elicited when an effector protein secreted by a therefore are difficult to mutate or delete. They are
pathogen into the host cell is successfully also referred to as microbe associated molecular
recognised by the host. The basis of the ETI patterns (MAMPs), as they are not restricted to patho

82
-genic microbes. They are recognized by tol-like- secreted by certain immune cells or severely stressed
receptors (TLRs) and other pattern recognition cells (e.g. certain cancer cells). While MAMPs are
receptors (PRRs) in both plants and animals. This derived from microorganisms and activate the innate
allows the innate immune system to recognize immune system, DAMPs are host cell derived and
pathogens and thus, protect the host from infection. both initiate and perpetuate innate immune
Upon PAMP recognition, primary defense responses responses. It is generally accepted that these defenses
are induced such as cell wall alterations, deposition help protect the damaged tissue, which is vulnerable
of callose and the accumulation of defense-related to infection due to the disruption of physical barriers
proteins including chitinases, glucanases and that would otherwise prevent microbial ingress. In
proteases, which all negatively affect colonization by mammals, inflammation is another component of the
potential pathogens. Several PAMPs have been innate immune response; it not only helps to prevent/
identified for plant pathogens, including flagellin, suppress infection, but also aids in healing. The
lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and elongation factor Tu mammalian DAMPs are derived from other tissues
(EF-Tu) from Gram-negative bacteria. Lipoteichoic activating intracellular cascades that lead to an
acid and Peptidoglycan (PGN) from gram positive inflammatory response. In Plants the 18 a tomato
bacteria as well as chitin and β glucans from fungi peptide systemin is an endogenous elicitor of plant
and oomycetes. defense. The systemin precursor prosystemin is a
Damage Associated Molecular Pattern (DAMPs) cytoplasmic protein and upon cell damage the
Damage-associated molecular patterns released systemin acts as a DAMP on surrounding
(DAMPs) are molecules within cells that are a cells.
component of the innate immune response released Pattern Recognition Receptor (PRR) in plant
from damaged or dying cells due to trauma or an innate imunity
infection by a pathogen. They are also known as Innate immunity system has evolved mecha-
danger signals, and alarmin because they serve as a nisms capable of recognizing repeating patterns
warning sign for the organism to alert it of any termed as Pattern Recognition Receptors (PRRs).
damage or infection to its cells. DAMPs are They are proteins capable of recognizing molecules
endogenous danger signals that are discharged to the frequently found in pathogens (the so-called
extracellular space in response to damage to the cell Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns-PAMPs),
from mechanical trauma or a pathogen. or molecules released by damaged cells (the
DAMPs are passively released from dying Damage-Associated Molecular Patterns-DAMPs).
cells due to damage, trauma, ischemia, or infection- Currently known plant PRRs are either RKs, which
induced necrosis. In addition, they can be actively have a ligand-binding ectodomain, a single-pass

83
transmembrane domain, and an intracellular kinase PAMP-triggered immunity (PTI). For a long time,
domain, or RLPs, which share the same overall part of the plant community was sceptical about the
structure but lack an intracellular kinase domain. In importance of PAMP perception in plants. Genetic
mammals, both surface-localized [e.g., Toll-like and biochemical studies have recently identified
receptors (TLRs)] and intracellular (e.g., NLRs) pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) involved in the
immune receptors have been shown to recognize perception of bacteria, fungi and oomycetes. Plant
PAMPs. This is in contrast to plants, which seems to PRRs are either surface-localized receptor kinases
rely on plasma membrane-localized RKs or RLPs (RKs) or receptor like proteins (RLPs) containing
only to perceive PAMPs or DAMPs various ligand-binding ectodomains that perceive
Conclusion pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) or
Multicellular organisms have evolved damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs).
systems/ mechanisms to detect various forms of References
danger, including attack by microbial pathogens and Newman, M. A., Sundelin, T., Nielsen, J. T. and
a variety of pests, as well as tissue and cellular Erbs, G. (2013). MAMP (microbe-associated
damage. Detection via cell-surface receptors molecular pattern) triggered immunity in
activates an ancient and evolutionarily conserved plants. Frontiers in Plant Science, 4: 139.
innate immune system. Potentially harmful micro- Choi, H. W. and Klessig, D. F. (2016). DAMPs,
organisms are recognized by the presence of MAMPs, and NAMPs in plant innate
molecules or parts of molecules that have structures immunity. BMC Plant Biology, 16: 1-10.
or chemical patterns unique to microbes and thus are Zipfel, C. (2008). Pattern-recognition receptors in
perceived as non-self/foreign. They are referred to as plant innate immunity. Current Opinion in
Microbe-Associated Molecular Patterns (MAMPs). Immunology, 20(1): 10-16.
In addition to pathogen attack, the relocation of De Wit, P. J. (2007). How plants recognize
various endogenous molecules or parts of molecules, pathogens and defend themselves. Cellular
generally to the extracellular milieu, as a result of and Molecular Life Sciences, 64: 2726-2732.
tissue or cellular damage is perceived as a danger
signal, and it leads to the induction of innate immune
responses. These relocated endogenous inducers are
called Damage-Associated Molecular Patterns
(DAMPs). Perception of pathogen-associated
molecular patterns (PAMPs) constitutes the first
layer of plant innate immunity and is referred to as

84
Microbes the Master Puppeteers from the Invisible Realm

Hans Austin, Sudharshan Keralapura Ramachandra, Snata Kaushik and Dnyaneshwar Madhukar
Firake
It is a grave accusation as a writer if I’d say happening between the brain and our gut bacteria
“We are every day murderers” who escapes the trial with the aid of the metabolites that can cross the
just because we wipe our precious mortal vessel after blood brain barrier. Constant blabbering one what we
each luscious bubble bath. We human beings are the would wind up eating today or thinking how well can
only organism who uses a magic wand called I punch my annoying friend to mental health
“SOAP” that washes away the germs (as we call conditions such as depression, anxiety, and even
them) revealing a pristine new beginning every day. autism spectrum disorders (Foster and McVey, 2013;
Well, I do take the sides of those who take bath Dinan and Cryan, 2017). We are not ourselves but
intermittently and those who don’t! Disappointed? mere puppets in the hands of unicellular organism
Bet you’ll change your perspective once you hit the whom we have underestimated. If this is our case
conclusion. imagine how the life of plants would be. As a
The ever-mysterious human body is teeming researcher who knows to address this curvy symbol
with the small microscopic prokaryotes in each nook “?” we need to ponder on how plants are affected by
and corners form head to toe and mouth to anus these entities from the microcosmos.
implying that we harbour more bacteria than human The primary producers forming the base of
cells. The study of Sender et al. (2016) re-evaluated the food chain, providing energy and nutrients to
the estimation of the number of bacterial cells in the next trophic level in the ecosystem can’t survive
human body and concluded that the ratio of bacterial without a hand form the bacteria or fungi.
cells to human cells is closer to 1:1.3, meaning that Influencing growth, defence, reproduction and
there are slightly more bacterial cells than human survival bacteria, both endophytic as well as
cells in the body. However, it's important to note that epiphytic has a humongous role in the life of plants.
the precise ratio may vary depending on factors such Recently researches are interested in the magic of
as individual differences, health status, and cutting down the lengthy process of breeding for
methodology used for estimation. Our understanding abiotic resistance in plants using endophytic
about the cryptic term “Microbiome” is in dire need microbes. The boon to continue the life process is not
to be reiterated. There exist a direct communication only contributed by the sacred scripture of the cell
Hans Austin, Sudharshan Keralapura Ramachandra and Snata Kaushik

85
but also conferred by the microbes. For a plant being natural microbiome plays a crucial role in the early
sterile is not an option to consider while growing out establishment of the seedling and their resistance to
of the lab. Right from phyllosphere to rihizosphere the soil borne diseases. When we go for seed
bacteria and fungi shows close association with the treatment with chemicals or non-specific endophytes
plants. Some beneficial bacteria can excite induced one can observe that the seeds in control plates tends
systemic response (ISR) in plants making them to perform well. This confused the researchers, even
shield against the enemy invaders to kill and steal the though the treatment were done with bioagents with
carbon currency. Through the volatile organic better growth promotion it was not reflected in the
compounds released by rhizobacteria predatory initial stages of growth. The natural microbiome is
insects comes in favour against the attacking pest be contributing as a key for the plants to unlock the
(Pineda et al., 2013; Battaglia et al., 2013). The treasure from the soil (Wagner et al., 2016). The exist
contributions of bacteria belonging to the genus a huge warfare in soil at the micro level or in nano
Bacillus, Rhizobium, Azosiprillum, Pseudomonas scale which is mind blowing if we could decipher.
and many more to the plant health and sustenance From the moment a seed puts down its foot, stands
does not escape our recognition. The vast and out of the soil and stretch its arms to the end where it
intricate network of the world is just a cob web becomes one with the soil as we all do, we as the
compared to the mycorrhizal network that sparks in puppets of the master puppeteer “The Microbe”. So,
the tropical and deciduous forests of the earth. It is what about insects? Imagine you lying on a plain
an arena of complex communication where the grassland with cool breeze kissing your cheeks with
human brain capabilities are stretched to a limit to the sweet fragrance of dandelions. A beer in you right
understand what the hell is happening beneath our and an apple on your left sharing a kiss form your
very own foot. The trees share sweets, tweets beloveds honey spread lips. My heart pounds loud.
messages, steal riches, warns about the enemy all All these beautiful moments will vanish if that tiny
thought the natural internet connecting the roots worthless (in our eyes) bee had not done its job.
forming the most complex web of the planet. Without pollinators half of our food sublimates in an
Bacteria associated with the common mycelia instant! Our eyes will be cursed to see the empty
network can move through the biofilm on the surface shelves and racks in a supermarket where our
of the roots between neighbouring trees providing all memories of picking an orange into the basket fades.
the services to the cellulose giants (Berendsen et al., These eusocial insects are quite knowledgeable and
2012; Venturi and Keel, 2016). A study by Klaedtke humble visiting thousand of flowers to make a drop
et al. (2016) talks about the ill effects of fungicide of honey. The nectar they collect passes to mouth to
seed treatments. The evidences scream that the mouth called trophallaxis attaining the bacteria that

86
matures into honey that we consume. But with our Refernces

deliberate act of saving our crop poisoned with Foster, J. A. and McVey Neufeld, K. A. (2013). Gut-
systemic insecticides and fungicides we kill the brain axis: how the microbiome influences
hands that feed us. Honeybees have core gut anxiety and depression. Trends in Neuro-
microbiome that vary within the species and the sciences, 36(5): 305-312.
colony. Plants sprayed by the insecticide do Dinan, T. G. and Cryan, J. F. (2017). Gut instincts:
contaminate the bees tampering the core gut microbiota as a key regulator of brain
microbiome that is critical for the defence behaviour development, ageing and neurodegeneration.
and function (Kakumanu et al., 2016; Motta et al., Journal of Physiology, 595(2): 489-503.
2018). Researchers have proved that those babies Pineda, A., Dicke, M., Pieterse, C. M. J. and Pozo,
who are born through normal delivery attains good M. J. (2013). Beneficial microbes in a
health than those form a C-section. Just because the changing environment: linking the ecological
baby emerges its way out form the sterile womb of and molecular functions of rhizosphere
the mother to the arms of a gynaecologist grabbing microbiota. Frontiers in Microbiology, 4:
all the microbes from the vaginal wall of the mother. 356.
The love of the mother and the warmth from the Battaglia, D., Bossi, S., Cascone, P., Digilio, M. C.,
father is not the only story that we see but a hidden Prieto, J. D., Fanti, P., Guerrieri, E., Iodice,
trade of bacteria and unicellular organism happening L., Lingua, G., Lorito, M., Maffei, M. E.,
between the mother father and the child. Massa, N., Ruocco, M., Sampaio, S. L.,
Haven’t you seen the perfume advertisements Sasso, R. and Pennacchio, F. (2013).
how women are been charmed by scent of men. The Recruitment of Cotesia plutellae
topic of humans producing pheromones are ongoing (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) Elicited by a
subject of research and debate. Mature men and Belowground Plant Pathogen and Its
menstruating women release a wide variety of Potential Use in Biological Control.
volatiles from their body and bacteria thriving on our Biological Control, 65(1): 61-69.
skin have profound influence on them. That’s the Berendsen, R. L., Pieterse, C. M. and Bakker, P. A.
reason why people smell or stinks different LOL. So, (2012). The rhizosphere microbiome and
if we are taking a bath regularly, we are responsible plant health. Trends in Plant Science, 17(8):
for the anhelation of our beneficial microbes with the 478-486.
potential to attract a mate. In the end nobody wants Venturi, V. and Keel, C. (2016). Signaling in the
to die single right. Think twice before you take a Rhizosphere. Trends in Plant Science, 21(3):
Bath. 187-198.

87
Klaedtke, S., Jacques, M. A., Raggi, L., Préveaux,

A., Bonneau, S., Negri, V., Chable, V. and
Barret, M. (2016). Terroir is a key driver of
seed-associated microbial assemblages.
Environmental Microbiology, 18(6): 1792-
1804.
Wagner, M. R., Lundberg, D. S., Tijana, G., Tringe,
S. G., Dangl, J. L. and Mitchell-Olds, T.
(2016). Host genotype and age shape the leaf
and root microbiomes of a wild perennial
plant. Nature Communications, 7: 12151.
Kakumanu, M. L., Reeves, A. M., Anderson, T. D.,
Rodrigues, R. R. and Williams, M. A. (2016).
Honey bee gut microbiome is altered by in-
hive pesticide exposures. Frontiers in
Microbiology, 7: 1255.
Motta, E. V. S., Raymann, K. and Moran, N. A.
(2018). Glyphosate perturbs the gut
microbiota of honey bees. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences, 115(41):
10305-10310.

88
Organic Amendments in Plant Disease Suppression

Sudharshan Keralapura Ramachandra, Snata Kaushik, Hans Austin and Dnyaneshwar Madhukar
Firake
An organic amendment is any material of rapidly at the infection site after a pathogen's attack,
plant or animal origin that can be added to the soil to effectively isolating the pathogen. Salicylic acid
improve its physical properties, including water (SA), a natural phenolic compound, is essential for
retention, permeability, water infiltration, drainage, the development of systemic acquired resistance
aeration, and structure. Organic amendments usually (SAR) in plants and plays a crucial role in the
come from natural sources, occurring naturally or as response to salinity stress. Plant growth-promoting
by-products of processing plants or waste disposal rhizobacteria (PGPR) can induce systemic defense in
plants. plants against various bacterial diseases, nematodes,
Biological Control with Organic Amendments pests, and fungal infections. Bacteria belonging to
The biological control of soil-borne patho- the fluorescent Pseudomonas group have been
gens using organic amendments and microbial reported to suppress several plant diseases. Among
antagonists is gaining popularity in crop protection these, P. aeruginosa, isolated from the rhizosphere,
systems due to the adverse effects of chemicals. rhizoplane, and as an endophyte, has been found to
Several antimicrobial by-products, such as organic reduce several soil-borne pathogens on multiple
acids, hydrogen sulfide, phenols, tannins, and crops. Besides direct suppression, P. aeruginosa also
nitrogenous compounds, are released during the induces systemic resistance in plants via the
decomposition of organic matter or synthesized by synthesis of salicylic acid (Audenaert et al., 2002).
microorganisms involved in such degradation. Importance of Organic Amendments
Phenolics are phytochemicals synthesized in plants  Supply of Organic Matter: Provides utilizable
in response to biotic or abiotic stresses. Neem and its energy and nutrients for soil organisms.
products have been widely reported to control insect  Improvement of Soil Structure and Porosity:
pests, plant parasitic nematodes, and plant fungal Enhances the physical properties of soil.
diseases, acting as potential agricultural fertilizers.  Increased Water-Holding Capacity: Helps in
Neem seed cake has also been reported to improve water retention.
the antioxidant status of plants (Rahman et al., 2016).  Improvement of Aeration: Ensures better oxygen
In resistant plant varieties, phenolics accumulate flow to plant roots.
Sudharshan Keralapura Ramachandra, Snata Kaushik and Hans Austin

89
 Reduction of Soil Temperature Fluctuations: screening amendments for appropriate chemistries,

Stabilizes the soil environment. improving storage conditions, and optimizing the
 Storage of Nutrients in Exchangeable Form: timing and mode of application.
Provides essential nutrients.  Supply Nutrients to Plants
 Provision of Nutrients: Supplies necessary  Direct Antimicrobial Action of Toxins Released
elements for plant growth.  Enhance the Activities of Antagonistic Microbes
Soil Amendment Sources  Increased Competition Against Pathogens for
On-Farm Sources: Bedding material, compost, crop Resources
residue, manure, contaminated runoff, silage juice,  Soil Physio-Chemical Manipulation in Favor of
spoiled feed, wash water, spent soilless media, and Antagonist Microbes
spent nutrient solution.  Induction of Systemic Resistance in Host Plants
Off-Farm Sources: Purchased conditioners such as  Temporary Accumulation of Ammonia or
lime, soilless media constituents like perlite, manure Nitrous Acid
from other farms, compost, wood waste, and non- Examples of Organic Amendments Controlling
agricultural wastes such as municipal bio-solids. Plant Diseases
Mode of Action of Organic Amendments Manures and by-products from processing
The modes of action of organic amendments plants and animals have been used for centuries as
vary depending on the type and amount used and the fertilizer sources. Certain organic amendments have
soil characteristics. They may kill microsclerotia of been found to control various soil-borne diseases,
Verticillium dahliae through ammonia, nitrous acid, pests, and weeds. For example, high nitrogen-
and/or volatile fatty acid toxicity, or reduce containing amendments generate ammonia and/or
microsclerotia survival or disease through unknown nitrous acid following degradation by micro-
mechanisms, possibly by stimulating biological organisms, reaching concentrations lethal to
control. The most important factor affecting disease pathogens. Liquid swine manure reduced scab and
control efficacy is soil pH, as the toxic products wilt in acidic soils, but not in neutral or alkaline soils,
responsible for killing pathogens exist only when the due to the presence of volatile fatty acids.
soil pH is below 6 or above 8. Understanding these Ammonium lignosulfonate reduced scab at multiple
modes of action allows for the formulation of sites, although the mechanism is not yet known.
amendments to improve efficacy and reduce  Swine Manure: Reduces incidences of
variability. This includes basing application rates on Verticillium wilt, common scab of potato, and
soil properties, manipulating amendment or soil pH, nematodes (Conn and Lazarovits, 1999).
altering nitrification rates and organic matter content,  Straw and Chitin: Reduce clubroot symptoms

90
(Ludwig-Müller, 2016). Conn, K. L. and Lazarovits, G. (1999). Impact of

 Isothiocyanate: Produced during bio-fumigation animal manures on verticillium wilt, potato
of crucifers, helps in controlling soil-borne fungi. scab and soil microbial populations. Canad-
Brassica root exudates have demonstrated ian Journal of Plant Pathology, 21(1): 81-92.
potential for managing Globodera spp. (potato Kumar, S., Meshram, S. and Sinha, A. (2017).
cyst nematodes), showcasing the effectiveness of Bacterial diseases in rice and their eco-
GSL-containing plants in pest control (Sihag et friendly management. International Journal
al., 2022). of Agriccultural Sciences Research, 7: 31-42.
 Tannins and Phenolic Compounds: Released Ludwig-Müller, J. (2016). Belowground defence
from marigold, sunhemp, and jute, may be toxic strategies against clubroot (Plasmodiophora
to plant pathogens (Moosavi, 2022). brassicae). Belowground Defence Strategies
 Bacteriophages in Fresh Cow Dung: Effective in in Plants, 195-219.
controlling bacterial leaf blight (BLB) (Kumar et Moosavi, M. R. (2022). Potential of soil amendment
al., 2017). with organic matters in controlling phyto-
 Oil Cakes of Mustard, Mahua, and Castor: nematodes. In New and future developments
Effective against fungal pathogens such as in microbial biotechnology and
Fusarium oxysporum, Macrophomina, and bioengineering (pp. 315-344). Elsevier.
Rhizoctonia solani. Rahman, A., Sultana, V., Ara, J. and Ehteshamul-
Understanding the mode of action of organic Haque, S. (2016). Induction of systemic
amendments is crucial for improving their resistance in cotton by the neem cake and
effectiveness and integrating them into crop Pseudomonas aeruginosa under salinity
production systems. If costs can be decreased and stress and Macrophomina phaseolina
benefits ensured, organic amendments will play a infection. Pakistan Journal of Botany, 48(4):
major role in reducing plant diseases. 1681-1689.
References Sihag, M., Kumar, V., Rana, M., Srivastava, S. and
Audenaert, K., Pattery, T., Cornelis, P. and Höfte, M. Singh, S. (2022). Biofumigation: Prospects
(2002). Induction of systemic resistance to for control of soil borne plant diseases.
Botrytis cinerea in tomato by Pseudomonas Journal of Biopesticides, 15(2): 136-149.
aeruginosa 7NSK2: role of salicylic acid,
pyochelin, and pyocyanin. Molecular Plant-
Microbe Interactions, 15(11): 1147-1156.

91
Regulations of Flowering in Fruit Crop for Higher Yield and Quality

Production
Parvathaneni Phanindra, Muchumarri Vinay, Siripurapu Sumanth Paul and Amit Kotiyal
Abstract
India stands in second position of fruits in the world after china. Rich diversity of fruit from
tropical, subtropical to temperate regions is found in India. Many fruits like Guava, pomegranate,
lime, lemon, mandarin, fig etc., produce two- or three-times fruit with variable quantities and
qualities, if left without any treatment. There are three distinct flowering seasons i.e. February-March
(Ambe Bahar), June-July (Mrig Bahar) and October- November (Hastha Bahar) with the
corresponding harvest period during the rainy, winter and spring season, respectively. A good
quality fruit can be obtained by regulating the crop in such a way that they could produce only one
crop instead of two or three in a year. Plants can be forced to produce only one crop with good
quality and quantity. The main objective of flowering regulation is to force the plants to take rest
and produce profuse flowering and fruits during any one of the two or three flushes. It can be
achieved with help of various treatments like withholding irrigation, root exposure to sun, root and
shoot pruning, thinning, girdling, bending, spray of chemical and other plant growth regulators. The
selection of bahar at a location is mainly determined by prevailing production constraints like
availability of the irrigation water, quality production, and occurrence and extent of the damage
caused by disease and pests and several market factors. The planning of crop regulation is about
identifying, selecting, implementing and monitoring the methods to control the yield and quality
production of horticultural crops.
Introduction (2010) reported in Hastha bahar flowering (Sept. and

Many of the fruit crops flower throughout the October) of Acid lime, two sprays of cycocel 1000
year without any rest and produce two or three crops ppm at an interval of one month before initiation
(Bahar) in a year but yield and quality is not so good of flowering in August and September resulted in
in all crop harvests. It is much needed to understand maximum yield in terms of number of fruits per tree
the flowering and fruiting mechanism of the crops and weight of fruits per tree and this treatment also
and which bahar will give good quality production. improved the fruit quality with respect to juice %,
Acid lime blooms round the year but the main TSS, acidity, ascorbic acid and peel %. Similarly,
blooming period is February - March. Mahalle et al. guava also produces varying amounts of fruits throu-
Parvathaneni Phanindra, Muchumarri Vinay and Siripurapu Sumanth Paul

Department of Horticulture, School of Agriculture, LPU, Jalandhar, Punjab
Amit Kotiyal
Department of Agricultural Chemistry, School of Agriculture, LPU, Jalandhar, Punjab

92
ghout the year. Guava blooms thrice in a year: Ambe is helpful to avoid this crop by applying various
bahar, Mrig bahar and Hastha bahar. The main crop treatments. Pomegranate should grow with good
ripens from July to mid-October (rainy season) in growth and development up to the first two years and
north Indian condition. A small distinct crop is bahar treatment should be applied from third year
produced from November to mid-February (winter onwards to take better quality production. The
season) whereas two flowering seasons have been availability of water is a major concern in taking
reported in the climatic condition of Assam (Lal et bahar. If water is not sufficient, ambe bahar is
al., 2013). In Bhopal condition, guava blooms round avoided and mrig bahar is preferred and few farmers
the year. Though the quantity of production is high prefer hastha bahar with limited availability of water.
in the rainy season (Singh et al., 2000) it offers poor Hastha bahar fruits have very attractive rind with
quality due to heavy water with insipid taste and dark colour of aril and fruits fetch high price in the
infestation of many pests in comparison to winter market and infestation of the most dangerous
season crops. However, infestation of fruit flies can bacterial blight disease is also low in this bahar.
be seen in all bahar season crops in unscientific Stress cannot be given during this period as
orchards. On the contrary, in winter season quality withholding of irrigation coincides with the rainy
fruits are produced and fetch high monetary returns season and this leads to poor flowering and thus
(Singh et al., 2000). There is a distinct difference in affects the yield. Ambe bahar fruits are ready to
quality of the fruits produced in different seasons and harvest during the hot summer season (June). In this
winter is considered to be more favourable for bahar, fruits are badly affected with sun scald and
quality guava production (Lal and Das, 2017). fruit cracking due to higher temperature (38 ℃) and
Though rainy season crops give higher yield but the low humidity (<60%). Mrig bahar is preferred where
infestation of fruit flies is more and fruits have poor water scarcity is there and colour and sweetness of
quality and low nutritive content. It is advised to take the fruit are affected due to low temperature and
only a single winter crop in one year to get a highly rainfall during fruit growth and development.
economical crop of the best quality fruits. Similarly, Several methods have been tried to induce
pomegranate also blooms continuously throughout new vegetative growth during the rainy season so that
the year under tropical climate. It has three main bumper crop is obtained in subsequent winter
flowering seasons or bahars, ambe bahar (spring seasons (Lal et al., 2017). Coordination of the
season flowering), mrig bahar (June-July flowering) fruiting cycle can help in maintaining fruit supplies
and hastha bahar (October- November flowering). It during most months (Shatat, 1993). The harvesting of
produces flowers irregularly from February-October guava fruit can be deviated with prevailing weather
in the arid and semi-arid condition. Crop regulation conditions and cultural practices (Singh et al., 1997),

93
fertilization, defoliation and pruning (Jayswal et al., depending on climatic factors, cropping pattern,
2017) can be used to stimulate new growth and cultivar etc. Profuse new flushes in summer results
influence fruiting in guava. Pruning increases yield, in more flowering that lead to more fruit production
fruit size and quality of guava. The unrestricted in the rainy season and duration of fruit harvesting is
growth results in more vegetative growth than the reduced to 30 days in this season due to high
reproductive growth which affects productivity. temperature and rainfall and it causes glut in the
Regulated crops are desired to avoid the glut in market results in poor price. Winter season crop is
the market and ensure the regular supply of fruits. superior in quality which fetches higher prices than
Need of Crop Regulation rainy season crop but rainy season crops are badly
Several fruit crops flower two or three affected with fruit flies which deteriorate its yield
times in a year that do not produce good yield and and quality, and fruits become unfit for human
quality fruit in all seasons. The yield and quality consumption. Therefore, only the winter season crop
depend on the flowering season/bahar. For example, should be taken to get quality production and the
the rainy season crop of guava is poor in quality and rainy season crop should be totally avoided. Water
the crop is affected by many biotic and abiotic availability is a big issue in Maharashtra, Rajasthan
stresses as compared to winter season crop. Winter and Gujarat during summer season for pomegranate
season crops (mrig bahar) in which flowering starts grower. They always avoid taking ambe bahar crop
during June-July and fruits ripen during October- and regulating this crop into mrig bahar with the
January are superior in quality, free from diseases onset of monsoon and crop is harvested during winter
and pests that fetch higher prices in the market. This and some farmers prefer hastha bahar with less
requires regulation of flowering (from ambe bahar to availability of water and get high price in the market
mrig bahar) to obtain the most profitable crop by due to export quality production.
several methods. In ambe bahar, flowering starts Principle of Crop Regulation
during March-April and during these hot months, The basic principle of crop regulation is to
heavy new flushes come out and flowering takes in manipulate the natural flowering of the guava plant
new flushes in guava results in heavy fruiting. Fruits in desired season that contributes to increased fruit
are ready for harvesting during the rainy season yield, quality and profitability. This concept is based
(June-July) which is poor in quality and affected on the fact that most of the crops’ flowers are borne
with fruit fly. Therefore, ambe bahar needs to be only on new, succulent, vigorously emerging
regulated in mrig bahar to get good quality vegetative growths. These new growth flushes can
production in winter season. In different regions be either on new emergences of lateral bud on older
various methods of crop regulations are followed stems or extensions of already established terminals

94
of various size and vigour. Bons, H. K. and Kaur, M. (2020). Role of plant
Objectives of Crop Regulation growth regulators in improving fruit set,
 The main objective of crop regulation is to force quality and yield of fruit crops: a review. The
the tree to take rest and produce good flowering Journal of Horticultural Science and
and fruiting during any one of the two or three Biotechnology, 95(2): 137-146.
flushes.
 To regulate a uniform and good quality of fruits
and to maximize the production as well as profit
to the grower.
 To reduce cost of cultivation because
uninterrupted continuous blossoms would
produce light crops over the whole year and
require a high cost for the monitoring and
marketing.
Conclusion
Crop regulation is very much effective
practice for obtaining higher fruit production with
quality. It helps to get high profit from fruit crops.
Crops can be regulated and many production
problems like water scarcity, sun scald, fruit
cracking, infestation of pests and disease etc. can be
avoided. Crops can be taken as per market demand.
References
Lal, N., Sahu, N., Marboh, E. S., Gupta, A. K and
Patel, R. K. (2017). A review on crop
regulation in fruit crops. International
Journal of Current Microbiology and
Applied Sciences, 6(7): 4032-4043.

95
Canopy Management in Fruit Crops for Maximizing Productivity

Nishant Nayak and Abdul Samad
Abstract
Canopy management plays a pivotal role in viticulture, influencing grapevine growth, fruit
quality, and overall vineyard productivity. This abstract examines various aspects of canopy
management, including pruning techniques, trellising systems, and vine training methods, with a focus
on optimizing grapevine health and fruit development. By carefully manipulating canopy architecture,
growers can regulate sunlight exposure, air circulation, and cluster microclimate, leading to enhanced
grape ripening, flavor intensity, and disease resistance. Additionally, canopy management practices
contribute to sustainable vineyard management by reducing pesticide usage, improving resource
efficiency, and promoting long-term vine vitality. This abstract highlights the importance of tailored
canopy management strategies tailored to specific grape varieties, terroir conditions, and vineyard
objectives, ultimately empowering growers to achieve their desired wine quality and production goals.
Introduction nce the accumulation of sugars and flavor

Canopy management in viticulture is a compounds in the grapes.
critical practice that involves the manipulation of Improved Air Circulation: A well-managed
grapevine foliage to optimize fruit quality and yield. canopy promotes better air circulation within the
By strategically pruning, training, and positioning grapevine canopy, reducing the risk of fungal
vine canopies, growers can influence factors such as diseases such as powdery mildew and botrytis.
sunlight exposure, air circulation, and disease Adequate airflow helps to minimize humidity levels
susceptibility. This article explores the various and prevents the formation of microclimates
benefits of canopy management techniques in conducive to disease development. This reduces the
vineyard management. need for chemical fungicides and fosters a more
Enhanced Sunlight Exposure: Proper canopy sustainable approach to vineyard management.
management allows for optimal sunlight penetration Management of Pests and Pesticide Usage: An
into the grape clusters, which is essential for open, well-managed canopy facilitates the monitor-
photosynthesis and fruit ripening. By ensuring ing and control of pests such as grapevine moth and
adequate exposure to sunlight, growers can promote leafhoppers. By promoting a drier and less sheltered
even ripening, improve color development and enha- environment, canopy management reduces the habit-
Nishant Nayak
Department of Horticulture (Fruit Science), SHUATS, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh
Abdul Samad
Teaching Associate, Department of Horticulture, SHUATS, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh

96
at for insect pests and minimizes the need for and increased fruit production, but it can also result
chemical pesticides. Integrated pest management in weaker, more congested growth if overdone.
(IPM) strategies can be more effectively Renewal: Renewal pruning involves removing
implemented in vineyards with optimized canopy older, less productive branches to encourage the
structures. growth of new, vigorous shoots. This rejuvenates the
Adaptation to Climatic Challenges: Canopy mana- tree and promotes more vigorous growth and higher
gement practices can also help vineyards adapt to yields in subsequent seasons.
climatic challenges such as excessive heat, drought, Training: Training pruning aims to shape the tree's
or rainfall. By adjusting canopy density and leaf growth pattern to a desired form, such as an open
exposure, growers can mitigate heat stress on the center or central leader. This helps optimize light
grapes, conserve soil moisture, and reduce the risk of exposure and fruit distribution, leading to better fruit
fruit rot during wet periods. This flexibility is quality and easier harvest.
particularly valuable in regions experiencing Shoot thinning: Removing excess shoots helps
unpredictable weather patterns due to climate improve airflow and light penetration within the
change. canopy, reducing disease pressure and promoting
Techniques for canopy management even ripening.
Canopy management is crucial for Leaf removal: Strategic leaf removal around fruit
optimizing grapevine growth and fruit development clusters can improve sunlight exposure, airflow, and
in viticulture. Some techniques include: grape ripening.
Pruning: Regular pruning helps control vine size Hedging: Trimming or hedging the canopy edges
and shape, balancing vegetative growth and fruit controls vine size and shape, while also promoting
production. There are several types of pruning airflow and reducing disease risk.
techniques, each with its own influence on tree Canopy topping: Trimming the top of the canopy
growth and cropping: regulates vine height and reduces shading of lower
Thinning: Thinning involves selectively removing grape clusters. Each technique should be tailored to
branches throughout the canopy to improve light the vineyard's specific goals, grape variety, and
penetration and air circulation. This promotes even environmental conditions.
fruit ripening and can increase fruit size and quality Effect of Pruning on Yield
by reducing competition among branches. Pruning can have both positive and negative
Heading: Heading cuts involve removing a portion effects on yield, depending on various factors such
of a branch, typically at the tip or terminal bud. This as the type of plant, timing, and technique of pruning.
stimulates branching and can lead to denser foliage Generally:

97
Positive Effects: Pruning can increase yield by technique used in plant propagation, especially with
promoting better air circulation and light penetration, seeds that have hard seed coats or woody stems that
which can lead to healthier plants and improved are difficult to propagate by traditional means. By
fruiting. It can also stimulate new growth and creating small wounds, scoring promotes the uptake
encourage the development of larger, higher-quality of water and nutrients, aiding in the growth of new
fruits. roots or shoots. “Girdling” in plants refers to the
Negative Effects: However, excessive pruning or removal or destruction of a strip of bark around the
improper timing can reduce yield by removing too circumference of a tree or shrub. This process
many productive branches or buds, delaying interrupts the flow of nutrients and water between the
flowering, or exposing the plant to stress or diseases. roots and the rest of the plant, ultimately leading to
Training its death. Girdling can occur naturally through
Training in plants typically refers to animal damage or be intentionally done for various
techniques used to guide their growth, shape, and purposes, such as in forestry to kill unwanted trees or
development for specific purposes, such as maxi- in horticulture to control the size of plants.
mizing yield, improving aesthetics, or managing Notching: Notching in plants refers to the practice of
space. Some common training methods include making small, shallow cuts or indentations in the
pruning, trellising, staking, and espalier. These stem or branches. This technique is often used in
techniques help optimize light exposure, airflow, and horticulture for various purposes, such as promoting
nutrient distribution, leading to healthier and more root growth, encouraging branching, or facilitating
productive plants. the propagation of certain plants. By disrupting the
Methods of training flow of nutrients and hormones in the plant, notching
There are numerous training methods, can stimulate new growth or alter the plant's growth
ranging from traditional approaches like lectures and pattern.
workshops to more modern methods like e-learning, Training systems
simulations, and gamification. Each method has its Training systems in horticulture and agricul-
strengths and weaknesses, and the best approach ture refer to the methods used to manage the growth
depends on factors like the subject matter, audience, and development of plants, particularly in vineyards
and learning objectives. Some of them are as follows: and orchards. Here are some common training
Scoring & Girdling: “Scoring” in plants typically systems in detail:
refers to the process of making shallow cuts or Vertical Shoot Positioning (VSP): VSP is
scratches on the surface of seeds or stems to commonly used in vineyards, especially for
encourage rooting or germination. It's a common grapevines. It involves training the shoots of the vine

98
to grow vertically by positioning them between wires detailed breakdown of their role:
or stakes. This system helps optimize sunlight Controlling Plant Height: PGRs inhibit the
exposure, airflow and canopy management, resulting production or activity of gibberellins, a group of
in improved grape quality and ease of vineyard hormones responsible for stem elongation. By doing
maintenance. so, they effectively reduce internode elongation and
Espalier: Espalier is a technique used mainly for overall plant height. This is particularly useful in
fruit trees, such as apple and pear trees, as well as crops prone to excessive elongation, such as wheat,
ornamental plants. It involves training the branches barley, and ornamental plants, allowing for more
of the tree to grow flat against a wall, fence, or trellis compact and manageable growth.
in a specific pattern, often creating decorative or Improving Lodging Resistance: Lodging, or the
space-saving designs. Espalier helps maximize fruit bending or breaking of stems due to wind or rain, can
production in limited space, improves sunlight significantly reduce crop yields by interfering with
exposure, and makes it easier to manage and harvest nutrient uptake and photosynthesis. PGRs help
the fruit. strengthen stems by promoting lignification and
Open Tatura Trellis System (OTT): OTT is increasing stem diameter, thereby enhancing lodging
commonly used for orchard crops like peaches, resistance and ensuring better standing crops.
nectarines, and apricots. It involves training the trees Enhancing Canopy Structure: PGRs promote
to grow on a trellis with open, V-shaped canopies, more uniform and compact growth within the canopy
allowing for better sunlight penetration and air by limiting the elongation of upper shoots while
circulation. OTT promotes early fruiting, high yields, encouraging lateral branching. This leads to a more
and ease of harvest and maintenance. These are just even distribution of light and nutrients throughout
a few examples of training systems used in the canopy, improving photosynthetic efficiency and
horticulture and agriculture to optimize plant growth, maximizing yield potential.
yield, and management. Each system has its Facilitating Harvesting: In crops harvested
advantages and suitability depending on factors like mechanically, such as cereals and oilseed crops,
plant species, climate, soil conditions, and desired uniform canopy height and structure are essential for
outcomes. efficient harvesting operations. PGRs help
Role of PGR's in canopy management synchronize plant development, resulting in more
Plant growth retardants (PGRs) play a crucial consistent crop height and maturity, which simplifies
role in canopy management by controlling the and accelerates the harvesting process.
vertical growth of plants, optimizing their structure, Reducing Input Costs: By controlling excessive
and improving their overall productivity. Here's a vegetative growth, PGRs can reduce the need for

99
additional inputs such as fertilizers and water. Albarracin, V., Hall, A. J., Searles, P. S. and
Moreover, they can help optimize the use of limited Rousseaux, M. C. (2017). Response of
resources by ensuring that resources are allocated vegetative growth and fruit yield to winter
more efficiently towards reproductive structures, and summer mechanica pruning in olive
ultimately improving yield and resource-use trees. Scientia Horticulturae, 225: 185-194.
efficiency. Albuquerque, T. C. S., De Dechen, A. R., Camargo,
Overall, the strategic use of PGRs in canopy E. C. and De, P. R. (2000). Growth retardants
management offers numerous benefits, including and nutritional characteristics on the grape
improved lodging resistance, enhanced resource-use cultivar ‘Thompson seedless’ and ‘Italia’.
efficiency, and better crop quality, ultimately Scientia Agricola, 57(11): 45-53.
contributing to higher yields and more sustainable Arsov, T., Kiprijananovski, M. and Gjamonski, V.
agricultural practices. (2013). The effect of different training
Conclusion system on yield and fruit quality of
In conclusion, canopy management is a ‘Jonagold’ apple variety. Acta Horticulturae,
fundamental aspect of vineyard management with 981: 243-245.
numerous benefits for grape quality, yield, and Autio, W. R. and Greene, D. W. (1992). Ringing and
sustainability. By employing techniques to optimize scoring to control growth of apple trees.
sunlight exposure, air circulation, vine growth, and Massachusetts Cooperative Extension
pest control, growers can produce grapes of superior Service Fruit Notes, 57(3): 1-5.
quality while minimizing environmental impact. As
viticulture continues to evolve, the importance of
canopy management as a tool for maximizing
grapevine performance becomes increasingly
evident.
References
Abd-El-Rahman, N. M. (2002). Studies on
morphological and physiological factors
affecting maturity and storage of pears. Ph.D.
Thesis, Horticulture Department of
Pomology. Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo,
University.

100
Basic Concepts of Starting Beekeeping

Suresh Kumar Jat, Lekha and Sunita Yadav
Insects are dominant organism on this earth land without permission and those landowners
and in general insects are considered harmful to welcome them. It is a win-win situation for the bee
human beings, but hardly one per cent of insect and for everyone else. Your bees are happy carrying
species fall in the pest category. Benefits of insects out their work; you can enjoy your hobby or
in maintaining economy outweigh the injury business, and if you want to you can make a profit;
inflicted. Honey bees are one of the few insects that the farmers get their crops pollinated and so they
directly beneficial to man. More than the producers make a profit; the shops obtain food to sell and they
of hive products; honey bees play an important role make a profit; the general public have food to eat;
in pollination. With the introduction of Apis and the government is happy that its agricultural and
mellifera, a highly productive species, the people in environmental sectors are running smoothly and that
India, especially in Northern plains, have appreciated somewhere along the line they will be able to raise
the importance of beekeeping on commercial lines. some tax.
Bee keeping: Profiting from a Gold Mine Who can adopt beekeeping?
If you look at fields full of flowering crops or Beekeepers vary from those who aspire to be
wild flowers in the countryside, or at garden and park hobbyists, who simply enjoy a fascinating pastime;
flowers in the cities, you are not only looking at to jobbing beekeepers, moving from hemisphere to
beauty but also at gold thousands of tons of valuable hemisphere; managers of their own beekeeping
honey. Liquid gold sitting there, all for you! If you businesses; or researchers, undertaking cutting-edge
don’t go and get it, the flowers will die at the end of work into bee flight in space, for example. All this is
the season and all those tons of honey will go to possible if you are prepared to regard beekeeping not
waste. All that money will simply have dried up in as a quaint, rustic pastime pursued by old, white-
front of your eyes. If, on the other hand, you have haired gentlemen with pipes or by dotty old dears in
bees, they will go and get it for you for free, and you horn-rimmed glasses but as a vital, multi-billion
can then either eat it or sell it or both. Bees are money of global industry that can offer you the world
probably the only livestock that use other people’s if you are prepared to commit yourself to it.
Suresh Kumar Jat

Assistant Professor, College of Horticulture and Forestry, Jhalrapatan, Jhalawar, Rajasthan
Lekha
Associate Professor, ARSS, Sumerpur, Agriculture University, Jodhpur, Rajasthan
Sunita Yadav
Research Scholar, College of Horticulture and Forestry, Jhalrapatan, Jhalawar, Rajasthan

101
Beekeeping is a venture that requires very spell out the relationship between beekeeping and the
small pieces of land unlike farming of other crops. beekeeper in terms of the role honey bees play and
You do not have to be financially sound in order to services they provide for the benefit of mankind. A
be a successful beekeeper. You also don’t need to be beginner must acquire the critical knowledge and
an expert as may be expected of you in other practical skill by undergoing bee keeping training
agricultural sectors. Bee farming does not require a from recognized institution to keep them abreast with
lot of labour. One can be a beekeeper and be a farmer latest technology. The ideal plan for a beginner is to
producing other crops at the same time. Among other attend the prescribed training course and then to spend
things, beekeeping has been found to be one of the the subsequent year with some commercial apiarist.
most environments friendly. Why? It is because it He will be able to imbibe and understand clearly what
promotes the planting and maintenance of trees. he has learnt in the training course so that he is able to
In beekeeping carpenters, builders, tailors, recognize beekeeping problems that encountered in
blacksmiths and pollination are promoted. Carpent- the field and their practical solution and evaluate the
ers make hives, builders construct bee houses. adopted technologies. The beekeeper should continue
Tailors make veils and bee suits while blacksmith browsing the books and periodicals of beekeeping to
and potters make hive tools and clay hives keep him updated with the latest in the subject/
respectively. Thus, beekeeping enterprise is suitable technology with putting it into practice in the apiary
for people from all walks of life as a hobby, are highly desirable. The beekeepers are also advised
subsidiary occupation for supplementing income or to become the member of beekeeping organizations
as a whole time job for self employment. It is which meet periodically to discuss various problems
particularly suitable for under employed/ associated with bees, marketing of bee-products and
unemployed youth residing in or near rural areas. various other aspects of beekeeping. Such meetings
After investing once on honey bee, hives and other are generally well attended and highly valuable for
equipment (non recurring expenditure), regular/ exchange of information with beekeeping fraternity
annual (recurring) expenditure is very negligible and specialists of various institutions.
which can even be further reduced with better Beekeeping equipment: The essential bee
management practices. One can maintain about 50- equipment and tools of standard quality must be
100 honey bee colonies and can earn quite a arranged well before starting of beekeeping. The
handsome income between Rs. 45,000 to 2,00,000 other beekeeping equipment as and when required
per annum. from time to time should also be arranged with the
Important considerations for starting beekeeping advancement of apiary.
Beekeeping training: The Training is to clearly Suitable locality and bee flora: Determining where

102
to locate a hive is often obvious because of to bad weather and poor forage.
limitations, but in other situations, many options may  Build-up: There are many bee forage plants and
be possible. As in all things, it is best to look at the weather is favourable the colony expands.
potential sites from the bees’ point of view. If bees  Honey flow: Many plants provide nectar and
kept in all sorts of areas over winter or summer pollen at the same time
periods, and some of appalling places, while bees are  Harvesting seasons: Most plants have stopped
hardy creatures that can survive most things, if you flowering and honey is ready for harvesting.
expect them to thrive in such areas and to provide Bees visit flowers and extra- floral nectarines
you with honey, you will be disappointed. That is of about 500 flowering plants and trees to collect
why, a locality where a series of bee forage crops/ pollen and nectar for food. Some of the commonly
plants, one after the other, are available throughout visited plants by bees in India for collecting nectar
the year, has great potential for starting beekeeping. from the flowers are as under:
Your aim, therefore, is to ensure you have the  Vegetables: Okra, Cucumber, brinjal, tomato,
maximum number of bees available to take bottle gourd, spinach, cauliflower, turnip, sweet
advantage of any honey flow the flora in your area gourd, onion, radish
can provide. The apiary site should be rich in bee  Field crops: Mustard or toria, sunflower, cotton,
flora which may provide forage for most parts of the jute, pulse, wheat, gram
year and in addition there should be good density of  Fruit plants: Litchi, apple, guava, jamun, imli,
honey flow sources near the apiary site. For papaya, karonda, ber, jackfruit, pomegranate,
collecting 20 kg of honey, one colony needs 100 lemon, bel, mango, banana, papaya, drum stick,
blooming trees or 2-4 acres of blooming crop. Floral citrus, pear, apricot, malta, mausami, orange
calender may be prepared of local flora in order to  Ornamental plants: Marigold, rose, cosmos
manipulating the colony to be at the peak strength at  Trees: Eucalyptus, acacia, albizia, calliandra,
the right time is fundamental to good beekeeping. gemelina, prosopis, babool, neem, arjun, palm,
Good flying conditions (dry weather) for the bees are sandal wood, dhak, bottle brush, amaltas
also important during the nectar flow to get  Herbs and spices: Tulsi, coriander
maximum yields. Therefore all management  Plantation crops: Rubber, coconut, cashew nut,
practices are related to the bee colony cycle and coffee
understanding which stage the colony is in. Intensive vegetable and cotton growing areas
There are four seasons during a cycle and can also be exploited for beekeeping, provided that
these may occur more than once in a year: the management practices for minimizing the
 Dearth: Not much nectar is being collected due pesticide hazards to bees are adopted and/or honey

103
bee colonies are migrated to other areas during the water should be available in the apiary or nearby
insecticidal spraying season to avoid the losses apiaries. Dense foliage cover can make hives too wet
caused to bee colonies. Normally one should have to and cold; however some shade in the afternoon helps
avoid such areas for beekeeping. the bees to work less to cool the hive or even dying
Suitable site: You must carefully select the area from heat exhaustion or collapsing honey combs.
where you can locate your hives for easy and regular Hence, avoid placing hives under dense foliage.
supervision. There are several factors you should Enclose the apiary with a barrier of some sort, such
consider while selecting a site to place beehives. as a hedge or fence to force the bees to fly in above
Knowing the area, the plants that bees like and when head height. Avoid establishment of apiaries in poor
they flower and for how long. Apiary should be drainage areas and heavy pesticide use areas. Keep
located in areas of sufficient sources of nectar and the area around the hives clear of tall weeds or grass.
pollen yielding plants. Bees usually forage within a Cut grass and weeds don’t use spray of any kind. The
2-3 km radius of their hives, so make sure there are distance between two hives should be at least 1.5-2.0
food sources within that radius. The site should be meters. If hives are placed too closed into an apiary
dry without dampness. High relative humidity will the bee colonies compete with each other. Facing the
affect bee flight and ripening of nectar. An easy hive entrance to the East is the best way to get the
access to an apiary site throughout the year, with a most work out of bees as they usually fly from
hard path down to the apiary is prerequisite. Apiary morning until early afternoon. If the bees see the sun
should be established away from roads and other early, they will start work earlier.
busy places. A flat site is easier to place hives. Apiary Season for starting beekeeping: Beekeeping may
should not be located in animal grazing areas because be started any time of the year. But Suitable season
beehives may be toppled. The site should receive sun for starting beekeeping should synchronize with mild
rays in morning and evenings and shade during climatic conditions and availability of bee flora in
hottest part of the day. As in northern plains of India plenty so that a good income of nectar and pollen is
summer temperature rises upto 46°C, shade become available to honey bees. Normally, spring (February-
very important for honey bee colonies during March) and post-monsoon (September-November)
summer months. Therefore, suitable plantation seasons are the best periods to start beekeeping in
should be planned well in advance at the stationary different localities.
apiary site. The site should be sheltered from wind, Purchase of nucleus honey bee colonies: There are
so that foragers don’t struggle to land at the hive several different ways of getting started in
entrance and the roof stays on. A hedge provides beekeeping: buying package bees; purchasing a
good cover against the wind. Clean fresh running nucleus (nuc) colony; buying established colonies. It

104
is recommended to novices to start with either a the nearby sources is that the seller beekeeper may
package(s) or nucleus colony (ies). However, you prove helpful in solving the initial problems and
should be careful when purchasing nucs (and timely consultation. The beginner is advised to make
established colonies) because you might be buying an agreement with the seller at least for one year for
other beekeepers’ problems such as disease or non- his expert help and guidance as and when needed.
standard equipment. For starting the bee-keeping, It is easier to buy/obtain your bees in the
nucleus colonies should be purchased in the spring. This is because you will then be able to see
beginning of the suitable season. A nucleus colony how the bees develop in their own year, from being
on four or five frame bee strength with a young, a small colony or nucleus, to growing rapidly, to
newly mated and high pedigree queen bee is ideal to swarming, to building up their honey stores and,
be purchased. A purchased colony should have finally, to slowing down for the winter. At the start
sufficient amount of rightly laid eggs, worker brood of spring, your colony will be small and gentle and,
(sealed and unsealed) and food reserves (honey and as they grow and become fiercer, you too will be
pollen stores) and should not have excessive amount growing in experience and will be able to handle it.
of drone brood area. Be sure that the colonies to be Also, you will be able to see the queen more easily
purchased must be free from bee diseases and as she will be small.
parasites. Many beekeeping supply companies sell There are two breeding seasons for honey bees
beginner’s kits that include everything you need to in northern plains of India i.e., February-March and
set up as a beekeeper, plus the bees if required. September-October and considered as best periods to
Procuring honey bee colonies: It is advisable is to start beekeeping. The bees should be purchased early
start with five to ten beehives. The reason for this is in the start of season. However, purchasing colonies
that, during the beekeeping year, much can go wrong too early pose a problem that the seller normally tries
with a colony of bees and, as you will learn, if one to depose off his old stock and the beginner may not
colony begins to fail due, for example, to a bad queen be able to get a freshly mated queen bee-a key for the
or if it becomes entirely queenless, you can use bees, successful start of beekeeping. In addition, colonies
larvae and eggs from the second colony to help out. purchased during off-season do not take a good start
If you have only one colony you will have no in building up their strength and remain weak. Such
immediate source of help and the colony will die out. weak colonies are more prone to the attack of bee
The colonies, if possible, should be purchased from diseases and enemies, robbing and require frequent
the beekeeper near to the apiary site of the beginner, sugar feedings during dearth period.
but well beyond 3 km, the flight range of foragers, Transportation of colonies: Open enterance
another advantage in purchasing the colonies from transport is the most common way of moving beehi

105
ves. The purchased colonies should be shifted/ while placing the hives in rows, the entrances of
transported only when bees are not active i.e., at the adjacent hives should face in somewhat different
dusk or at night preferably after the bee have settled directions to this or that way to minimize drifting.
inside the hive and transport them during the night. Density of bee colonies: Density of bee hives in an
Before shifting, the colonies should be so packed as area is very important for beekeeping. Bees generally
to make them properly ventilated. In summer season forage economically within the radius of 1 to 2 km.
fully screened inner covers (shifting covers) and wire Over stocking of colonies in an area would result in
mesh at the entrance be used to avoid suffocation reduced honey yields. Generally the honey bee
during transit. It is worth mentioning that the vehicle colonies or apiaries should be located at a distance of
having shockers should be preferred for shifting the 1 km at least from one another for good economic
bee colonies or provide the shock proofing to the returns, if sufficient bee flora is available. It is very
hives during transportation to avoid jerking. The difficult to assess the number of bee colonies in an
vehicle used should be such or loading should be apiary. Examination of colonies: On the second day,
made in such a way that the bee hives get minimum open the colony for routine check up and then the
jerks, then unload the hives either upon arrival at following simple basics of management must
your destination or at first light the next day. adhered as per the seasonal requirement/condition of
Placement of colonies: After reaching the the colonies.
destination the hives should be placed at least in 10 Most of the people do not start beekeeping
feet apart rows with 6-8 feet distance between two because of the fear of the bee sting. Only a fraction
adjacent hives to provide ample room for colony of people (one in one thousand) are allergic to the bee
manipulation and to minimize chances of robbing. sting. If you manage the bees properly, using a
The hive entrance should face towards south-east smoker, you can even completely avoid stinging.
direction and preferably away from a common One can learn a lot from these little wonderful
passage. After placing the hive at suitable site, their creatures. Honey bees are admired for their
entrance gates should be opened. Because of the industriousness, unity, self sacrifice, tolerance,
disturbance during transit, the honey bees usually get division of labour, even the most feared bee stings
irritated. Hence, do not open and examine the help in healing muscular pains, rheumatism, arthritis
migrated colonies for a day. There should be a clear and reduction in cholesterol level. Moreover
space behind the hives for the working convenience of beekeeping can be practiced as an ideal hobby, part-
the beekeeper. But when colonies are placed in time business and or full-time business.
straight rows facing exactly in one direction only, it References
causes the drifting of bees to adjacent colonies. Thus, Abrol, D. P. (2013). Beekeeping: A Compressive

106
Guide to Bees and Beekeeping. Scientific

Publishers, India. 896 pp
Cramp, D. (2008). A Practical Manual of
Beekeeping. Published by How to Content, A
division of How to Books Ltd, Spring Hill
House, Spring Hill Road, Begbroke, Oxford
OX5 1RX, United Kingdom. 329 pp
Sanford, M. T. and Bonney, R. E. (2010). Storey’s
Guide to Keeping Honey Bees-Honey
Production, Pollination, Bee Health.
Published by Storey Publishing, 210 MASS
MoCAWay, North Adams, MA 01247, USA.
272 pp.

107
Mechanisms of Colonization and Nutrient Acquisition by Arbuscular

Mycorrhizal Fungi
Sreshma C. K.
Abstract
Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis stands as the cornerstone of mycorrhizal associations,

exhibiting a diverse array of structures and functions. This intricate bond forms between the roots of
over 80% of terrestrial plant species and Glomeromycete fungi, representing an ancient and ubiquitous
interaction. Through this symbiosis, plants directly benefit from enhanced growth and development
facilitated by the fungus's extraction of phosphate and other vital mineral nutrients from the soil. In
return, the fungus receives a crucial carbon source from the host plant. Beyond nutrient exchange, this
symbiotic relationship often bolsters the plant's resilience against both biotic and abiotic stresses.
Moreover, the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi's development of an extensive external hyphal network
significantly contributes to soil structure enhancement.
Introduction degradation in agriculture, mycorrhiza-based crop

Mycorrhiza stands out as a typical illustration production emerges as a crucial element of
of the symbiotic relationship between plants and sustainable agricultural practices, essential for
fungi, with its name derived from Greek roots mycos, ensuring global food security.
meaning fungus, and rhiza, meaning roots coined by The mycorrhizal association plays a pivotal
scientist Frank in 1885. Globally, over eighty percent role in fostering optimal soil conditions and
of angiosperms and nearly all gymnosperms engage augmenting crop productivity, thus serving as a vital
in mycorrhizal associations. These associations component within agricultural systems. Particularly
primarily manifest as endomycorrhizae or in organic farming and other sustainable practices
arbuscular-mycorrhizae (AM), exemplified by emphasizing biological mechanisms over
species like Endogone, and ectomycorrhizae (EM), agrochemicals, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi emerge
such as Amanita. By enhancing root surface area and as key players. These fungi facilitate nutrient
mineral uptake efficiency, mycorrhizal associations provision and contribute to weed, pest, and disease
enable host plants to flourish even in challenging soil control. However, the effective utilization of
conditions and drought-prone environments. Given arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in sustainable cropping
the pressing challenges posed by factors like rising systems hinges on a deeper comprehension of how
temperatures, shifting climates, drought, and soil agricultural management practices influence the dyn-
Sreshma C. K.
Assistant Professor, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, RARS, Pilicode, Kasargode, Kerala

108
amics and functionality of AM fungal populations. pre-symbiotic growth (Ahmadabadi et al., 2018).
Based on the morphological character there This class of mycorrhiza holds significant
are two types of mycorrhizal association such as agricultural importance, given that 80-90% of agric-
endomycorrhiza and ectomycorrhizal. ultural crops engage in these associations. Notably,
these fungi exclusively colonize the cortical region
of plant roots, both intercellularly and intracellularly,
while refraining from invading the endodermis, stele,
root meristematic region, or chloroplast-containing
cells.
Arbuscular mycorrhiza: Arbuscular mycorrhizas Mechanism of colonization
represent the predominant Arbuscular mycorrhizas fungi are obligate
form of mycorrhizal biotrophs, solely dependent on the host plants for
interactions, established their survival. The symbiotic mechanisms comprise
by a diverse array of host many steps. The first step is the search for the host
plants, encompassing root which is an important step in plant's fungal-root-
approximately 85% of all colonization process. The second step is the
known land plant species, including key agricultural penetration of fungi into the host root for
crops like soybean, corn, rice, and wheat (Adavi et colonization and final establishment of mycorrhizal
al., 2014). Classified within the fungal phylum symbiosis.
Glomeromycota, these AM fung i comprise around Stage 1: formation of PPA
1500 species, each exhibiting considerable genetic Stage 2: entry of fungal hyphae
and functional diversity. Remarkably ancient, with Stage 3: formation of bird’s foot;
origins possibly dating back over 1000 million years, Stage 4: formation of mature arbuscule
AM fungi are regarded as living fossils due to their Stage 5: collapse of arbuscule.
enduring coexistence with plants for more than 400 The colonization process is mainly
million years. As obligate biotrophs, they depend on influenced by three factors
their autotrophic host to complete their life cycle and such as edaphic factors,
generate the next generation of spores. While capable climatic factors and agro-
of germinating independently, AM fungal spores technical practice. Edaphic
exhibit heightened hyphal branching and metabolic factors mainly have five
activity in response to root exudates, such as components such as soil
strigolactones released by plant roots, which induce depth, acidic to neutral soil,

109
soil at field capacity, low nutrient status and at system and low-affinity systems. The high-affinity
optimum temperature higher rate of colonization system gets activated when the soil contains less
occurs. Climatic factors contain two components amount of phosphorous. Nutrient uptake takes place
such as temperature and high light intensity. The against an electrochemical gradient through a proton
agro technical practice is the important one. It has co- transport system. The low-affinity system is
two components. Such as high tillage practice and a activated when the soil contains a higher amount of
higher rate of agrochemical application reduce the phosphorous. Here the nutrient is taken place
colonization rate (Galvez et al., 2001). through diffusion process.
Mechanism of nutrient uptake
Phosphorus is an extremely immobile
element present in the soil. The major role of
vascular-arbuscular (VA) fungi is to supply the
phosphorus to plant roots via phosphate transporters
present in the hyphal membrane. The networks of Phosphorous uptake pathway
filamentous, extraradical hyphae of AM fungi help It is estimated that around 21% of the total
in the uptake of freely available phosphates. nitrogen present in the mycorrhizal plant is taken by
Extension of fungal hyphae generally begins beyond the extra radial mycorrhiza. In the case of maize it is
the host root so that greater soil volume can be used 75%. The extra radial mycorrhiza can take up both
for phosphate acquisition. AM fungi can hydrolyze organic and inorganic nitrogen, but NH4+ form of
organic phosphates present in the soil and provide nitrogen is mainly taken by them. The extraradial
soluble phosphates to their host plant. Phosphate mycorrhiza taken up the nitrogen present in the soil.
transporter of the Pht1 family of fungi helps in the
uptake of inorganic phosphate into the cytosol. Then
the phosphate gets transferred to the fungal vacuole
where polymerization occurs to form polyphosphate
chains (poly-P). The poly-P is transferred to the Nitrogen uptake pathway
intraradical hyphae, where hydrolyzation takes place The taken NO3- nitrogen is converted to NH4+
by liberating free phosphate for transfer to the form of N. The taken and converted N then
interfacial apoplast of the AM fungi. Fungi provide transformed into an amino acid arginine through
phosphorus as poly-P pool to the plants. anabolic path way of urea cycle. The converted
Two system are there for the uptake of the arginine combine with poly P and moved towards the
phosphorus in mycorrhiza. Such as high-affinity intra radial part of mycorrhiza.

110
From there the arginine again converted to NH4+ Galvez, L., Douds, D. D., Drinkwater, L. E. and
form of nitrogen through catabolic pathway of urea Wagoner, P. (2001). Effect of tillage and
cycle and it is exchanged with sugar molecule farming system upon VAM fungus
present in the plant cell. populations and mycorrhizas and nutrient
Conclusion uptake of maize. Plant Soil, 228: 299-308.
Mycorrhiza fungi are the most important
component among soil micro biota in developing a
sustainable agricultural system. They have a vital
role in maintaining a pollution free stable
environmental system. With the use of mycorrhiza
the soil quality can be enhanced. They also improve
the growth and nutrient uptake in plants. It has
specific mechanism to protect the plants from
adverse condition hence the natural resources such as
land; space etc can be effectively utilized with the
help of mycorrhiza. And compared to conventional
agriculture method it ismore economical.
References
Adavi, Z. and Tadayoun, M. R. (2014). Effect of
mycorrhiza application on plant growth and
yield in potato production under field
conditions. Iranian Journal of Plant
Physiology, 4: 1087-1093.
Ahmadabadi, Z., Zarei, M., Yasrebi, J., Ronaghi,
A., Ghasemi, R., Saharkhiz, M. J.,
Kasmaei, L. S. and Schnug, E. (2018).
Influence of arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi,
rice-husk-drived biochar and compost on
dry matter yield, nutrients uptake and
secondary metabolites responses of
Iranianborage Echium amoenum. Science of
the Total Environonment, 70: 329-341.

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Exploring the Feasibility and Growth of Vertical Farming in India

Agriculture in India is undergoing a ease food production while requiring lesser land area
significant transformation, spurred by the need to compared to traditional farming practices.
address pressing challenges such as a rapidly Introduction
growing population, water scarcity, climate change, Vertical farming, the practice of cultivating
labor shortages, and urbanization, all of which crops in vertically stacked layers and on vertically
contribute to a reduction in arable land. To combat inclined surfaces, has gained prominence as a
these challenges, the agricultural sector is potential solution to the challenges posed by a
increasingly turning to advanced technologies. One growing global population and limited agricultural
such technology is See & Spray Technology, which land. With the world facing the imminent threat of
enables precise application of herbicides, reducing overpopulation, there is a pressing need to find
chemical usage and environmental impact. Field innovative ways to feed the population, especially
sensors for irrigation control are another innovation, considering the decreasing per capita land
allowing farmers to optimize water usage based on availability for agriculture. While traditional
real-time data, thereby conserving water and agricultural practices have focused on developing
increasing efficiency. Electrical conductivity sensing high-yielding crop varieties, improved techniques,
helps in soil analysis, guiding farmers in nutrient tools, and integrated management practices, these
management for improved crop yield. Machine efforts are now considered insufficient to meet the
learning and robotics are revolutionizing agriculture increasing food demand. The concept of vertical
by automating tasks such as planting, harvesting, and farming dates back to the early 20th century, with
monitoring crop health. These technologies not only Gilbert Ellis Bailey coining the term in 1915 and
improve efficiency but also reduce the reliance on William Frederick Gerick pioneering hydroponics in
manual labor, which is becoming scarcer in rural the 1930s. In the 1980s, Åke Olsson, a Swedish
areas. Despite these advancements, ensuring food ecological farmer, proposed vertical farming as a
security remains a paramount concern, especially means of producing vegetables in urban areas.
with the pressure of overpopulation and diminishing However, it was Professor Dickson Despommier
arable land. In this context, vertical farming emerges who popularized the idea of vertical farming in 1999.
as a promising solution. By utilizing vertical space, His vision was to grow food in urban environments,
this intensive farming method can significantly incr- reducing the distance food needs to travel from rural
Plant Pathology Section, College of Nagpur, Maharashtra

112
to urban areas and ensuring fresher produce at lower onto them. This system promotes efficient
costs. nutrient uptake and can be used in vertical
Today, vertical farming has evolved into a farming setups.
revolutionary farming technology aimed at  Aquaponics: Aquaponics combines aquaculture
maximizing food production using every available (fish farming) with hydroponics. Fish are raised
inch of land, whether in urban or rural settings. This in a tank, and their waste provides nutrients for
approach is gaining traction worldwide, including in plants grown hydroponically. The plants, in turn,
India, where entrepreneurs are increasingly embra- filter the water, which is then returned to the fish
cing vertical farming for its potential for high returns. tank. This closed-loop system is efficient and
Vertical farming can be implemented in various sustainable.
settings, including buildings, warehouses, rooftops,  Vertical Aeroponic Tower Systems: These
and balconies, making it a versatile and scalable systems consist of tall towers with multiple levels
solution to food production challenges in densely for growing plants. The plants' roots are exposed
populated areas. to a nutrient mist, allowing for efficient nutrient
Types of Vertical Farming absorption. These towers can be stacked
Vertical farming employs several systems to vertically to maximize growing space.
cultivate crops in vertically stacked layers or on  Stacked Shelving Systems: This system
vertically inclined surfaces. These systems utilize involves stacking shelves or racks to create
advanced technologies to optimize growing multiple growing levels. Each shelf can hold
conditions and maximize crop yields. Some common trays or containers with plants, allowing for a
systems of vertical farming include: high-density planting arrangement. LED lights
 Hydroponics: This system involves growing are often used to provide the necessary light for
plants in nutrient-rich water without soil. Plants plant growth.
are placed in a growing medium such as perlite,  Modular Vertical Farming Systems: These
rockwool, or coconut coir, and their roots are systems consist of modular units that can be
submerged in a nutrient solution. Hydroponic easily stacked or arranged to create a vertical
systems can be vertical, allowing for efficient use farm. Each module may contain its own lighting,
of space. irrigation, and climate control systems, allowing
 Aeroponics: In aeroponics, plants are grown in for flexibility and scalability.
an air or mist environment without the use of soil  Green Walls: Green walls, or living walls, are
or a medium. The roots are suspended in the air, vertical structures covered in plants. These walls
and a nutrient solution is periodically sprayed can be indoors or outdoors and are often used for

113
aesthetic purposes as well as for improving air systems. Trellises or vertical towers can provide
quality. In vertical farming, green walls can be support for the plants as they mature.
used to grow herbs, vegetables, or other crops.  Microgreens: Microgreens are young, tender
Crops for vertical farming greens that are harvested when they are just a few
Vertical farming allows for the cultivation of inches tall. They are highly nutritious and can be
a wide variety of crops, including leafy greens, herbs, grown in trays or shallow containers in a vertical
fruits, and some vegetables. The choice of crops farming setup.
depends on factors such as the available space,  Cucumbers: While cucumbers require more
lighting, and environmental control capabilities of space than some other crops, certain compact or
the vertical farm. Some common crops grown in dwarf varieties can be grown vertically. Trellises
vertical farming systems include: or vertical supports can help the vines grow
 Leafy Greens: Lettuce, kale, spinach, arugula, upward.
and other leafy greens are well-suited for vertical  Beans: Pole beans, such as runner beans or pole
farming due to their shallow root systems and fast snap beans, can be grown vertically using
growth rates. These crops can be grown in trellises or other support structures. This allows
stacked systems or vertical towers. for efficient use of space and easier harvesting
 Herbs: Herbs like basil, mint, cilantro, parsley, These crops are well-suited for vertical
and oregano are popular choices for vertical farming due to their growth habits, space
farming. They require relatively little space and requirements, and ability to thrive in controlled
can be grown year-round in controlled indoor indoor environments. Vertical farming can help
environments. increase the availability of fresh, locally grown
 Strawberries: Vertical farming systems can be produce in urban areas while reducing the
designed to accommodate strawberry plants, environmental impact of traditional agriculture.
which can produce fruit continuously under the Advantages of Vertical Farming
right conditions. Vertical towers or hanging  High Yield: Vertical farming can produce
baskets are often used for strawberry cultivation. significantly higher yields per unit of land
 Tomatoes: Some varieties of tomatoes, compared to traditional farming methods.
especially smaller cherry or grape tomatoes, can  Year-Round Production: Vertical farms can
be grown vertically. Trellis systems or tall towers grow crops throughout the year, regardless of
can support the vines as they grow. seasonal changes or weather conditions, ensuring
 Peppers: Bell peppers and other varieties of a consistent food supply.
peppers can also be grown in vertical farming  Reduced Transport Costs: By growing food

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closer to urban centers, vertical farming can  Nutrient Management: Excess nutrients used in
reduce the cost and environmental impact of vertical farming can potentially contaminate
transporting produce from rural areas. urban water systems if not managed properly.
 Water Efficiency: Vertical farming uses 70 to  Heat Emission: LED lighting systems used in
95% less water compared to traditional farming, vertical farming can emit heat, which may pose
making it a more sustainable option in water- challenges in maintaining optimal temperatures,
scarce regions. especially in hot weather.
 No Soil Required: Vertical farming can be done  Waste Management: Vertical farming
without soil, eliminating the need for large land generates plant residues and other waste that
areas and reducing the risk of soil-borne pests need to be disposed of properly.
and diseases.  Skilled Workforce: The need for a skilled work-
 Pesticide-Free: Vertical farms can produce force in vertical farming may require training and
pesticide-free or organic food since there is no could be a challenge initially.
need for chemical pest control. Practical Adoptability in India
 Freshness and Nutrient Retention: With India stands out as a significant producer of
reduced food supply chains, consumers can vegetables, fruits and various agricultural
access fresh produce with all its original nutrient commodities. The concept of vertical farming has
qualities intact. been introduced in the country, aiming to
 Greening Urban Areas: Vertical farms can revolutionize traditional agricultural practices.
contribute to greening urban areas and help Agricultural experts at the Indian Council of
reduce air pollution. Agricultural Research (ICAR) are actively exploring
 High Productivity: Vertical farming can the potential of vertical farming in soil-less
achieve almost 80% more harvest per unit of area conditions. This innovative approach allows for the
compared to traditional farming methods. cultivation of food crops on multi-storeyed buildings
Disadvantages of Vertical Farming in major cities like New Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata,
 High Initial Cost: The establishment of a and Chennai, without the use of soil or pesticides.
vertical farming system can be costly, including Successful experiments in vertical farming
the cost of structures, automation systems, have been conducted at Bidhan Chandra Krishi
lighting, and climate control. Viswavidyalaya in Nadia, where scientists have
 Energy Consumption: Vertical farming relies achieved promising results in hydroponic vertical
on artificial lighting, leading to high energy farming on a small scale. Similar small-scale
costs, especially in larger operations. adaptations of vertical farming have been observed

115
in Nadia, West Bengal, and Punjab. Bidhan Chandra

Krishi Vishwavidyalaya in Nadia has shown initial
success in growing crops like brinjal and tomato,
while Punjab has successfully produced potato
tubers using vertical farming techniques.
Several Indian companies are also actively
participating in the vertical farming revolution. Idea
Farms, a design-in-tech company, specializes in
producing vertical farms that grow organic, high-
quality produce with a predictable supply.
Greenopia, based in Bengaluru, offers kits with smart
self-watering pots, enriched soil, and appropriate
seeds for vertical farming. These sensor-embedded
pots monitor soil moisture levels and alert users
when water refilling is needed. Another Mumbai-
based start-up, U-Farm Technologies, is leveraging
hydroponic gardening techniques to customize
modular farms for individual apartment complexes
or supermarkets. The rise of such start-ups indicates
a growing interest and feasibility of vertical farming
in India. These ventures not only promote
sustainable agriculture but also offer solutions to
urban food security challenges.

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Carbon Sequestration and Carbon Neutral Concept

Sreshma C. K. and Hanumanta D. Lamani
Abstract
The growing concerns surrounding climate change and global warming have led to an increased
focus on mitigating carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and achieving carbon neutrality. Carbon
sequestration involves the capture and long-term storage of carbon dioxide to prevent its release into
the atmosphere. Various techniques, such as afforestation, reforestation, soil carbon sequestration, and
direct air capture, play crucial roles in capturing and storing carbon. These methods contribute to
mitigating the impacts of anthropogenic activities, such as industrial processes and fossil fuel
combustion, which release significant amounts of CO2 into the atmosphere. Achieving carbon
neutrality is a broader goal that involves balancing the amount of emitted carbon dioxide with an
equivalent amount of sequestered or offset carbon. This can be accomplished through a combination
of reducing emissions, adopting sustainable practices, and investing in carbon offset projects.
Introduction gating the effects of human activities such as burning

In the face of escalating concerns about fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes
climate change and its far-reaching impacts on the that have significantly increased atmospheric carbon
environment, societies worldwide are increasingly levels. On the other hand, achieving carbon
turning their attention to innovative solutions to neutrality is a broader goal that extends beyond
mitigate the rise of greenhouse gas emissions. Two carbon sequestration. It involves balancing the
key concepts at the forefront of this global effort are amount of greenhouse gases emitted with an
carbon sequestration and carbon neutrality. These equivalent amount removed or offset, effectively
concepts represent pivotal strategies aimed at reducing the overall carbon footprint to zero.
combating climate change by reducing the Achieving carbon neutrality requires a multifaceted
concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the approach, incorporating strategies such as
atmosphere. transitioning to renewable energy sources, enhancing
Carbon sequestration involves the capture energy efficiency, and actively participating in
and long-term storage of carbon dioxide, preventing carbon offset projects.
its release into the atmosphere where it contributes to Different methods for carbon sequestration
the greenhouse effect. This process is crucial in miti- The primary aim of carbon sequestration is
Sreshma C. K.
Assistant Professor, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, RARS, Pilicode, Kasargode, Kerala
Hanumanta D. Lamani
Research Scholar, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore, Karnataka

117
the effective storage of CO2 and reduce the global trapped and does not leak back into the
warming effect. There are various methods of carbon atmosphere. This involves regular checks on the
sequestration, and they can be broadly categorized integrity of the geological formations and the
into three main types. effectiveness of the storage.
Geological Sequestration: It also known as carbon Terrestrial Sequestration: This method focuses on
capture and storage enhancing the natural processes by which carbon is
(CCS). This involves absorbed and stored in terrestrial ecosystems.
capturing CO2 emissions Afforestation (planting trees in areas that were not
produced from industrial forested) and reforestation (replanting trees in
processes or power plants and injecting them deep deforested areas) are common practices to increase
underground into geological formations, such as carbon sequestration in forests. Additionally,
depleted oil and gas reservoirs or deep saline aquifers improved land management practices in agriculture,
(Zhang and Song, 2014). The CO2 is stored securely such as no-till farming and cover cropping, can
in these geological formations, preventing its release enhance carbon storage in soils.
into the atmosphere. Improved Land Management Practices
Procedure for geological sequestration  No till Farming: Traditional plowing in
 Capture: CO2 is captured at its source, typically agriculture releases carbon stored in the soil. No-
from large industrial facilities like power plants till farming involves minimizing or eliminating
or other facilities with high emissions. plowing, which helps retain carbon in the soil and
 Transport: The captured CO2 is then transported reduces the overall carbon footprint of
to a suitable storage site. This may involve agriculture.
pipelines or other means of transportation.  Cover Cropping: Involves planting cover crops
 Storage: The CO2 is injected deep underground during periods when the main crops are not
into geological formations. Common storage growing. These cover crops help prevent soil
sites include depleted oil and gas reservoirs, erosion, improve soil structure, and enhance
where the CO2 can be securely trapped. Deep carbon storage.
saline aquifers, which are porous rock formations  Agroforestry: Combining trees and shrubs with
filled with saline water, are also utilized for agricultural crops in the same area. Agroforestry
storage. systems provide multiple benefits, including
 Monitoring and Verification: Rigorous moni- increased carbon sequestration, improved soil
toring and verification processes are put in place fertility, and diversified agricultural yields.
to ensure the stored CO2 remains securely Ocean Sequestration: Oceans naturally absorb CO2

118
from the atmosphere, but the process can be References

enhanced through Lal, R., Smith, P., Jungkunst, H. F., Mitsch, W. J.,
various techniques. Lehmann, J., Nair, P. R., ... and
One proposed method Ravindranath, N. H. (2018). The carbon
involves fertilizing sequestration potential of terrestrial
the ocean with iron to ecosystems. Journal of Soil and Water
stimulate the growth of phytoplankton, which Conservation, 73(6): 145A-152A.
absorbs CO2 during photosynthesis (Leonard et al., Leonard. A., Miller and Philip M. Orton. (2021).
2021). Another approach is direct injection of CO2 Achieving negative emissions through
into the ocean at depths where it can be stored for oceanic sequestration of vegetation carbon as
extended periods. Black Pellets. Climatic Change, 167: 3-4.
Conclusion Shukla, R., Ranjith, P., Haque, A. and Choi, X.
Both carbon sequestration and carbon (2010). A review of studies on CO2
neutrality underscore the necessity of innovation, sequestration and caprock integrity. Fuel,
collaboration and widespread adoption of sustainable 89(10): 2651-2664.
practices. These concepts emphasize the importance Zhang, D. and Song, J. (2014). Mechanisms for
of transitioning from conventional, carbon-intensive geological carbon sequestration. Procedia
processes to more environmentally friendly IUTAM, 10: 319-327.
alternatives. While technological advancements and
large-scale initiatives are crucial, individual and
collective behavioral changes also play a pivotal role
in achieving a sustainable and carbon-neutral future.
In the face of the urgent climate crisis, the
integration of these strategies is paramount.
Governments, industries, and individuals must work
together to implement and continually improve upon
these methods, recognizing the interconnectedness
of environmental, social, and economic
considerations. Carbon neutrality and carbon
sequestration represent not only environmental
imperatives but also opportunities to forge a resilient
and sustainable future for generations to come.

119
Agricultural Applications of Drone Technology

P. Shanmugapriya
Abstract
Agriculture drone technology is revolutionising farming practises by providing precise and

efficient solutions. Farmers can monitor crop health, detect diseases, and assess soil conditions using
drones equipped with high-resolution cameras and sensors. This data-driven approach enables targeted
interventions such as precise spraying and irrigation, reducing resource use while increasing yields.
Aerial mapping and analysis aid in the development of customised treatment plans, the optimisation
of planting patterns, and the estimation of crop yields. Drones also aid in livestock monitoring, weather
data collection, and rapid damage assessment following disasters. Drones, as connectivity providers,
provide access to remote areas, providing farmers with critical information and market access. Drones
have become indispensable in modernising agriculture, improving sustainability and productivity due
to their ability to cover large areas quickly and provide actionable insights.
Introduction decisions, allowing for targeted interventions such as

Drone technology has emerged as a pesticide or fertiliser application. As a result,
transformative force in modern agriculture, altering resource utilisation improves, lowering waste and
traditional farming practises and opening up new environmental impact while increasing yield.
frontiers of efficiency, precision, and sustainability. With the incorporation of drones, precision
These unmanned aerial vehicles, which are outfitted agriculture has seen an important shift. These aerial
with advanced sensors, cameras, and data analytics devices produce detailed maps and data sets that
capabilities, provide multifaceted solutions that detail soil quality, moisture levels, and plant health
transform every stage of agricultural operations. variability across fields. Farmers can use this
Drones enable an unprecedented level of crop information to create customised treatment plans,
monitoring and management by utilising high- adjust irrigation schemes, and apply fertiliser to
resolution imaging and sensor technologies. They specific areas of a field. This targeted approach
provide farmers with detailed aerial views that allow reduces input consumption while increasing
them to detect minute variations in crop health, productivity. Aside from crop management, drones
detect pest invasions, identify nutrient deficiencies, play an important role in livestock monitoring and
and monitor overall field conditions. This real-time environmental assessments. They provide a bird's-
data enables farmers to make informed, proactive eye view of pastures and herds, assisting with herd
P. Shanmugapriya
Research Associate, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu

120
management, health assessments, and identifying fertiliser application based on field conditions.
potential problems. Drones equipped with weather Spraying and seeding from the air: Drones with
sensors also collect vital environmental data, aerial applications make
assisting in weather forecasting, irrigation planning, it possible to spray
and risk mitigation related to climate change. pesticides, fertilisers, or
Furthermore, after natural disasters or herbicides precisely.
adverse events, drones provide quick and precise They ensure that
damage assessments, speeding up insurance claim chemicals are applied
processes. They also serve as connectivity providers precisely and efficiently while minimising
in remote agricultural areas, providing access to environmental impact. Drones also provide efficient
information and markets. These aerial systems have seeding techniques for crop planting.
become indispensable tools for modern agriculture Livestock Monitoring and Herd Management:
as drone technology continues to evolve and Drones can provide aerial views for monitoring
regulations adapt to ensure safe and responsible use. livestock, assessing herd health, and identifying
Their ability to cover large areas quickly, collect potential problems in pastures or infrastructure. They
actionable data, and optimise farming practises assist farmers in herd management by tracking
highlights their critical role in shaping a more animal movements and behaviour.
sustainable, efficient, and technologically advanced Weather and Environmental Sensing: Drones
agricultural landscape. equipped with sensors
List of Important Agricultural applications gather real-time data
Crop Monitoring and Management: Using high- on weather patterns,
resolution imaging and sensors, drones enable temperature, humidity,
precise crop monitoring. They detect diseases, pests, and environmental
and nutrient deficiencies, allowing for more targeted conditions. This data aids in weather forecasting,
interventions and more efficient resource use. Field irrigation planning, and risk mitigation related to
mapping and analysis provide useful information climate change.
about crop health. Yield Estimation and Harvest Planning: By
Drone Precision Agriculture: Drones play an analysing plant health and density, drones equipped
important role in precision agriculture by assessing with specialised cameras and sensors estimate crop
soil health, moisture levels, and field variations. This yields. This information is useful for forecasting
data helps farmers in implementing customised production and optimising harvest strategies.
treatment plans, as well as adjusting irrigation and Post-Disaster Assessments and Insurance Applic-

121
ations: Drones assess damage quickly following demands while prioritising ecological sustainability
natural disasters or adverse events, accelerating up and agricultural efficiency.
insurance claim processes. They provide accurate
and timely damage assessments to ensure that claims
are processed efficiently.
Rural Connectivity and Future Prospects: Drones
are being tested as aerial Wi-Fi hotspots, providing
connectivity to remote agricultural areas. Drone
technology advancements continue to evolve,
providing opportunities for improved connectivity
and addressing challenges in their agricultural
application.
Conclusion
The integration of drone technology in
agriculture represents a paradigm shift, revolution-
ising farming practises. Precision farming is being
redefined by unmanned aerial vehicles equipped
with advanced sensors and imaging. They allow for
precise crop monitoring, precise interventions, and
personalised treatment plans. Drones optimise
resource use, reduce environmental impact, and
increase yields by providing real-time information
on crop health, soil conditions, and environmental
factors. Aside from crops, drones help with livestock
monitoring, weather data collection, and quick post-
disaster assessments, which speeds up insurance
claims. Drones, as technology advances, promise
rural connectivity and continuous innovation,
providing farmers with critical data for informed
decision-making. This technological convergence
not only modernises farming, but also fosters a
sustainable path towards meeting global food

122
Bio-Cleansing Wonders: Maggot Therapy for Wound Healing

Dharani Priya N. and Prithiya V.
Abstract
Wound management poses increasing challenges and costs in healthcare, particularly with
chronic conditions like diabetes leading to non-healing, necrotic and infected wounds. Maggot therapy
rooted in historical observations and modern adaptations offers a promising approach for wound care
in the 21st century. This article reviews maggot therapy, known as Maggot Debridement Therapy
(MDT), using sterile larvae of Lucilia sericata (Green bottle fly) to clean and heal complex wounds.
The therapy's mechanisms involve larval debridement of necrotic tissue and secretion of therapeutic
substances that disinfect wounds and potentially accelerate healing. Maggot therapy shows efficacy in
chronic ulcers, diabetic wounds and other difficult-to-treat wounds, presenting a bio-cleansing wonder
in wound healing with simplicity, cost-efficiency, and minimal adverse effects.
Introduction chronic wound care have emerged over the past two
Healthcare providers are keenly aware of the decades. Maggot therapy, an ancient practice that has
increasing challenges and costs associated with been innovatively adapted for modern medical use,
treating wounds. The development of non-healing has gained attention as a promising treatment option
wounds often occurs due to chronic conditions like for 21st century wound care.
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cardio- Dating back to the early 20th century with the
vascular disease and diabetes. In cases like diabetes, pioneering work of William Baer, maggot therapy
the underlying disease process often causes wounds involves applying live, sterilized maggots from
to become necrotic, infected and difficult to heal. species like Lucilia sericata (Green bottle fly) and
These types of wounds can cause significant Phormia regina (Black blow fly) to aid in healing
discomfort and distress for patients. They are complex wounds. Over time, healthcare professi-
notoriously difficult to treat and often contain onals and patients have renewed interest in the
antibiotic-resistant bacteria or bacterial biofilm, therapeutic potential of maggots to remove dead
which can significantly hinder healing. Proper tissue and promote tissue regeneration.
wound debridement and reducing bacterial load are What is Maggot Therapy?
crucial aspects of wound management. In the pursuit Maggot therapy, also known as larval therapy
of more effective treatments, many new methods for or Maggot Debridement Therapy (MDT) is used to
Dharani Priya N.
Assistant Professor (Entomology), Department of Crop Protection, PGP College of Agril. Sciences, Namakkal, Tamil Nadu
Prithiya V.
UG Student, PGP College of Agril. Sciences, Namakkal, Tamil Nadu

123
treat chronic, infected and necrotic wounds by One of Napoleon’s surgeons, Baron Dominic
applying clinical-grade larvae of the common Green Larrey, noted that maggots consumed only decaying
bottle fly (Lucilia sericata). These larvae are tissue and appeared to promote healing. He remarked
specially bred under sterile conditions for medical that although the larvae of blue flies common in
purposes. The therapy involves using live fly larvae Syria were bothersome, they expedited wound
to clean non-healing wounds and treat osteomyelitis healing by accelerating the removal of dead tissue.
(bone infection). The larvae debride wounds by During the American Civil War, military
consuming necrotic (dead) tissue and secrete surgeon W. W. Keen observed that while maggots
therapeutic chemicals like ammonia and calcium were unpleasant, they did not cause harm.
carbonate, which disinfect wounds and promote Confederate Army surgeon J. F. Zacharias of
healing. Only larvae that consume dead tissue, Cumberland, reported using maggots to remove
typically calliphorids from the genus Lucilia are used decayed tissue in cases of hospital gangrene with
in this therapy. great satisfaction, noting that maggots could clean a
The larvae are fed with high-protein diet wound better in a single day than any other available
before application to sustain them during transit. methods.
They are then placed on the wound, where they feed In World War I, soldiers with compound
on dead tissue and grow over four days, helping to femur fractures and abdominal wounds had a 75%
eliminate infection. After this period, the larvae are survival rate with the best medical care. Those with
removed and disposed of as clinical waste. Maggot maggots in their wounds had an even higher chance
therapy is suitable for wounds with moist slough or of survival. William Baer, an orthopaedic surgeon at
necrotic tissue. Trained clinicians carefully apply the Johns Hopkins University, was the first in the USA
maggots to the wound, either freely or within a to advocate for maggot therapy. His research was
containment bag. The maggots promote wound published posthumously in the Journal of Bone and
healing by debriding dead tissue, reducing bacterial Joint Surgery in 1931. By 1932, around 300 hospitals
infection and potentially accelerating the healing in Canada and the US were using maggot therapy to
process. treat deep tissue wounds.
History of Maggot Therapy Life Cycle of the Common Green Bottle Fly
For centuries, maggots have been utilized to (Lucilia sericata)
aid in wound healing, as they display no invasive Egg Laying and Hatching: The common Green
behaviour toward living tissue. Military surgeons bottle fly (Lucilia sericata) follows a typical
historically observed the benefits of maggot-infested Calliphoridae life cycle. Females lay 150 - 200 eggs
wounds. on carrion, hatching in 9 hours to 3 days, faster in

124
warmer temperatures. A female can produce up to Regarding wound healing, maggots play a crucial
3,000 eggs in her lifetime. role in the process by:
Larval Development: Larvae measures about 10 to  Debridement: Removing dead tissue, which is
14 millimetres, feed on dead tissue for 3 to 10 days, essential for promoting the growth of healthy
passing through three instars. At 16°C (61°F), the tissue.
instars last 53, 42 and 98 hours and at 27°C (81°F),  Disinfection: Eliminating microbes from the
they last 31, 12 and 40 hours. wound, including antibiotic-resistant bacteria
Pupation: After the third instar, larvae leave the host like Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus
to pupate in soil for 6 to 14 days. Larger larvae can pyogenes.
travel over 100 feet to find suitable pupation sites.  Promotion of Healing: Maggot secretions
Pupae may overwinter in cold temperatures. contain substances that support wound healing,
Adult Emergence: Adults emerge and feed on potentially aiding in tissue regeneration and
nectar, pollen, faeces or carrion and lay eggs about reducing the risk of infection.
two weeks later. The complete life cycle spans 2 to 3 The resilience of maggot secretions to freeze-
weeks with 3 to 4 generations per year in temperate drying and long-term storage indicates their potential
climates and more in warmer regions. as a source of antibiotic-like compounds for
Mechanism of action combating infections caused by antibiotic-resistant
Maggots employ several mechanisms to “superbugs,” notably methicillin-resistant Staphylo-
facilitate wound cleaning and healing. They secrete coccus aureus (MRSA). This suggests a promising
enzymes like collagenase, which break down dead avenue for developing alternative treatments for
tissue into a more manageable form that they can challenging wound infections.
absorb. Their movement within the wound removes Suitable Wounds for Maggot Therapy
necrotic tissue, aiding in debridement.  Chronic non-healing ulcers
Scientists have discovered that maggots  Venous ulcers
produce antibiotic-like substances that assist in  Diabetic ulcers
defending against bacteria. These substances not  Bed sore
only combat bacteria but also contribute to wound  Post Amputation Non healing wounds
disinfection by consuming and eliminating micro-  Any type of wounds which are slough and the
organisms during the feeding process. Furthermore, patient unable to go for surgical debridement
maggots release ammonia, which raises the wound's Process of Maggot Therapy
pH level, creating an environment less favourable for The process of medicinal maggot therapy
bacterial growth. involves several steps to ensure efficacy and safety:

125
Selection of suitable patients: Maggot therapy is therapy is required.

considered for non-acute external wounds that have  Typically, maggot therapy is administered once
not responded to conventional treatments. Life- per week.
threatening conditions typically require surgical Patient monitoring and adaptation
intervention instead.  Patients undergo an initial adjustment period to
Preparation of medicinal maggots the presence of maggots.
 Adult fly eggs are sterilized using solutions  Monitoring for wound healing progress and any
containing formalin, mercuric chloride, alcohol, adverse reactions is essential during and after
hydrochloric acid, dilute sodium hypochlorite, or treatment.
hydrogen peroxide. Continued treatment as needed
 Hatched larvae are placed on a sterile food source  Maggot therapy cycles are repeated based on
and allowed to grow for two days before medical wound response and healing progress.
use.  The therapy continues until the wound shows
Application Procedure significant improvement or resolves completely.
Preparation of wound site Table 1: Species of flies used in maggot therapy
(adapted from Sherman et al., 2000)
 A hydrocolloid pad is used to create a barrier Order Family Species
around the wound, preventing drainage from Diptera Calliphoridae Calliphora vicina
Chrysomya rufifacies
contaminating healthy skin. Lucilia caesar
Lucilia cuprina
 Dacron® chiffon is placed over the wound, Lucilia illustris
Lucilia sericata
forming a cage-like structure to contain the Phormia regina
Protophormia
maggots. terraenovae
Dressing application Sarcophagidae Wohlfahrtia nuba
Muscidae Musca domestica
 Gauze is layered over the wound to absorb any Conclusion
necrotic drainage. In conclusion, maggot therapy represents a
 Sterile maggots, at a density of approximately 5- bio-cleansing wonder in wound healing, offering
-
8 cm ², are carefully applied to the wound surface simplicity, cost-efficiency, and promising outcomes
within the cage-like structure. for patients with chronic and difficult-to-treat
Treatment duration and frequency wounds. As healthcare providers and researchers
 Maggots are left in place for a 48-hour cycle. continue to explore innovative approaches to wound
 The dressing is then removed, and the wound is management, maggot therapy stands out as a
assessed. valuable option with proven effectiveness and
 Maggots are replaced with a new set if further minimal adverse effects.

126
References
Baer, W. S. (1931). The treatment of chronic
osteomyelitis with the maggot (larva of the
blow fly). The American Journal of Bone and
Joint Surgery, 13: 438 - 475.
Kerridge, A., Sappin-Scott, H. and Stevens, J. R.
(2005). Antibacterial properties of larval
secretions of the blowfly, Lucilia sericata.
Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 19(4):
333 - 337.
Nigam, Y., Bexfield, A., Thomas, S. and Ratcliffe,
N. S. (2006). Maggot therapy: The science
and implication of CAM, Part I - History and
bacterial resistance. Evidence-based Comple-
mentary and Alternative Medicine, 3(3): 303-
308.
Sherman, R. A., Hall, M. J. R. and Thomas, S.
(2000). Medicinal maggots: An ancient
remedy for some contemporary afflictions.
Annual Review of Entomology, 45: 55-81.
Sherman, R. A. and Pechter, E. A. (1988). Maggot
therapy: A review of the therapeutic
applications of fly larvae in human medicine,
especially for treating osteomyelitis. Medical
and Veterinary Entomology, 2(3): 225-230.

127

Invisible Threats: The Economic Impact
 of Mites on Agriculture

Introduction making whole leaf reddish.

As members of the class Arachnida and  Drying of leaves and stems in sugarcane.
taxonomic order Acarina, mites are small yet mighty  Formation of galls on leaves in pongamia.
creatures of the animal kingdom. These tiny  Production of pustules, felt like growth on leaves
organisms, which are abundant in the diverse phylum in jasmine.
Arthropoda, are important agents in a variety of  Formation of crowded buds, crumpled shoots in
ecosystems while frequently avoiding casual mango.
observation because of their small size. Even though  Formation of pinkish blotches on fruits of citrus.
they are small, mites have a big impact because they  Curling of leaves upwards in chillies.
are important parts of ecosystems and because they  Formation of warts and longitudinal tissues on
are pests that destroy natural and agricultural coconut.
systems. The narrative covers the types of mite  Act as vectors by transmitting viral diseases.
damage and symptoms, explaining how these small  Spin delicate webs on the lower surface of the
arachnids harm plants by sucking on their sap, leaf.
developing gallstones, and spreading viral diseases. Management
It also explores management techniques, from Cultural control
chemical treatments to cultural and biological  Removal and destruction of damaged leaves and
controls, showing the variety of methods used to plant parts.
lessen mite infestations.The article functions as a  Removal of rattoon crops, weeds.
thorough guide and contains management techniques  Avoiding monoculture.
for mites' effects on ecosystems and agriculture.  Adjusting times of sowing
Nature and symptoms of mite damage  Intercropping
Both nymphs and adults suck sap from plant  Need based irrigation and fertilizer application
parts like leaves, shoots, fruits etc with their needle  Pruning and burning of infested leaves, twigs
like chelicerae: during peak season.
 Formation of white blotches on leaves in Biological control
vegetables. Predatory mites
 Characteristic red spots that enlarge and coalese  Mites of phytoseiidae, cheyletidae, anystidae,
Department of Agricultural Entomology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu

128
ascidae, cunaxidae, stigmaeidae hus mites

 Voracious feeders of phytophagous mites  Bacillus thuringiensis successful against
 Fast moving with very long legs to run, abundant Tetranychus spp., and Phyllocoptruta citri
in nature Chemical control
 Wide range of food habits from carnivores to  A toxicant that kills mites only by direct contact
non‐animal food (pollen, honey, nectar plant sap during application relatively ineffective for mite
eaters. control on dense or low growing crops
Predatory insects  Effectiveness varies with age, height of crop,
 Schymnus gracilis, stethorus punctum, Brumus amount of chemical reaching the target, time,
suturalis, number and method of application
 Chilomenus sexmaculatus and coccinella Insecticides and acaricides
septumpunctata  Profenophos 50EC @ 1.0 ml lit-1 (Curacron)
 Chilocorus nigratus, chrysoperla predacious on  Diafenthiuron 50 WP @ 1.5 ml lit-1 (Pegaasus/
phytophagous mites White out)
Predatory mites Plant feeding mites  Buprofezin 25SC @ 1.5 ml lit-1. (Applaud)
Amblyseius Brevipalpus phoenicis,
finlandicus Eutetranychus orientalis  Chlorfenapyr 10 SC @ 1.5 ml lit-1. (Intrepid/
A. alstoniae E. orientalis, Tetranychus
macfarlanei, B. phoenicis Lepido)
A. (neoseiulus) fallacis T. urticae, Schizotetranychus  Fenpropathrin 10 EC @ 0.5 ml lit-1. (Meothrin/
andropogoni
A. andersoni Panonychus ulmi, E. carpini, Danitol)
Colomerus vitis
A. ovalis Tetranychids  Bifenthrin 10 EC @ 1.0 ml lit-1. (80 gai ha-1)
A. alstoniae E. orientalis, T. macfarlanei
A. longispinosus T. cinnabarinus, T. ludeni eggs (Talstar/Indothrin)
A. tetranychivorus T. ludeni, R. indica  Spiromesifen 240 SC @ 1 ml lit-1. (Oberon)
A. victoriensis T. urticae, Aculus cornutus,
Phytoseiulus T. urticae, T. ludeni, T. fijiensis,  Milbemectin 1EC @ 0.4 ml lit-1. (Milbeknock)
persimilis T. neocaledonicus, Oligonychus
indicus,  Abamectin 1.9 EC (Vertimec) @ 0.3 ml lit-1.
Fungal pathogens: Entomophthora, Neozygites, Pure acaricides
Hirsutella, Paecilomyces, Cephalosporium, Beauve-  Wettable sulphur 80 WP @ 3 g lit-1.
ria and Verticilium  Fenazaquin 10 EC @ 1.7 ml lit-1. (Magister
Virus: Non‐occluded viruses in the regulation of /Majestic)
citrus red mites and European red mites.  Propargite 57EC @ 1.5 ml lit-1. (Omite/simbaa)
Bacteria  Fenpyroximate 5 EC @ 1.0 ml lit-1 (Neon/
 Wolbachia distorts sex ratio in offspring and Zolomite/Pyromite)
incompatibility between population of Tetranyc-  Bifenazate 50 WP @ 0.25 g lit-1. (375 g ai ha-1)

129
 Hexythiazox 5.45% EC @ 0.6 ml lit-1 (25 g ai ha-

1
.) (Maiden)
 Bifenazate 240 SC @ 0.5 ml lit-1. (375 g ai ha-1)
(Floramite).
 Clofentezine 50 SC @ 0.8 ml lit-1. (300 g ai ha-
1
.) (Apollo)
 Flufenzine/flumite 20 SC @ 0.7 ml lit-1. (100 g ai
ha-1.)
References
Carrillo, D., De Moraes, G. J. and Peña, J. E. (Eds.).
(2015). Prospects for biological control of
plant feeding mites and other harmful
organisms (Vol. 19). Springer.
Knapp, M., Palevsky, E. and Rapisarda, C. (2020).
Insect and mite pests. Integrated pest and
disease management in greenhouse crops,
101-146.
Fathipour, Y. and Maleknia, B. (2016). Mite
predators. In Ecofriendly pest management
for food security (pp. 329-366). Academic
Press.
Hoy, M. A. (2011). Agricultural acarology:
introduction to integrated mite manage-
ment (Vol. 7). CRC press.
Liburd, O. E., Lopez, L., Carrillo, D., Revynthi, A.
M., Olaniyi, O. and Akyazi, R. (2019).
Integrated pest management of mites.
In Integrated management of insect pests (pp.
841-886). Burleigh Dodds Science
Publishing.

130
Establish of Community Fodder Bank in Rural Areas

Devendra Kumar Meena and Meenakshi Meena
Abstract
A community fodder bank is nothing but, a group of farmers coming together to raise multiple
fodder crops consisting of trees, grasses and legumes, largely in non-arable or wastelands in order to
meet the fodder requirement especially during lean periods. These fodder banks also help in the
preservation and storage of surplus fodder, availability of nutritious fodder during the period of fodder
scarcity and enhance nutritive value of crop residue and other cellulosic waste for animal feeding by
conventional and non-conventional fodder. To bridge the gap between fodder demand and supply,
intensive production system with improved inputs is desirable. Feed & fodder constitute about 60-70
per cent cost of milk production. Fodder production and its utilization depend on the cropping pattern,
climate, socio-economic conditions, available sources and the type of animals. Fodder crisis in the arid
region has been debated long back however, gap is widening between increasing demand and
decreasing area under fodder.
Introduction stock. In India majority of the farmers are small and

The system is like a forage/ crop rotation marginal holders, and hence livestock components
except that the forage phase may last for three or provide the main source of livelihood. However with
more years until desired fertility level of the soil is increased awareness on breed improvement and
attained. These fodder banks also help in the improved feeding practices, cattle and buffaloes are
preservation and storage of surplus fodder, also becoming popular in semi-arid regions as a
availability of nutritious fodder during the period of primary source of livelihood for small and poor
fodder scarcity and enhance nutritive value of crop farmers. Various studies in drought prone states of
residue and other cellulosic waste for animal feeding India have revealed that the incidences of farmers
by conventional and non-conventional fodder. committing suicides were mostly confined to
Animal husbandry plays an important role in families exclusively dependent on rainfed
livelihood security and economic sustenance of agriculture, while families with livestock as
farmers, especially in rainfed areas. Rainfed areas additional occupation were able to cope up the stress.
currently constitute 55 per cent of the net sown area Even though India is ranked first in livestock
of the country and are home to two dried of the live- population, there is tremendous pressure on the limi-
Devendra Kumar Meena
Assistant Professor, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kotputli, SKNAU, Jobner, Jaipur, Rajasthan
Meenakshi Meena
Research Scholar, Rajasthan College of Agriculture, MPUAT, Udaipur, Rajasthan

131
ted feed and fodder resources the availability and perennial forages or self-seeding perennials so as to
requirement of dry and green fodder. This is in spite rebuild the nitrogen content of the soil through
of increase in the area under fodder cultivation from biological nitrogen fixation, and at the same time, for
the present 4 per cent to at least 10 per cent. Thus, production of high quality dry fodder. The system is
the dry land farmers are unable to pay any attention like a forage/ crop rotation except that the forage
towards assured fodder production. They mostly phase may last for three or more years until desired
depend upon the crop Stover for their livestock fertility level of the soil is attained. These fodder
during season and face severe fodder shortage during banks also help in the preservation and storage of
lean period. surplus fodder, availability of nutritious fodder
The sub-mission will especially focus on during the period of fodder scarcity and enhance
increasing both production and productivity of nutritive value of crop residue and other cellulosic
fodder and feed through adoption of improved and waste for animal feeding by conventional and non-
appropriate technologies best suited to specific agro- conventional fodder.
climatic region in both arable and non-arable areas. Selection of site: Site identification is the key in
Considering the efforts taken by the nation, establishing a fodder bank. Nowadays, fodder bank
community or village level fodder bank is a grass (systems have been extended to utilize all available
root level approach and could be an option to tackle open land around a farmer's homestead including
fodder shortage particularly during lean season, crop borders. sloped or stony pieces of land, and
including drought years. bottom lands that neither are nor suited for normal
Establishment of community fodder bank crop production. On such lands, intensive fodder
Fodder banks are important crops which crops are grown as a dry season feed reserve- 'green
support sustainable livelihood in rainfed areas hence, or conserved feed banking.
should be managed intensively. Our goal should be a Fodder Machinery for Value Addition: These
productive fodder system throughout the year. Thus, activities will include Infrastructure development for
from the site selection to its proper management all Fodder block, Silage/ Hay Making/enrichment at
play a fundamental role. individual/ Panchayat/ block/ Primary Milk
A community fodder bank is nothing but, a Cooperative level and establishment of Fodder
group of farmers coming together to raise multiple banks.
fodder crops consisting of trees, grasses and Fodder Depose: The States are opening fodder
legumes, largely in non-arable or wastelands in order depose during drought, flood and other natural
to meet the fodder requirement especially during lean calamities situations through resources from State
periods. Thus, a fallow land is sown to legurninous Disaster Relief Funds (SDRF) and National Disaster

132
Relief Funds (NDRF). These depose are serving of  Irrigation: Most of the fodder crops require
fodder availability during that situation and lasted 90 enough soil moisture to establish. There are few
days only. However, it is reported that during normal annuals and Perennials which are suitable for
periods, there are shortage of green and dry fodder rainfed conditions.
which impede the productivity and production of Grazing: Grazing is advisable in fodder bank;
livestock. Besides, the landless agricultural labour, however it depends upon the total area available.
small & marginal farmers’ families can take to stall- Fodder banks established over a large area can be
fed animal enterprises provided they are helped very well fragmented into paddocks and allowed for
through Fodder Depose. The establishment of grazing. After grazing, adequate time should be
Fodder depose can help to promote higher allowed for its recuperation. Goats and sheep often
productivity and production. The depose will be eat the bark of the tree, hence proper care and
opened by landless, SC/ST, small and marginal monitoring should be taken while allowing grazing
farmers including SHG of women’s of these groups inside the fodder bank.
under the FFEDS. Cut and carry approach: This method is highly
Planting material: Fodder crop species suitable advisable where the total area of the fodder bank is
according to the soil and moisture availability should less. A cut-and-carry system decreases fodder waste
be identified. Hence, there is a need to identify, and from animal damage and the necessity to monitor
or develop forage varirieties suitable for rainfed animals.
situations. A mixture of tree, grass and legume Management of dry season: Dry-season fodder
fodder species of both annual and perennial nature production is a main objective of fodder bank
suitable for rainfed condition is highly preferable to management. In areas with severe dry-seasons
meet the nutritional demand of livestock and ensure special management practices should be followed.
supply of fodder throughout the year. When dry-season is very long or the area of fodder
After care bank very large, the pre-dry-season harvest should
 Weed management: Although most fodder occur in phases.
species are fast-growing, their initial growth is Socio-economic issues: This holds the key for a
often slow. In general perennial fodders take successful community fodder bank system in a
about six months to establishment sustain itself village by gram Panchayat. Diverse socio-economic
and compete with weeds. issues need to be addressed before designing and
 Fertilization: Fodder banks are long-term crops establishing a fodder bank, interest and motivation of
that must be properly maintained to continue the farmers are the very first step.
high productivity. Summary

133
It is indeed a serious issue that forage Amatya, S. M. and Chhetri, R., 2000. Survival and
production has not been picking up on a massive Growth of Fodder species Strategies for
scale, in spite of significant progress in dairy improved fodder production in the dry season
development. As, simply increasing the area under in the mid-hills of Nepal, using participatory
fodder may not be a viable option, it calls out for research techniques. Project code: R6994
developing strategies to bridge the huge gap. A0721, Natural Resource Institute (NRI),
Thinking into consideration the multi-faceted United Kingdom.
constraints faced by rainfed farmers, developing a Banskota, M., T.S., Papola and J. Richter (Eds.)
community fodder bank would be a viable option. 2000. Growth, Poverty Alleviation and
However, considering the socio economic aspects Sustainable Resource Management in the
this could be very challenging to institutionalize this Mountain Areas of South Asia, International
concept at village level. The initial rapport with the Centre for Integrated Mountain Development
farmers and making them understand the issue may (ICIMOD), Kathmandu, and Food and
be highly challenging. Identifying a common piece Agriculture Development Centre (ZEL),
of land under common property resources may be Feldafing, Munich.
another issue. Marginal and unproductive land needs Mishra, S., Sharma, S., Vasudevan, P., Pandey, S., &
to be identified and developed. Considering the Meena, B.S. 2005. Fodder Supply Micro
limitations of traditionally cultivated fodder models for Peri- urban System. In:
selection of suitable fodder crops for growing on Microenterprise Promotion in Agriculture
marginally unproductive farms and denuded (pp. 59-68).
community lands is still a researchable issue. As the Pathak, P.S. 2011. Organic farming for sustainable
supply of forage and feeds determine the profitability production (in Bhushan, N. and Chandrika
of animal husbandry and livestock being the major Prasad ed.) Organic Agriculture: Hope of
source of livelihood for the rural Poor, we need to set Posterity (pp. 63-70). Published by U.P.
our priority to address the needs of small farmers by Council of Agriculture Research, Lucknow.
developing various forage production systems, Venugopolon, V. K., Prabhakar, M., Gopinolh, K.A.,
suitable for rainfed lands. Pankaj, P.K. and Rao, Ch. S.2016.
References “Community fodder banks for addressing
Pandit, B. H., 1990. A study on Fodder System and forage shortage in rainfed areas”. Indian
Livestock Keeping in Majhigaon of Sindhu Farming 66(2): 2l-25; May 2016.
patchwork District, Nepal. New Era, Sharma, J.P., Singh, C.B., Chaudhari, M and Singh,
Kathmandu. R. Pub. By- Ambica Book Agency Jaipur.

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Pathak, P.S. and Patil, B.D. 1981. Production

performance of subabool. With special
reference to its giant varieties. Proceedings of
National seminar on Subabool, Uruli
Kanchan.
Singh, R.A., Shukla, N.P., Sharma, M.S., Dwivedi,
R.N., & Sharma, P.2002. Range Management
and Agroforestry. 23(1), 35-37.
Chellaiah, N., & Ernest, J. 1994. Fodder production
of cereal legume mixture. Livestock-
Adviser, 19, 15-18.
Tiwari, B. N., Pariyar, D., and Sterk, A. 1996. Hills
Leasehold Forestry and Forage Development
Project. Project Discussion Paper 6.
Kathmandu.

135
Functional Roles of Melatonin in Agriculture

Abstract
N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine, or melatonin, is a biological indolamine. It is produced by

plants biologically and is crucial in alleviating agricultural stress. Other functions of melatonin
include those mediated by its bioactive metabolites and interactions with reactive oxygen species
(ROS) that are not dependent on the melatonin receptor. It is a bio-stimulator and regulator of plant
growth that functions as a modulatory agent in plants, enhancing their resistance to biotic and abiotic
stressors (such as drought, waterlogging, extreme temperatures, salt, alkalinity, and chemical
substances in soils like pesticides and heavy metals) as well as ultraviolet radiation. It functions as a
bio-stimulator of plant development as well as a stress-relieving hormone (regulating anti-stress
reactions). It is a redox equilibrium maintainer that eliminates ROS and reactive nitrogen species
(RNS), reduces stress, stimulates root growth and development, supports plant development, affects
fruit ripening and flowering, stops leaf senescence, enhances photosynthesis, enhances gene
expression and enzyme activity, protects plants from pathogen attack, and influences other
physiological and biochemical processes.
Introduction to enter cell compartments. Applying melatonin is

Despite having a basic structure, melatonin is thought to be a low-cost, alternative method of
a low molecular weight substance which is found in helping plants become more resilient to abiotic
all living things, including bacteria and mammals. challenges. Thus, it is acknowledged that melatonin
Melatonin has pleiotropic biological effects. Its has a major protective effect against a abiotic
chemical formula is C13H16N2O2, and it has a density stresses, including drought, flooding, extreme heat,
of 1.269 g cm3 and a molecular mass of 232.28. salt, alkalinity, chemically contaminated soil
Nuclear and melatonin membrane receptors are two (including heavy metals, pesticides, and others), UV
examples of the receptors that mediate some of these radiation, and combinations of these.
actions. Melatonin, a biomolecule that is safe for the Biosynthesis of melatonin
environment, plays an essential role in plants as a Melatonin (N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine),
modulatory agent a bio-stimulator and regulator of a biological indolamine discovered in 1954 and a
plant growth by improving a plant's tolerance to well-known chronoregulator and sleep hormone
biotic and abiotic stress. Its small size and high found in animal and plant extracts in 1995, was
degree of solubility in both lipids and water allow it concurrently discovered by three research teams in
Department of Plant Physiology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, BHU, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh

136
Germany, Japan, and Czechoslovakia. Endogenous acetyl serotonin is converted into phyto-melatonin
indolamines, such as melatonin, are naturally found by the enzyme 5-hydroxyindol O-methyltransferase.
in creatures that are evolutionarily distant from one N-acetyl serotonin in plants can also be methylated
another. Phyto-melatonin is composed of the amino by a class of plant enzymes called caffeic acid O-
acid tryptophan and an indoleamine derivative called methyltransferase (COMT), which can function on a
N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine. The word “phyto- variety of substrates, such as caffeic acid and
melatonin” refers to ML that is obtained from plants, quercetin. Additionally, by the action of SNAT,
whereas the name “melatonin” refers to a chemically ASMT and COMT may convert serotonin into 5-
produced or animal-derived substance. The word methoxytryptamine, which will then create phyto-
“phyto-melatonin” was originally used in a 2004 melatonin. Furthermore, certain findings from
study that addressed the therapy of liver cancer in Sekiguchi mutant rice imply that the production of
rats. phyto-melatonin might occur via the conversion of
N-acetyltryptamine to N-acetylserotonin. Finally, 5-
hydroxytryptophan can be converted to serotonin by
tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH) and tryptophan
decarboxylase (TDC), the latter of which is mainly
found in mammals but is also found in plants to a
Fig. 1: Melatonin structure: N-acetyl-5-methoxy-
tryptamine lesser level. The most appropriate method for
Tryptophan is the starting point for the producing (phyto) melatonin is the sequence
production of phyto-melatonin, which also involves Tryptophan→Tryptamine→Serotonin→N-acetyl
a number of enzyme-mediated processes (Fig. 2). In serotonin→Phytomelatonin. Rice and Arabidopsis
extensively studied processes, tryptophan is have been shown to contain all of the previously
transformed into melatonin and phyto-melatonin in named enzymes, with the exception of TPH, which
both plants and animals. Initially, 5-hydroxy- is well-known in mammals but unknown in plants.
tryptophan is converted to serotonin or tryptophan to The main routes in mammals are tryptophan→5-
tryptamine by the enzyme tryptophan decarboxylase hydroxytryptophan→Serotonin→N-acetyl
(TDC). N-acetyl tryptamine is then converted to N- serotonin→ Melatonin. Melatonin intermediates are
acetyl serotonin, and tryptophan is converted to 5- produced by a variety of subcellular locations, such
hydroxytryptophan by the tryptophan 5-hydroxylase as the cytoplasm, endoplasmic reticulum, mito-
(T5H) enzyme. Then, serotonin N-acetyltransferase chondria, and chloroplasts. Furthermore, 2-hydroxy-
(SNAT) transfers the acetyl group from acetyl melatonin is not the pathway's final output because
coenzyme A to other biomolecules. Ultimately, N- melatonin in plants is frequently hydroxylated to

137
create 2-, 3-, and 6-hydroxy-melatonin as products, direct food and feed sources or for the synthesis of
with 2-hydroxymelatonin acting as the major nutritional supplements and nutraceuticals, applying
metabolite. melatonin to plants offers several advantages.
Function of melatonin as an anti-stressor
In situations of abiotic stress, melatonin acts
as a bio-stimulant. Melatonin functions chemically
by eliminating a large number of ROS and RNS,
limiting their overproduction, and preserving redox
equilibrium. Furthermore, melatonin promotes the
growth of RbOHs, which generate O2⋅−, and SOD,
which raises H2O2 levels. Furthermore, melatonin
regulates ROS levels and attenuates their effects by
promoting the formation of several enzymes that
detoxify excess H2O2, such as glutathione/ascorbate
reductases, peroxidases, catalases and peroxire-
doxins. Excess ROS and RNS levels cause the
Fig. 2: Melatonin biosynthesis pathways expression of the genes involved in melatonin
Melatonin as a bio-stimulator and regulator of biosynthesis (TDC, T5H, SNAT, ASMT, and
plant development COMT), which increases the amount of melatonin in
Melatonin applied exogenously improves the the stressed tissues. Plants use melatonin to control
quantitative and qualitative characteristics of plants, their growth. At micro molar (µm) concentrations,
algae, and consumable agricultural products while melatonin promotes the active growth of hypocotyls,
shielding them from a variety of environmental but at high levels, it inhibits the growth of etiolated
challenges. Plants' various processes and functions lupin.
are regulated by melatonin. Plant circadian rhythms Melatonin controls the growth of plants
are regulated by melatonin, which also enhances a Plant hormones that promote growth include
number of other processes and activities, including melatonin. The coleoptiles of canary grass, wheat,
biomass production, root growth, senescence of the barley, and oats were prolonged by melatonin
leaves, photosynthesis, fruit maturity, membrane administration. When exposed to melatonin, a
protection, and osmotic regulation. Because humans, variety of plants, such as soybean, etiolated white
wild animals, and livestock production all rely on lupin, maize, cucumber, and Arabidopsis, develop
plants, algae, and edible agricultural products as vegetatively. Semi-dwarf growth was seen in Arabi-

138
dopsis and rice plants that had either SNAT1 or adventitious and lateral root counts by up to two and
SNAT2 down-regulated. Transgenic tomato three times, respectively. By increasing the activity
seedlings carrying the rice IDO (indoleamine 2, 3- of enzymes involved in nitrogen absorption and
dioxygenase) gene showed decreased endogenous metabolism, melatonin boosted nitrogen absorption
melatonin levels and biomass. Crop output is and assimilation, which in turn increased wheat
probably significantly impacted by rising melatonin productivity. Melatonin increases the expression of
synthesis. Surprisingly, expressing sheep SNAT important enzymes and their activity, which
exogenously in rice led to a significant reduction in maintains the balance of carbon and nitrogen
grain output, an acceleration of early seedling metabolism and fosters the growth of maize. Plants
growth, extended flowering, and elevated melatonin react to melatonin by releasing H2O2. Melatonin
levels. enhanced tomato lateral root development by
Melatonin stimulates the germination of seeds promoting polyamine oxidase (PAO) dependent
During the germination stage, melatonin and H2O2 and Rboh (respiratory burst oxidase homolog)
its derivatives can readily penetrate the seed to shield dependent O2 generation. Melatonin increases the
the cell membrane's lipids from peroxidation, quantity of osmotic adjustment substances,
boosting the vitality and rate of germination. This is antioxidant enzyme activity, biomass, and root
a result of their antioxidant and amphiphilic growth in rape seedlings.
properties. Moreover, a large amount of sugar Melatonin during the blossoming
metabolism takes place during seed germination, and Exogenous melatonin slows down the
melatonin alters the gluconeogenesis pathway in growing of flowers. Serotonin and melatonin are
cells to promote the conversion of amino acids into present at higher concentrations during different
starch. Melatonin promotes growth and development phases of floral development, according to an indole
by regulating the levels of other hormones. Low profile (IAA, ML, and SET). The strongest
concentrations of melatonin, for example, promote regeneration potential of isolated anthers is
the germination of cotton seeds via regulating the connected with the higher ML level. The melatonin
synthesis of endogenous hormones in plants content in Datura flower buds peaked early in their
(increasing GA3 content and lowering ABA content). growth and progressively dropped as the buds
Melatonin regulating the growth of roots became older. Melatonin promoted a salt-inhibited
Exogenous melatonin application promoted germination process in cucumber seedlings
adventitious and lateral root growth in a range of developing in salinity by upregulating the expression
plants, including rice, cucumbers, Arabidopsis, of genes involved in GA biosynthesis, such as
lupinus albus, and rice. It increased Arabidopsis' GA20ox and GA3ox. Exogenous melatonin increased

139
the GA content in cotton seedlings but produced Conclusions

parthenocarpy in pears. Melatonin has garnered significant attention
Plant leaf senescence is associated with melatonin in recent times due to its distinct benefits in
Whereas ABA accelerates leaf senescence, controlling plant development and enhancing plant
cytokinin delays it. The loss and degradation of resilience against various biotic and abiotic stressors.
chlorophyll is a significant sign of leaf senescence. It is a chemical that has been found to have numerous
Melatonin has been found to halt the senescence of positive impacts and a wide variety of different
leaves. Maintaining chlorophyll activity is necessary functions in plants. It protects against stress,
to prevent leaf ageing. Melatonin supplementation promotes plant growth, and controls fruit ripening
dramatically raises the net photosynthetic rate and and flowering. The overexpression of multiple anti-
chlorophyll content in maize leaves during leaf stress genes (against cold, drought, and osmotic
senescence. It has complicated interactions with stress) in ML-treated plants and the stimulation of
other hormones such as cytokinin and ABA, but does endogenous ML by these stressors have proven a
not independently control senescence. Additionally, crucial role for ML as a signalling molecule in
studies have demonstrated that ML and cytokinin abiotic stress. An interesting triad of ROS, NO, and
work together to slow down the ageing process of phyto-melatonin maintains redox homeostasis in
leaves in creeping bent grass. The molecular cells, where melatonin may be the key component at
mechanism by which ABA and melatonin govern the centre of the redox network. By altering the redox
leaf senescence is revealed when melatonin inhibits network, ML can be used as a biostimulator to
transcription factor ABF-mediated ABA production. improve plants by enhancing their photosynthesis
Melatonin has an impact on carbon fixation as people and anti-senescence gene expression.
age. Melatonin was found to slow the senescence References
brought on by darkness in barley leaves. Moreover, Dubbels, R., Reiter, R. J., Klenke, E., Goebel, A.,
the administration of melatonin prevented the Schnakenberg, E., Ehlers, C., Schiwara, H.
activation of numerous ATGs (autophagy-related W., Schloot, W. (1995). Melatonin in edible
genes) and Hexokinase-1, a senescence-related gene plants identified by radioimmunoassay and
that is frequently seen in the latter phases of leaf by HPLC-MS. Journal of Pineal Research,
senescence. 18: 28-31.
Sharma, P., Thakur, N., Mann, N. A. and Umar, A.
(2024). Melatonin as plant growth regulator
in sustainable agriculture. Scientia
Horticulturae, 323: 112421.
Fig. 3. Function of Melatonin in plant physiology
140
Management Strategies for South East Asian Thrips, Thrips parvispinus in

Chilli
S. Srinivasnaik, K. Vijaya Lakshmi, V. Ratnakar and Bharati N. Bhat
Introduction and it is now known to occur in France, Greece,

Chilli, Capsicum annuum L. is an Hawaii, Mauritius, Reunion, Spain, Tanzania and the
indispensable spice cum vegetable crop grown Netherlands, besides India. It is a polyphagous
widely in India. India is the world's largest producer, species and has been reported on infesting beans,
consumer and exporter of chillies. It has the wide eggplant, papaya, pepper, potato, shallot and straw-
range of pest complex which dwindling the dry berry (Rachana, et al., 2018).
chillies production. This would be higher when there The farmers in Andhra Pradesh and
is a chance of infestation by the invasive insect Telangana were suffered due to its severity and burnt
species. These invasive insects referred as non-native the standing crop. Based on its severity DPPQS,
species have great power of dispersal and adaptation Faridabad has released the ad-hoc management
and threatens agricultural bio diversity in the absence strategies against this notorious pest
of native entomophages. They are introduced Ad-hoc management strategies
unintentionally into a new area where they get a  Deep summer ploughing to destroy the resting
favourable climate for its increase in number and (pupae) as well as residual stages of thrips.
establish well.  Advance cropping season and avoid staggered
Tyagi et al. (2015) reported South East Asian planting.
thrips, Thrips parvispinus (Karny) from India for the  Growing resistant or early/short duration
first time on papaya and emphasized that it may varieties if available in order to escape the peak
obtain pest status and have potential quarantine incidence of thrips.
importance. T. parvispinus (Karny) is a  Clean cultivation for maintaining weed free
cosmopolitan pest species and has been reported bunds and borders of the crop fields since many
from Thailand to Australia and Europe. The last two weeds act as alternate hosts for thrips.
decades witnessed a drastic extension of T.  Seed treatment with label claim systemic
parvispinus (Karny) in the geographic distribution insecticides.
S. Srinivasnaik and V. Ratnakar

Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Jagtial, Telangana
K. Vijaya Lakshmi
Senior Professor and University Head, Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Telangana
Bharati N. Bhat
Associate Dean, College of Agriculture, Jagtial, PJTSAU, Telangana

141
 Application of well decomposed farm yard flood irrigation, since the jet of water spray from
manure (FYM) or compost @ 1 t acre-1, enriched sprinklers disrupts the growth and multiplication
with Metarhizium anisopliae or Pseudomonas of thrips
fluorescens @ 2 kg t-1 along with recommended  Conservation of natural enemies by avoiding
doses of farm yard manure (10 to 12 t acre-1). spraying of chemical pesticides to the extent
 Soil application of 200 Kg of Neem cake and 500 possible. Instead, spray botanical based
Kg of vermicompost acre-1 to induce resistance pesticides like Neem Seed Kernel Extract
against thrips (NSKE) 5% or Neem oil 3% @ 2 ml l-1,
 Balanced fertilization with enhanced potash Pongamia oil @ 3 ml l-1, Vitex negundo extract
application along with nitrogen and phosphorous @ 50-80 ml l-1, etc. or microbial based
fertilizers to induce plant resistance against the insecticides like Beauveria bassiana @ 4.00 g or
pest. ml l-1 (spore load - 1x108 cfu g-1 or ml),
 Mulching with silver coloured polythene sheets Pseudomonas fluorescence - NBAIRPFDWD @
of 25-30 micron thickness to reduce pupation of 20 g l-1 or Bacillus albus-NBAIR-BATP @ 20 g
thrips in the soil. l-1 uniformly covering whole plant.
 Border cropping with 2-3 rows of tall growing  Need based and judicious application of label
crops like sorghum/ maize / bajra / fodder grasses claim insecticides.
etc. sown thickly as a barrier for thrips
movement.
 Intercropping chilli with maize / sorghum and
cowpea @ 10:3:1 as a barrier and reservoir for
natural enemy multiplication, leading to
biological control of thrips.
Monitoring of South East Asian thrips in different
 Frequent inter cultivation (earthing up/raking of
districts of Telangana
soil) operations to destroy soil inhabiting pupae
of thrips
 Mechanical destruction of severely infested
plants by uprooting and burying or burning.
 Erecting blue sticky traps @ 25-30 traps acre-1 at
crop canopy height for both monitoring and mass
trapping purpose.
 Adopting sprinkler irrigation system instead of Symptoms caused by Thrips parvispinus in leaves,
flowers and fruits
142
Conclusion
Monitoring and adaptation of above
mentioned ad-hoc management strategies against
this invasive alien insect species can lessen percent
damage caused by this pest.
Acknowledgement
The above information is edited from various
sources. We are obliged for that and this information
only for the benefit of the farming community and
other scientific people.
References
NBAIR. (2021). Pest alert report on invasive thrips,
Thrips parvispinus (Karny) threatening chilli
cultivation in India. 4 pp.
NPPO-India. (2021). Report on joint survey on chilli
flower thrips conducted in Telangana state.
Directorate of Plant Protection Quarantine
and Storage, Faridabad, India.1p.
NPPO-India. (2022). Technical booklet on
monitoring, diagnosis and management of
South East Asian thrips, Thrips parvispinus
in chilli. 26 p.
Tyagi, K., Kumar, V., Singha, D and Rajasree, C.
(2015). Morphological and DNA barcoding
evidence for invasive pest thrips, Thrips
parvispinus (Thripidae: Thysanoptera),
newly recorded from India. Journal of Insect
Science, 15(1): 1-4.

143
Floor Management in Fruit Orchards

Hemant Bagul
Introduction  Increase nutrients status of soil.

Orchard floor management system is one of  Control weeds in the orchard.
the most important operations in the successful  Improve soil structure and loosen it for good
orchard and affects the growth and overall aeration and water percolation
development of fruit trees. It also affects the tree  To ensure additional income from the interspaces
growth, cropping, fruit quality, and tree nutrition, of the orchard, especially during the pre-bearing
through its effect on the nutrient and moisture stage.
availability and improving the soil physical  Enhance biocontrol and improve microbial
properties. Proper orchard floor management is vital activity.
to the health and productivity of fruit trees, with Components
management practices impacting tree growth, yield Soil
and quality of fruit. Management of the orchard floor  Plant available water & nutrients
can influence the effectiveness of irrigation, fertility,  Erosion control
disease and insect management practices. Producing  Compaction
economic yields of high-quality fruit requires  Nutrient cycling
judicious management of factors.  Gas exchange
What is orchard floor management?  Soil-borne disease control
Orchard floor management refers to the  Pesticide decomposition
management of the orchard soil in such a manner that  Soil life
the fruit trees give higher yield of quality fruits in Water and nutrients
successive years for sustainable economic returns.  Intake
Objectives  Storage and cycling
 To provide optimum soil moisture during the  Minimal nitrate
critical plant growth stages.  Chemical leaching
 Prevent or reduce soil erosion.  Water conservation
 Increase or at least maintain organic matter in Biodiversity
soil.  Potential to control pests via. IPM
Hemant Bagul
Assistant Professor (Horticulture), Kishorbhai Institute of Agriculture Sciences and Research Centre (KIASRC), Uka
Tarsadia University, Bardoli, Gujarat

144
 Fixation of nutrients chemical alternation of soils to enhance their

 Soil fauna and flora diversity physical property.
 Beneficial organisms  Increase the strength or stability of soil and to
Energy reduce the constructions cost by making best use
 Frost protection of locally available materials.
 Reduced energy inputs for machinery and Methods of soil stabilization
irrigation  Mechanical
 Soil cement
 Soil lime
 Soil bitumen
 Lime fly ash
 Lime fly ash bound
Irrigation water
 Irrigation is a vital management practice in fruit
production regions of the world, particularly in
Weeds
arid and semi-arid climates.
 In tropical and subtropical countries, 70% of the
 Optimum growth and production of fruit crops is
labour input is diverted for weeding.
strongly linked managing irrigation water.
 Nearly 90% losses are observed in the crops
 Insufficient water supply may result in reduced
where weeds are allowed to grow along with the
tree growth, yield and fruit quality due to water
crops till harvesting.
stress.
 Weeds exert their competition for light, water,
 Excessive irrigation, may increase nutrient
nutrients, and interfere with other operational
leaching, water-logging problems, incidence of
factors.
pests and diseases, and the associated cost of
Control measures of weeds in fruit crops
Crop Losses Methods
frequent operation and maintenance of the
Mango First 5 years Hand weeding, Mechanical irrigation system.
of planting Intercropping, Chemical
Banana 30-40 % Hand weeding, Cover EC level suitable in fruit crops
cropping, Mulching, Chemical Very low Low toler- Medium toler- High toler-
Pineapple 20-30 % Earthing up, Chemical tolerance EC ance EC < 1.3 ance EC < 2.7 ance EC <
Papaya 70 % Cover cropping, Mulching, < 0.7 dS m-1 dS m-1 dS m-1 4.5 dS m-1
Chemical Loquat Almond, Pear Fig Date palm
Apple 30-50 % Chemical Litchi Apple, Grape Pomegranate
Strawberry 34 to 67 % Mulching Papaya Avocado
Soil stabilization Pecan nut Citrus fruit
Persimmon Passion fruit
 Soil stabilization is a permanent physical and Strawberry Walnut

145
Pest management Clean cultivation

 As per estimate, about 20.0% of total loss to  The inter space between the trees is kept clean by
crops is attributed to insect/pest alone. tillage and removal of weeds.
 If the cover crops or intercrops are taken  Vegetation except main crop is removed.
regularly, the insect/pest will be automatically  Disfavour in respect to
suppressed. maintaining soil fertility
 Sometimes due to excessive use of pesticides, the  Soil fertility gets depleted.
buildup of natural enemies in floor orchard.  Moisture loss aggregates.
 IPM involves compiling detailed, timely Advantages
information about a crop and its pests to ensure  Improves soil aeration and physical conditions.
that pest management decisions are econom-  Controls weeds and thus reduces competition for
ically, environmentally, and socially sound. light, nutrients and moisture.
Status of losses caused by biotic stresses in fruit  Eliminates or avoids alternate hosts for pests and
crops (Anonymous, 2001)
diseases.
 Improves the infiltration of water through
breaking the hard soil surface crust.
 Enhances biological activity in the soil through
better aeration.
Sod culture
 Grasses are allowed to grow in the interspaces
between the trees
Important soil management practices without tillage or
mulching.
 The grasses are mowed
periodically to reduce competition for water and
nutrients with the trees.
 Grown grass is mown
time to time use as a
mulch.
 Sod serve as a cushioning material for the falling
fruits of orchard.
Advantages

146
 Controls soil erosion.  Herbicides are applied to soil to manage weeds.

 Maintains optimum soil moisture and organic  While it is desirable for the chemicals to control
matter. weeds during the season of application, it is not
 Provides better aeration to the roots. desirable for them to persist and affect
 Enhances microbiological activity in the soil subsequent crop growth.
through better aeration. Common Trade name Fruit crop
name
 Avoids bruising of falling fruits. Glyphosate Round up Pineapple, Grape
Pelargonic Scythe Apple, Pear, Apricot,
Sod mulch acid Cherry, Nectarine, Peach,
Plum, Strawberry, Grape
 Grasses are allowed to grow in the entire area of
and other fruits
the orchard. Trifluralin Preen Non-bearing tree fruits
and nuts
 Tree basins are mulched Paraquat Cyclon, gramoxon Mango, Banana, Pineapple
2,4-D Weedon, Barrage Highly used in grape and
with straw, instead of other fruits
Clethodim Select maax Pecan nut, Strawberry
tilling.
 The grasses are mowed
down regularly and are spread to maintain the
mulch in basins.
 Sod mulch implies to use of cut over grasses as a
mulch in fruit cultivation.
Benefits Mulching: Mulch can be defined as material,
 Moisture conservation. organic or inorganic, that is used for placement on
 Temperature regulation. the soil surface as a protective cover.
 Weed suppression. Types of mulching
Organic mulch Inorganic mulch
 Better nutrient availability. Straw, Compost, Manure, Saw dust, Plastic film, Metal
Wooden pieces, Rice husk, Leaf litter, foil, Gravel, Stone
 Hastended microbial activity.
news paper and onion garlic scales and Plastic mulch
 Minimized soil compaction. Plastic mulch
 Controlling or checked soil erosion. History: The idea of using polyethylene film as
 Improves fruit colouration and enhances fruit mulch in plant production saw it’s beginnings in the
maturity. mid 1950’s.
Use of herbicide Advantages
 Herbicide also commonly known as weed killers,  Increased yields
are chemical substances used to control  Earlier maturing crops
unwanted plants.  Crops of higher quality enhanced

147
 Insect management  It gives additional yield income/unit area than

 Weed control sole cropping.
Mulches affect  Higher productivity
 Weeds per unit area.
 Soil and orchard temperature  Maintain soil fertility.
 Soil moisture, physical properties  Reduction in soil runoff and control weeds.
 Soil C, N, other nutrients  Provide shade and support to the other crops.
 Soil biology  It utilizes resources sufficiently and their
 Tree performance productivity is increased.
 Pests (rodents)  Intercropping with cash crops is highly profitable
Cover crops: It is the cheapest and most effective
method of maintaining
soil productivity and soil
structure. Thus, the water
holding and nutrient hold-
ing capacity is improved along with increased soil
aeration.
Cover crops affect
 Weeds
 Soil C, N, other nutrients
 Soil biology, moisture
 Pests (insect, disease)
 N fixation (legumes)
 Soil and orchard temperature
Intercropping: Intercropping is the cultivation of
 Manage excess vigour
growing two or more crops at the same time in the
 Increase fruit cleanliness/quality at harvest
same field.
Clean strips (strips cropping)
Types of intercropping
 Crops are planted/grown in form of relatively
 Mixed intercropping
narrow strips across the land slope.
 Row intercropping
 A way to minimize erosion by sowing rows of
 Strip intercropping
different crops next to each other.
 Relay intercropping
 It is method to more effective to erosion control.
Advantages
148
Diversified Farming Systems: A Sustainable Approach to Enhance

Productivity and Resilience
Devrani Gupta, Dinesh Shah, Rahul Verma, Abhishek Raj Ranjan, Rinku Kumar and Rajeev
Ranjan Tiwary
Abstract
Indian agriculture faces formidable challenges, including climate change, resource depletion,
and declining productivity, which jeopardize the livelihoods of small and marginal farmers, who
constitute over 86% of the farming community. This paper for a paradigm shifts towards diversified
farming systems to address these complex issues. It emphasizes the integration of crops with
complementary enterprises such as dairy, sheep, poultry, horticulture, and fisheries. Diversification
offers numerous advantages, including risk reduction, resilience to climate change, soil health
improvement, biodiversity conservation, and cultural value preservation. The research analyses
various farming systems in different regions, demonstrating that integration leads to higher net income
and employment generation. Despite potential challenges such as limited market demand and
infrastructure issues, the benefits of diversified farming outweigh the drawbacks. This paper
underscores the importance of tailoring diversified farming systems to be socially acceptable,
environmentally friendly, and economically viable, promoting sustainability and contributing to the
well-being of farmers and the broader community.
Introduction to provide sufficient food for farm families,

Climate change, dwindling natural resources, necessitating a shift towards circular economy-
and declining agricultural productivity pose based, environmentally resilient agro-technologies.
significant threats to the profitability of Indian Addressing these challenges requires a compre-
farming, especially for small and marginal farmers, hensive approach that integrates locally available
who make up over 86% of farm families. Despite farm resources, focuses on environmental restoration
India's vast arable land per capita, the nation and promotes diversification of production systems.
experiences low landholding on a global scale, with To enhance total farm productivity and profitability,
fragmented land resources threatening future diversification is recommended, involving the
sustainability, food security, and profitability. incorporation of compatible enterprises such as
Traditional agricultural technologies are inadequate dairy, poultry, horticulture, and animal rearing along
Devrani Gupta, Dinesh Shah, Rahul Verma, Abhishek Raj Ranjan and Rinku Kumar
Department of Agronomy, BUAT, Banda, Uttar Pradesh
Rajeev Ranjan Tiwary
Birsa Agricultural University, Ranchi, Jharkhand

149
side primary cropping systems. This diversified rsified farming supports biodiversity by creating
strategy, informed by a farming systems perspective, habitats for a variety of plant and animal species.
aims to optimize the use of inputs and natural This, in turn, enhances ecosystem services like
resources for sustainable income and employment. pollination and pest control, which are vital for
Emphasizing the preservation of land and water sustainable agriculture.
resources, sustainability in agriculture involves  Market Opportunities: Producing a diverse
producing viable crop and livestock enterprises array of farm products enables farmers to access
while efficiently utilizing these resources. Integrated multiple markets. This versatility is key to
farming systems highlight the potential to adapting to shifting consumer preferences and
significantly increase income and employment, market demands.
offering a sustainable pathway to ensure food and  Livelihood Security: Diversified farming offers
nutritional security. farmers a more secure livelihood by not relying
Importance of a diversified farming: system can solely on the success of a single crop or livestock
be highlighted in several ways: species. This reduces their vulnerability to
 Risk Reduction: Diversification mitigates the market fluctuations.
risks linked to crop failure or disease outbreaks.  Water and resource efficiency: Various crops
When one crop fails, other crops may still possess different water and resource needs.
succeed, offering farmers a more stable income. Through diversification, farmers can enhance the
 Resilience to Climate Change: Diverse crops efficiency of water and resource utilization,
and livestock have different tolerance levels to mitigating the risk of resource depletion.
environmental conditions. A diversified farm can  Cultural and culinary value: Diverse farms
better endure the impacts of climate change, as play a role in enhancing cultural and culinary
some crops or animals may be more resilient to diversity. They have the capacity to grow a range
extreme weather events or shifting climate of foods that meet local preferences and adhere
patterns. to traditions, thereby safeguarding cultural
 Soil Health and Nutrient Cycling: Growing a heritage and promoting local diets.
variety of crops enhances soil health by  Sustainable practices: Diversified farming
preventing nutrient depletion and lowering the frequently corresponds with sustainable agricul-
risk of soil-borne diseases. Different plants have tural methods. It encourages decreased reliance
varying nutrient needs, and rotating crops helps on pesticides and fertilizers while also imple-
sustain soil fertility. menting enhanced land management techniques,
 Biodiversity Conservation: Implementing dive- thereby fostering long-term environmental susta-

150
inability. limited economies of scale, complex manage-

Principles of diversified farming ment, risk of crop failure, resource intensiveness,
market volatility, and difficulties in accessing
tailored inputs and services.
Table 1: Enterprise-wise share in net income in
different farming system (Seemakowsar, 2024)
Farming system Enterprise Net Income (₹)
Crop 60,695 (20.34)
(C+S) Sheep 2,37,657 (79.66)
Total 2,98,352
Crop 74,536 (26.41)
(C+D) Dairy 2,07,738 (73.59)
Fig. 1: Principles of diversified farming Total 2,82,274
 Additional employment: Diversified farming Crop 63,984 (15.81)
(C+D+H) Horticulture 1,62,462 (40.14)
systems can create more jobs by expanding crop Dairy 1,78,310 (44.05)
and livestock varieties, implementing agro- Total 4,04,757
Crop 52,084 (23.76)
forestry using diversified marketing, setting up (C+H) Horticulture 1,67,096 (76.24)
processing facilities, activities. Total 2,19,180
 Sustainable income: Diversified farming The investigation conducted in the central

systems provide a sustainable income by integr- arid region of Karnataka assessed four prevalent
ating various agricultural enterprises alongside farming configurations: Crop + Sheep (C+S), Crop +
primary crops, mitigating risks, optimizing Dairy (C+D), Crop + Horticulture + Dairy (C+D+H),
resource use, and enhancing resilience. This and Crop + Horticulture (C+H). The study revealed
approach promotes economic stability, environ- that diversifying into supplementary activities such
mental sustainability, and supports livelihoods as dairy farming, sheep husbandry, and horticulture,
within farming communities. in addition to regular crop cultivation, can
 Ecosystem balance: Ecosystem balance in substantially enhance the income levels of farmers in
diversified farming systems is crucial for sustain- the area.
able agriculture. By integrating diverse crops and Some difficulty challenges arise in diversified
livestock, these systems enhance biodiversity, farming systems
soil health, and pest control, promoting a resilient  Management Complexity: Requires more
and harmonious ecosystem. labour, broader knowledge, and expertise.
 Lower risk: Lower-risk diversified farming  Economic Risks: High initial costs, market
systems offer resilience against market and access issues, and financial instability.
environmental risks but face challenges such as  Infrastructure Needs: Diverse equipment and

151
storage requirements.
 Pest and Disease Control: Requires integrated
and varied management strategies.
Conclusion
Adopting diversified farming systems
presents a sustainable method for not only enhancing
productivity but also building resilience within
agricultural practices. By incorporating various
enterprises such as dairy, poultry, horticulture, and
animal rearing alongside primary cropping systems,
farmers can optimize resource utilization and ensure
long-term profitability. This approach, informed by
a farming systems perspective, emphasizes the
importance of environmental restoration and the
efficient use of local resources. Ultimately,
embracing diversified farming systems offers a
pathway towards sustainable agriculture that
supports both economic viability and environmental
stewardship.
Reference
Seemakowsar, N. (2024). Assessing the Impact of
Water Users’ Cooperatives Initiative on
Economic Efficiency of Irrigation Water Use
in Bhadra Command Area of Shivamogga
District, Karnataka. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis
(Unpub.), Univeristy of Agricultural
Sciences, Bengaluru.

152
Horticulture and Agroforestry: Growing Employment in Rural India

Akshay Mehta, Shivam, Aman Kumar, Visha Jain and Alkesh Yadav
Abstract
India's agricultural sector faces the challenge of creating sustainable employment opportunities
for its growing rural population. Traditional agriculture, often limited by fragmented landholdings and
low productivity, struggles to address this need. Horticulture (fruits, vegetables, flowers, medicinal
plants) and agroforestry (integrating trees on farms) offer a promising solution. These practices
promote diversification, income generation, and the creation of jobs across the agricultural value chain.
This article explores how horticulture and agroforestry are creating employment opportunities in rural
India through case studies from Mizoram, Punjab, Karnataka, and Kerala. It also discusses the
challenges faced by these sectors and proposes solutions like policy support, infrastructure
development, and promoting innovation. By harnessing the potential of horticulture and agroforestry,
India can cultivate a brighter future for its rural communities.
Introduction in the form of horticulture and agroforestry. These

India's agricultural sector, a vital constituent practices offer a refreshing approach to rural
in the nation's economic engine, faces a critical development, fostering diversification, innovation,
crossroads. While it employs a significant portion of and a plethora of employment opportunities across
the population, traditional agriculture struggles to the agricultural value chain.
keep pace with a growing population and changing Horticulture
economic needs. Fragmented landholdings, water Horticulture, encompassing the cultivation of
scarcity, and low productivity often translate to fruits, vegetables, flowers, and medicinal plants,
limited income opportunities and a lack of secure presents a dynamic path for creating jobs in rural
livelihoods for those working the land. This India. Here's how:
phenomenon, often termed “jobless growth” in rural Diversification and Rising Demand: Unlike staple
areas, poses a significant challenge to India's social crops, horticulture offers diversification, allowing
and economic development. farmers to cater to a wider range of markets and
Horticulture and Agroforestry mitigate risks associated with price fluctuations. The
Fortunately, a promising solution is emerging burgeoning demand for organic produce, functional
Akshay Mehta, Aman Kumar and Alkesh Yadav

Department of Horticulture, CCSHAU, Hisar, Haryana
Shivam and Visha Jain
Department of Forestry, CCSHAU, Hisar, Haryana

153
foods, and convenient options like pre-cut vegetables embracing precision agriculture technologies like
fuels growth and creates opportunities for post- variable rate technology (VRT) for fertilizer
harvest processing and packaging, generating application. This involves applying fertilizer based
additional jobs. on the specific needs of different parts of the field,
Case Study: Mizoram's Passion Fruit Revolution thus optimizing resource use and improving yields.
Mizoram, a hilly state in Northeast India, This shift has led to increased efficiency in fertilizer
faced challenges of soil erosion and limited use, leading to cost savings for farmers, enhanced
agricultural prospects due to its topography. crop yields resulting in higher incomes for farmers,
However, the introduction of horticulture, particul- and the creation of new job opportunities for
arly passion fruit cultivation has proven transform- individuals trained in operating and maintaining
ative. With government support and training precision agriculture technologies.
programs, farmers adopted advanced practices like Value Chain Expansion: Horticulture requires a
drip irrigation and vertical farming techniques. This robust value chain encompassing production,
shift resulted in increased production and income for transportation, storage, processing, and marketing.
farmers, creation of new jobs in seedling production, This fosters employment opportunities in logistics,
farm management, and post-harvest processing units warehousing, cold chain management, and food
set up for processing passion fruit pulp and juice. processing units. The rise of e-commerce platforms
Notably, this initiative also empowered women, as further expands the market reach, creating jobs in
many self-help groups (SHGs) took the lead in online marketing and delivery services.
processing and marketing passion fruit products. Case Study: E-commerce Creates Jobs in
Skilled Workforce Needs: Embracing advanced Karnataka
practices like precision agriculture, using sensors for Karnataka, a state known for its horticulture
soil moisture monitoring and targeted resource produce, has witnessed a surge in e-commerce
application, necessitates a skilled workforce. This platforms connecting farmers directly with
creates demand for agricultural technicians, data consumers. This eliminates middlemen and ensures
analysts, and irrigation specialists, opening doors for better profits for farmers. Additionally, these
skilled youth in rural areas. platforms often provide farmers with training on
Case Study: Precision Agriculture Boosts grading, packaging, and online marketing, creating
Employment in Punjab new skillsets. This shift has resulted in increased
Punjab, a major agricultural state in India, income for farmers due to higher price realization,
faces challenges of water scarcity and declining creation of new jobs in packaging, logistics and
productivity. However, progressive farmers are online marketing associated with e-commerce plat-

154
forms and improved market access for small and microclimates, leading to increased yields. This
marginal farmers, empowering them to participate in translates to higher farm incomes and the potential
the horticulture sector. for hiring additional labor for harvesting and on-farm
Agroforestry activities.
Agroforestry, the integration of trees on Case Study: Maharashtra's Success with Fruit
farms alongside crops and livestock, offers a multi- Trees and Water Management
dimensional approach to employment generation, In the arid regions of Maharashtra, farmers
with the added benefit of environmental have successfully adopted drip irrigation and shade
sustainability: net cultivation for high-value fruit crops like grapes
Sustainable Income Streams: Trees provide a and pomegranates. This approach has resulted in
valuable source of income through timber, bamboo, increased water use efficiency, improved fruit
and non-timber forest products (NTFPs) like lac, quality and higher incomes for farmers. Addition-
gums and resins. This creates employment opportu- ally, it has created employment opportunities in
nities in harvesting, processing, and value addition of installing and maintaining drip irrigation systems,
these products. managing shade nets, and harvesting fruits.
Case Study: Multi-Tiered Agroforestry System in Overcoming Challenges: Paving the Way for a
Kerala Thriving Rural Economy
Kerala, a state known for its lush greenery, Despite the immense potential, several
has a long tradition of agroforestry practices. One challenges need to be addressed to maximize
successful model involves a multi-tiered system employment generation through horticulture and
where coconut trees form the top layer, followed by agroforestry:
pepper vines climbing on them. Additionally, Land Fragmentation: Fragmented landholdings,
banana, ginger, and turmeric are grown as understory particularly acute in some regions, can hinder the
crops. This system provides a year-round source of adoption of large-scale horticulture and agroforestry
income for farmers from different components of the practices.
system, employment opportunities in harvesting, Skill Gaps: A lack of awareness and training in
processing, and value addition of coconut products, advanced horticultural and agroforestry practices can
pepper, bananas, ginger, and turmeric, and limit the efficiency and productivity of the
environmental benefits such as improved soil workforce.
fertility and biodiversity conservation. Market Access and Infrastructure: Lack of proper
Enhanced Productivity: Integrating trees with infrastructure like roads, storage facilities and
crops can improve soil health, water retention, and processing units can hinder market access for farmer

155
particularly in remote areas. elling vision for rural India's future. By embracing
Credit Availability: Limited access to credit can these practices, India can create a plethora of
restrict farmers from investing in necessary inputs, employment opportunities across the agricultural
technology, and infrastructure for horticulture and value chain, empower rural communities, and ensure
agroforestry. sustainable development. With the right policies,
Building a Sustainable Ecosystem for Employ- infrastructure, and support mechanisms in place,
ment these sectors can become a powerful engine for
Overcoming these challenges requires a inclusive growth, environmental sustainability, and a
multi-pronged approach: brighter future for millions of people in rural India.
Policy and Infrastructure Support: Government
policies promoting land consolidation, skill
development initiatives focused on horticulture and
agroforestry practices, and investment in rural
infrastructure are crucial.
Public-Private Partnerships: Collaboration
between government and private sector entities can
facilitate technology transfer, improve market access
for farmers, and create employment opportunities in
the processing and marketing sectors.
Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs): Empow-
ering farmers through FPOs allows them to
collectively negotiate better prices, invest in shared
infrastructure, and access credit facilities, improving
their bargaining power and profitability.
Promoting Innovation and Research: Investing in
research and development (R&D) for climate-
resilient crop varieties, drought-resistant tree species,
and efficient post-harvest management technologies
is essential for long-term sustainability and increased
farm incomes.
Conclusion: A Brighter Future for Rural India
Horticulture and agroforestry offer a comp-

156
No-Till Farming Effects on Crops

C. Kalpanachavla
Introduction as 75%. According to Moyer and others, organic ZT

Direct drilling, commonly known as zero - entails producing a market crop that is sown in the
tillage, zero-till farming, or no- till farming, is a summer after a fall-seeded cover crop is killed in a
method of farming that does not require tillage to single growing season. In this system, germplasm
disturb the soil. No-till farming substitutes a single from fast-growing, winter-hardy, early-maturing
pass over the field after ploughing with the use of cover crops are required so that following market
specialized equipment(such as disc seeders or crops can be sown during the suggested planting
agriculture drills) to create furrows, sow seeds, and time. One way around this problem is to roll-crimp
cover them all at once. Because the ground is the cover crop during one growing season and then
excavated precisely where the seed should fall, the grow a market crop the following year. This way, we
soil is disturbed as little as possible. Additionally can kill the cover crop that year without having to
planters allow fertilizer to be applied directly into the wait for the market crop to established.
furrow using specially designed tubes, minimizing Methods of Zero Tillage: ZT adoption entails using
fertilizer waste. This method as several potential particular instruments and machinery made to plant
collision on crops and weeds, influencing both and add fertilizer without requiring the land to be
positively and negatively. turned over or ploughed. ZT tools are designed to
Organic Zero Tillage: An essential part of organic reduce soil disturbance, in contrast to conventional
ZT systems are cover crops. When added to market tillage, which frequently uses large machinery to
crop rotations, cover crops provide a number of disturb the soil's surface. To plant seeds at the proper
ecological services, including as enhanced soil and depth without tilling the ground, planters and drills
water quality and benefits for nitrogen cycling. In are designed to penetrate residue and dirt.
organic ZT, crops are grown to provide vegetative Specialized coulters to cut through residues,
mulch, which suppresses weeds. Although at least subsoilers to break up hardpan without disturbing the
7,000 kg ha-1 of residue may be required to suppress soil, and pesticide sprayers to control weeds are some
annual broadleaf weeds by 80%, as little as 2,700 kg of the additional equipment. These tools vary in
ha-1 of above-ground dry matter produced by fall- diversity and availability depending on the particular
seeded cover crops can lower annual weed density agricultural environment, area, and crop type. ZT
the following spring and early summer by as much procedures and methods differ as well. The principle
C. Kalpanachavla
B.Sc. (Ag.) Student, J. K. K. Munirajah College of Agricultural Science, T. N. Palayam, Gobi, Erode, Tamil Nadu

157
of leaving past crop leftovers on the field’s surface is ing improves water management and conservation
the basis of zero-tillage farming. By acting as a By diminish soil moisture loss owing to evaporation
natural mulch, this residue lowers water evaporation and boost the amount of water available for plant
and prevents soil erosion. Similar procedures can be growth, crop residue can be used as mulch to
used to add fertilizers and other soil amendments, encourage sustainable agriculture. By intensify soil
with specifically made instruments that cause the structure and lowering soil erosion, no tillage
least amount of disturbance to the soil. In order to farming helps to reduce water runoff. Crop waste
promote soil health and prevent infections, crop operate as a shield, safe guard the soil surface from
rotation is frequently a crucial component of zero- direct contact with rainwater, which would otherwise
tillage. cause runoff.
Benefits of Zero Tillage Ideally, water seeps into the soil, where it is
Soil Health and Conservation: No -tillage farming approachable to plants, and less water is lost to
uplifts the improvement of soil health. An evaporation. Water infiltration rates are increased by
unimpaired soil structure enables stable aggregates the unimpaired soil structure in no till systems. Water
to form, which increases water infiltration and root can pervade the soil more effectively when there are
penetration. The risk of wind and water erosion is stable soil aggregates present from no tillage. This
reduced by keeping the soil’s natural structure, increase plant growth and reduces the probability of
protects priceless topsoil, and guarding against drought stress by increasing the quantity of water that
nutrient loss. It helps to arrest soil erosion by leaving can be stored in the root zone.
the soil undisturbed. The soil is kept grounded and Biodiversity and Habitat Preservation: By giving
protects when agricultural wastes are left are on the benevolent insects a place to live and food to eat,
surface. By shielding the soil from the effects of rain improve microbial variety, supporting wildlife,
and wind, this covering prevents erosion brought on preserving soil fauna, and promote the establishment
by water runoff and wind. No-tillage farming helps of native plants, no tillage farming practices
to sustain soil productivity and bring down the loss safeguards biodiversity and habitats. This cheer a
of fertile topsoil by reducing erosion. Crop residue healthy, sustainable agricultural ecosystem. No-
used as mulch improves water management by tillage farming supports the endless health and
lowering soil evaporation and boosting soil’s ability sustainability of the environment by conserving the
to store water. integrity of soil structure, nutrient cycles, and habitat
Water Management and Conservation: By diversity. This comes up with the maintenance of
reducing water runoff, improve water infiltration, natural ecosystem equilibrium.
and boosting water holding capacity, no tillage farm- Carbon Sequestration and Climate Change Miti-

158
gation: By promoting soil organic carbon, no till residue management machines. When weighing no-
farming lessen climate change by sequestering till farming’s pros and cons, it’s also necessary to
carbon in the soil .The amount of soil disturbance is realize that the approach requires paying close
kept to a minimum, and crop waste retention is uplift, attention to your area’s specific soil and weather
which lowers carbon emissions and makes patterns.
agricultural systems more flexible to climate-related Conclusion
problems. Increased soil organic carbon (SOC) Zero tillage is an aspect of conservation
levels are a result of no- tillage farming’s comes up farming which is actively promoted internationally
with the gathering of organic matter in the soil. to conserve soils; reduce soil erosion; ensure food
Carbon inputs to the soil are prompt by conserving security, biodiversity and water conservation. This is
crop residues and causing as little soil disturbance as regarded as a basis for higher and more stable crop
possible. yields but science shows that it is not necessarily
Other Benefits of No-Till Farming true. Economic comparisons between organic ZT
Limited fossil fuel inputs for zero-till field operations and other conservation tillage systems that utilize
: 2 to 6 gallons of diesel fuel per acre (19 to 56 liters cover crops and conventional tillage systems will be
per hectare), according to the U.S. Department of needed as agronomic questions relating to these
Agriculture, Shorter operation time, Sophisticated conservation tillage systems are answered. To
seeders do the job faster and complete it in a single Conclude there are so many queries about the impact
field pass, Minimal human labour needed for tilling if no till farming and carbon sequestration, So it
operations and maintaining tillage machines. cannot be given as the solution for the hunger
Enhanced carbon sequestration by maintaining and reduction , but can be considered as an important part
building SOC (soil organic carbon). of integrated strategies.
Reference
https://eos.com/blog/no-till-farming/
Demerits of Zero-Till Farming

An initial investment may be necessary for
specialized equipment such as planters, drills, and

159
Pesticides: A Risk to the Health of Soil

India's population has grown rapidly, soil health, pesticides can remain in the soil for years
particularly after independence, which has prompted or even decades after they are administered. Herbi-
the country to expand its cides, insecticides, nematicides, acaricides, rodenti-
agricultural intensively in cides, bactericides, fungicides, insect repellents,
order to fulfill its own food disinfectants, and so forth are all included in the word
needs and ensure that it is pesticide.
self-sufficient. In addition to providing for the Sustainable food production depends on
nation's food needs, this development was meant to healthy soil ecosystems, which are threatened by the
ultimately commercialize the major industry in ongoing use of hazardous pesticides. In order to
which its citizens were control the fate of the chemicals in the environment,
employed. Building up all pesticide features such as solubility in water,
required procedures to propensity to adsorb to the soil, persistence, and soil
increase agricultural output properties like sand, silt, clay, and organic matter are
was needed in order to guarantee food safety crucial. Pesticides can enter the soil through a variety
throughout the nation. This creates a chance and a of methods, including direct application to control
demand for the commercial introduction of soil pests, spray drift during leaf treatment, washing
pesticides and high-yielding cultivars in India, which off treated foliage, granule release and release
was a part of the Green Revolution in the 1960s. from treated seed.
Because of a lack of awareness at the time, Pesticide half-life, or the rate at which the
the farming community used pesticides carelessly for chemical decomposes in the soil, are used to quantify
many years across the country. These actions have a how persistent they are in the soil. A compound is
variety of negative consequences on the ecosystem, more likely to leach through soil if its half-life is
soil health, and living things. In addition to damaging greater since it indicates how long the compound will

Eramma
Bhavya V. P.
Kamala D. G.

160
remain in its original form in water or soil. Typically, half-life. When pesticides are present, the soil acts as
pesticides form a strong bond with soil particles and a reservoir from which they can disintegrate, enter
can stay in surface soils for several months or even the air or water, enter the bodies of invertebrates, or
years. Persistent pesticides have toxic and be absorbed by plants. The beneficial soil micro-
detrimental consequences on the soil's flora and organisms and the biotransformation that occurs in
fauna, despite their long-term efficiency in the soils are negatively impacted by pesticide
controlling pests. They also present a long-term residues.
toxicity risk to the ecosystem. The characteristics of
the soil, the amount of treatments, and the stage of
plant growth all influence the residual levels of
pesticides in soils. Moreover, microbial metabolic
and enzymatic reactions-driven soil biochemical
processes are impacted by pesticides. By altering the
dynamics and bioavailability of nutrients through Effect of pesticides on soil biological properties
enzymatic activity and beneficial soil micro- Extensive pesticide usage causes a drop in
organisms, they may negatively impact the biotrans- insect populations. A little piece of soil can contain
formation of organic molecules. tens to hundreds millions of organisms. These
Effect of Pesticides on Soil Properties species support vital ecosystem functions like the
Following interaction with the soil, pesti- cycling of nutrients needed by plants for growth, the
cides are affected by a variety of elements, such as breakdown of dead plants and animals for the
the rate of adsorption, organic matter, soil texture, creation of new life, and the regulation of pests and
microbes, and moisture availability. The amount of diseases.
clay and organic matter in the soil affects how likely Effects on arthropods: Pesticides function in the
it is that pesticides will be adsorbed; the more clay soil as a sink or reservoir whether they are applied
and inorganic matter there are, the more positive and directly or indirectly. Earthworms increase the
negative charge sites they have, which increases the amount of nutrients in the top layer of soil, help break
number of adsorption sites. This affects the leaching down organic debris, and promote soil aeration. By
and persistence of pesticides. It also reduces the eating decomposing waste and acting as a bio-
possibility that a pesticide would seep into the indicator for soil fertility, earthworms help to
ground, leaving residues there that will stay stagnant preserve human health. Certain insecticides kill
for long stretches of time. In soils with high clay and earthworms, which may indirectly lower the popul-
organic matter content, pesticides often have a longer ation by removing the flora the worms consume.

161
Imidacloprid, chlorpyrifos, and phorate were all which are essential to the processes.
harmful to earthworms in the rice-maize cropping Microbes converting organic nitrogen into
scheme. inorganic forms and bacteria fixing atmospheric
Effect on snails and slugs: Insecticides such as nitrogen are the main sources of nitrogen for plant
carbamates and organophosphates can be acquired development. The soil microorganisms facilitate the
by snails and slugs and concentrated on their bodies. decomposition of carbonaceous organic materials.
High concentrations of diazinon, phorate, and Pesticides have an adverse effect on the growth,
carbofuran were found in their systems since these activity, and enzyme of the soil microflora, which
chemicals are soluble in water. The pesticides have lowers soil fertility and health. For instance, the rice-
no effect on them, but the predatory birds that maize cropping scheme's microorganisms are
consume these slugs and snails will have unfavorable reduced in plots treated with carbofuran and phorate.
consequences and eventually perish. Effect on soil enzymatic activity: Pesticides in
Effect on soil microorganisms: Microorganisms in particular, which find their way into the soil, have the
the soil are vital for preserving the structure of the potential to negatively impact microbial metabolism
soil and releasing nutrients for plant uptake through and change the enzymatic activity of the soil.
the breakdown and transformation of organic Enzymes found in soils generally include free
materials. The soil loses biodiversity when agro- enzymes, immobilized extracellular enzymes, and
chemicals are used excessively in agriculture. enzymes released by (or contained in) micro-
organisms. The primary markers of biological
balance, including soil fertility and quality, are these
enzymes. Pesticide effects on soil enzymatic activity
vary greatly depending on the type of pesticide used,
the type of soil, and the surrounding circumstances.
Excessive use of pesticides has reduced beneficial Pesticides' Impact on the Chemical Properties of
soil microbial populations, limiting the availability Soil: Pesticides have a negative impact on the
of minerals like potassium, phosphorus, and nitrogen chemical composition, texture, and reaction of the
in soils and lowering soil quality. The balanced soil to the growth and development of plants. For
presence of different groups of organisms in the soil instance, dimethoated soil stops methane from being
is essential for important soil processes including produced in rice fields; HCH and pyriproxyfen and
nitrification, mineralization and phosphorus recycl- fipronil decrease grain protein, seed yield, root
ing. Nevertheless, widespread use of pesticides nitrogen, shoot nitrogen, and root phosphorus in pea
interfere with the different functions of soil enzymes plants.

162
Conclusion Hussain, S., Siddique, T., Saleem, M., Arshad, M.

Numerous soil qualities are impacted by and Khalid, A. (2009). Impact of pesticides
farmers' careless usage of pesticides. Long-term use on soil microbial diversity, enzymes, and
of agrochemicals in agriculture may have a harmful biochemical reactions. Advances of
effect on soil microbial activity and soil processes Agronomy, 102: 159-200.
that influence crop productivity and soil nutrient McLaughlin, A. and Mineau, P. (1995). The impact
cycle. The ecosystem and biodiversity suffer as a of agricultural practices on biodiversity.
result. Enough precautions must be made to shield Agriculture Ecosystem and Environment, 55
the environment and human life from the harmful (3): 201-212.
effects of pesticides. Modern methods for applying Prashar, P. and Shah, S. (2016). Impact of fertilizers
agrochemicals more precisely and effectively could and pesticides on soil microflora in
help to lessen their ecotoxic effects and avoid health agriculture. Sustainable Agriculture Reviews.
risks for humans. Selecting an organic agricultural Springer, Cham, pp. 331-361.
approach is now a widely acknowledged practice. In
the end, organic farming improves soil quality and
human health while also being healthy for the
environment. To prevent the negligent use of agro-
chemicals, more efforts should be made to promote
alternative protocols including biopesticides, organic
pesticides, innovative biocontrol agents and nano-
pesticides.
References
Doran, J. W. and Safley, M. (1997). Defining and
assessing soil health and sustainable
productivity. In: Pankhurst, C., Doube, B.M.,
Gupta, V.V.S.R. (Eds.), Biological Indicators
of Soil Health. CAB International, Walling-
ford, pp. 1_28.
Ghosal, A. and Hati, A. (2019). Impact of some new
generation insecticides on soil arthropods in
the rice maize cropping system. The Journal
of Basic and Applied Zoology, 80(6): 1-8.

163
Autonomous Farming: Challenges, Opportunities and Future Outlook

Himani Sharma, Safal Singh and Pankaj Singh
With the assistance of robots and automated and promotes sustainable agriculture.
equipment, autonomous farming (AF) lowers labor Due to its capacity to carry out activities
expenses while boosting profitability, productivity, around the farm's premises with little to no labor or
and quality of the produce. Additionally, it advocates with minimal labor, autonomous farming offers
for food stability worldwide and environmentally enhanced performance and effectiveness. Farmers
friendly farming techniques. may experience fewer interrupted operations as a
By providing farmers with a practical and result, which will enable them to concentrate on
economical method of accomplishing their tasks, additional obligations and enhance their standard of
autonomous farming revolutionizes contemporary living. Farmers can also benefit from economies of
agriculture. For both small- as well as large-scale scale by deploying numerous self-driving vehicles in
farms, seed-planting machines and other unmanned a “swarm,” which will increase the profitability of
machinery for farming increase production, reduce their business. Finally, AF can assist in addressing
expenses and increase productivity. Soon, there will the issues associated with aging and declining labor
be a massive increase in independent cultivation as in the agricultural sector as well as the increasing
the requirement for equipment that can manage concern over labor shortages.
anything from crop evaluation to irrigation will By removing the demand for physical labor,
increase dramatically. autonomous farming lowers labor expenses. This not
Autonomous farming transforms modern just precludes the need for recruiting and educating
agriculture through the utilization of robots and staff, but it also does away with the expenses that
automated machinery, enabling farmers to complete accompany paying workers' salaries and securing
tasks quicker and save on labor costs. This their employment. Additionally, autonomous farm-
technology boosts crop quality, saves time and ing technology enables genuine 24-hour functions
energy, and provides accurate data for smarter with no interruptions in service. With a lesser amount
decisions. For global food security, autonomous of physical labor needed to handle their business
farming raises yields, prevents losses from pests and affairs, agricultural producers can increase yields and
diseases, conserves water, fertilizer, and pesticides, run their businesses more effectively.
Himansi Singh
Division of Agronomy, SKUAST-J, Chatha, Jammu, UT of J&K
Safal Singh and Pankaj Singh
School of Agriculture, Uttaranchal University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand

164
The agricultural sector is about to undergo a

transformation thanks to autonomous farming
technology. Robotic machines for agriculture can
precisely plan and look at fields in just a portion of
the time it requires using conventional approaches by
deploying sophisticated sensors and cameras. The
ability of such equipment to recognize fluctuations in
the natural atmosphere and adapt appropriately
enables a more productive and affordable manu-
facturing strategy.
In general, automated farming has an
opportunity to modernize the agricultural industry
and enhance productivity, but there are still some
issues that need to be resolved before it can be
implemented on a massive scale.
Farmers may face significant obstacles due to
the expensive starting expenses of autonomous
farming. It can be costly to buy new automated
equipment, install sensors, and use other technology,
particularly for farmers with smaller profit margins.
Additionally, the use of autonomous technologies
may incur legal and security expenses.

165
Strategic Training: Objectives, Methods and Impactful Implementation

Yaksh Patel
Abstract
This comprehensive exploration dives into the realm of training, unpacking its core
components, objectives, and methodologies. It begins by dissecting training as a structured process
aimed at acquiring new skills and knowledge, crucial for individual development and organizational
success. Highlighting the distinction between training and education, it emphasizes the practical
outcomes of training, which often lead to tangible improvements in performance and productivity. The
discussion then delves into the importance of setting clear and measurable training objectives, ensuring
that the training aligns with the specific needs of participants and the broader organizational goals.
Furthermore, it explores a diverse range of training methods, from traditional lectures to interactive
workshops and role-playing exercises, each catering to different learning styles and objectives. By
offering practical insights and guidance, this exploration serves as a roadmap for designing and
implementing effective training programs that foster continuous growth and development.
Introduction Training objectives

Training: Training is a process of acquisition of new The training objective of a particular training
skills, attitude and knowledge the context of programme is the statement of the desired end
preparing for entry into a vocation or improving product/target to be achieved through training
one's productivity in an organization or enterprise. course. It should be stated in terms of knowledge,
An analysis of different definition of training will skills, attitudes and attributes (KSAOs) which the
reveal that: trainees will gain at the end of the training
 Training is a systematic process. programme.
 Training is a learning process. Meaning of objective
 Training is a communication process.  An objective is a direction of movement.
 Training and education are not the same.  Hammond defined as; an objective is a statement
 Training results in change in knowledge, skill of interest and direction of movement or a
and practice. desirable predetermined product- a determiner of
 Training improves employees’ productivity. action.
 Training helps the employees to achieve  A good objective in extension is one that will
organizational goals. provide possible direction for large number of
Yaksh Patel
Department of Agricultural Extension and Communication, BACA, AAU, Anand, Gujarat

166
people to move some distance. Extension must ives directly associated with the extension service
help people, define the direction in which they and concern the social, economic approaches to rural
want and need to go. people. The main objective at this level is to bring or
Training objective must be ‘SMART’ i.e. make available to the people new ideas, new
S: Simple M: Measurable A: Attainable R: Realistic techniques, new knowledge that will allow to farm
& T: Time bond more efficiently, to grow more and better food for
ABCD in determining the training objective market and to promote their social, cultural and
A: Audience: Who are to be trained? spiritual life.
B: Behaviour: Type of changes that expect in the Specific or working objectives: A definite subject
trainees’ behaviour. matter or specific approach is focused at the
C: Condition: Under which condition you expect individual or group, dealing with their needs e.g.
this change is to be occurred  To make arrangements for irrigation by digging
D: Degree: How much change you expect well and putting pump sets.
Essentialities of training objectives: Training  To construct a road.
objective must be  To introduce a mechanical weeder in rice.
 Well defined  To use fertilizers in Mexican wheat.
 Based on training needs of the trainees Objectives can be classified on the basis of period
 Directly related to one’s job. of achievement
 Specific and precise Long term objectives: The objectives which will be
 Able to define a change that is measurable achieved after more than 10 years are called as long
 Able to identify and enlist criteria against which term objectives. E.g. better life, better citizenship
success can be measured. Medium term objectives: The objectives which will
 Clearly specifying and results be achieved within the period of 3 to 5 years are
 Achievable in its stipulated time. known as medium term objectives. E.g. create minor
Level of Objectives irrigation facilities.
Fundamental objectives: These are all inclusive Short term objectives: The objectives which will be
objectives of society. Example: better life, better achieved within one year or one season are known as
citizenship and the development of the individual. short term objectives. E.g. To set-up yield per hectare
The fundamental objective of extension is to teach Generally village level programme are of
people to determine accurately their own problems, short term objectives.
to help them to acquire knowledge and conditions. Functions of training methods
General objectives: These are more definite object- Assist in creating an appropriate learning enviro-

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nment: Use of an appropriate training method Discussion method: e.g. brain storming, group
stimulates the participants and sustains their interest discussion.
in the training activity. It arouses their curiosity. Lecture method
Thus, it helps in creating and sustaining an Some methods of the extension training
appropriate learning environment for a particular Lecture: It is a method of verbal presentation on a
topic. topic by speaker to a group of audience. It should be
Enhance participation and involvement of the well organized and well prepared. Visual aids may
group: A training method aims to enhance the be used during the talk to sustain the interest.
process of learning by energizing and motivating the Group discussion: The lecture method may be made
participants for greater contribution and involvement more participative if at the end the audience is
in the training process. allowed to discuss the topic in presence of the
Promote group interaction and cohesion: Incre- speaker. The task of the discussion leader is to pose
ased participation and involvement of the the questions, stimulate participation of the shy
participants in training activities promotes members, keep individual participants from
interaction and cohesion among participants. monopolizing the time, keep them on subject and
Classification of training methods make final summary.
According to the senses involved, the training Buzz group: This technique involves dividing a
methods can be classified as follow large group into much smaller ones in which the
Telling (Talking and listening) methods: Lecture, topic is discussed with a limited period of time. The
seminar, group discussion, symposium etc. groups are expected to produce as many ideas,
Showing methods: Written words, pictures, video, opinions or suggestions as possible within time limit.
TV, charts, diagrams etc. A member in each buzz group who has been selected
Doing methods: Role play, field work assignment, by their group may report their ideas to the whole
business games group. The purpose of this technique is to involve
According to the involvement of the trainees each and every participant.
Training in the field-on the job: e.g. apprenticeship Panel discussion: A panel is a small group
Simulating real life situations: e.g. role playing discussing a topic in a large group situation. In this,
Laboratory training: e.g. sensitivity training, there may be three or four experts who discuss an
transactional analysis. issue or a problem. The mutual interaction among
Sampling real life: e.g. case method panelists themselves and with the audience can lead
Individualized training: e.g. practicing specific to an effective understanding the topic. Opposite
skill. panel: Here a group is divided into two groups. One

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group poses questions and other group attempts to and asked to produce as many solutions as possible
answer them. within a stipulated time period. Spontaneity and
Colloquium: This is a modified version of panel creativity are important parts of the process. Ideas are
discussion in which three or four resource persons presented or recorded so that everyone can see them.
discuss a specific topic. In colloquium, there is more Then the group is asked to reflect on these ideas/
of audience participation. suggestions and evaluate their merits and demerits.
Symposium: It is made up of a short series of A reasonably small number of worthwhile final
lectures with two to five speakers participating. Each solutions may emerge from this evaluation.
one speaks for a definite period of time and usually Role playing: The participants can be made to act
represents a specific phrase or a sub-division of a and relive a particular situation so that they get a real
general topic. For symposium, the subject should be feel of the roles they are actually called upon to play.
large enough to permit two or more sub-divisions. The purpose of this is to help participants experience
Seminar: It is one of the most important forms of what something “sounds” or “feels like”.
group discussion. It is more formal in nature. It Conclusion
enables a study in depth to be made in specific areas In conclusion, training emerges as a vital
under the guidance of experts. In seminar the process for both individual development and
discussion papers prepared by the participants on the organizational growth. Through a systematic
basis of their study and research are presented and approach, training enables individuals to acquire new
discussion is made afterwards. At the end some skills, knowledge and attitudes, ultimately enhancing
conclusions and recommendations are arrived at. their performance and productivity within the
Workshop: It is a co-operative gathering of workplace. By delineating clear objectives and
individuals who discuss, learn and apply practical utilizing diverse training methods, organizations can
skills under expert supervision. Considerable time ensure that training initiatives are targeted, effective,
should be allotted for work sessions. The participants and conducive to learning. Furthermore, the emph-
exchange ideas, experiences and skills and on this asis on creating an engaging and interactive learning
basis prepare a programme for future action. environment underscores the importance of fostering
Case study: In this method a written case or a collaboration and cohesion among participants.
problem situation is presented to the participants for Ultimately by investing in comprehensive training
careful study and examination from all facets so as to programs that address the specific needs of
enable them to exercise their analytical, synthetically employees and align with organizational objectives,
and decision making powers. businesses can empower their workforce, drive
Brain storming: Here a group is given a problem innovation, and achieve sustained success in today's

169
dynamic and competitive landscape.

References
Adolfo, J. T. (2010). The Career Development Plan:
A Quick Guide for Managers and
Supervisors, n. d., National Career
Development Association, accessed July 29,
2010
Nguyen, F. and James D. Klein. (2008). The Effect
of Performance Support and Training as
Performance. Performance Improvement
Quarterly, 21(1).
Rogers, F. E. and Olmsted, A. G. (1957). Supervision
in the Cooperative extension service.
Madison, WI: National Agricultural
Extension Center for Advanced Study.
The most effective training method by Jeremy
Raynolds, EduBirdle, May 22, 2019.
Wickramasinghe, V. (2006). Training Objectives,
Transfer, Validation and Evaluation: A Sri
Lankan Study. International Journal of
Training and Development, 10. 10.1111/j.
1468-2419.2006.00256.x.

170
Harnessing Nature’s Bounty: Methods and Applications of Divi Divi

Tannin Extraction
Introduction -ly, but it can be weather-dependent and time-

Divi Divi (Caesalpinia coriaria) is a small consuming. Industrial drying, on the other hand, is
tree native to the Caribbean, Central America, and quicker and more consistent but requires energy
northern South America. It is renowned for its pods, input. The dried pods are then ground into a fine
which are rich in tannins, a class of astringent, powder to increase the surface area for extraction,
polyphenolic biomolecules used in various which enhances the efficiency of the process.
industries, including leather tanning, pharmaceut- Extraction Methods
icals, and food processing. Tannins from Divi divi Aqueous Extraction: One of the most common
pods are highly valued due to their high tannin methods for extracting tannins from Divi divi pods is
content and unique properties. This will delve into aqueous extraction. This process involves soaking
the process of extracting tannins from Divi divi fruit, the ground pod powder in water. The temperature,
encompassing the steps from collection to extraction pH, and duration of extraction are critical factors that
methods, the chemical properties of the tannins, and influence the yield and quality of the tannins
the potential applications of the extracted tannins. extracted.
Collection and Preparation of Divi divi Pods Soaking: The powdered pods are soaked in water at
The first step in tannin extraction involves a specific temperature, usually around 70-90°C. The
collecting Divi divi pods. high temperature helps in breaking down the cellular
These pods are typically structure of the pods, facilitating the release of
harvested when they are tannins into the water.
fully matured and have Stirring: Continuous stirring ensures that the tannins
turned brown. Post-harvest, the pods are cleaned to are uniformly dissolved in the water. This can be
remove any extraneous material such as dirt, insects, done manually or using mechanical stirrers.
and debris. Cleaning is essential to ensure that the Filtration: After the soaking period, the mixture is
final extract is pure and free from contaminants. filtered to separate the solid residues from the liquid
After cleaning, the pods are dried. Drying can extract. Filtration can be done using simple cloth
be done under the sun or using industrial dryers. Sun filters or more sophisticated equipment like vacuum
drying is more traditional and environmentally friend filters.
Assistant Professor, J. K. K. Munirajah College of Agricultural Science, T. N. Palayam, Gobi, Erode, Tamil Nadu

171
Supercritical Fluid Extraction: Supercritical fluid

extraction, although more advanced and less
commonly used due to high costs, is another method.
This involves using supercritical CO2, which is CO2
at a temperature and pressure above its critical point,
making it a powerful solvent for extracting tannins.
Concentration: The filtered liquid, which contains Preparation: The ground pod powder is placed in an
the dissolved tannins, is then concentrated. This can extraction vessel.
be achieved through evaporation, where the water is CO2 Introduction: Supercritical CO2 is introduced
evaporated off, leaving behind a concentrated tannin into the vessel. The unique properties of supercritical
extract. In some cases, freeze-drying may be used to CO2 allow it to penetrate the pod material and
obtain tannin in a powdered form. dissolve the tannins efficiently.
Solvent Extraction: In addition to aqueous Separation: The CO2-tannin mixture is then passed
extraction, solvent extraction is also employed, through a separator where the CO2 is depressurized
particularly when a higher purity of tannins is and reverted to its gaseous state, leaving behind the
required. Solvent extraction uses organic solvents tannin extract.
such as ethanol, methanol, or acetone to dissolve the Chemical Properties of Divi divi Tannins
tannins. The tannins extracted from Divi divi pods are
Solvent Selection: The choice of solvent depends on primarily hydrolyzable tannins, including gallo-
the solubility of the tannins and the intended use of tannins and ellagitannins. These tannins are
the extract. Ethanol is commonly used due to its characterized by their ability to hydrolyze into
efficiency and relative safety. simpler compounds, such as gallic acid and ellagic
Mixing and Extraction: The ground pod powder is acid, upon treatment with acids, bases, or enzymes.
mixed with the selected solvent. This mixture is then Divi divi tannins also contain a significant amount of
left to stand, often with periodic shaking, to allow the catechins and other flavonoid compounds, which
tannins to dissolve into the solvent. contribute to their antioxidant properties. Hydro-
Filtration: The mixture is filtered to separate the lyzable tannins are known for their astringency,
solid residues from the tannin-rich solvent. ability to precipitate proteins, and complexing with
Evaporation: The solvent is then evaporated to metal ions, which are crucial properties for their
leave behind the tannin extract. This can be done applications in leather tanning, food preservation,
using rotary evaporators or under reduced pressure to and pharmaceuticals.
speed up the process and reduce solvent loss. Applications

172
Leather Tanning: One of the primary uses of Divi leveraging their toxicity to certain pests and weeds.
divi tannins is in the leather tanning industry. Conclusion
Tannins are essential in transforming animal hides The extraction of tannins from Divi divi pods
into durable and flexible leather. The astringent is a well-established process that can be carried out
properties of tannins help in cross-linking the using various methods, each with its advantages and
collagen fibers in hides, making them resistant to applications. From traditional aqueous extraction to
bacterial decay and environmental factors. Divi divi advanced supercritical fluid extraction, the choice of
tannins impart a distinct color and texture to the method depends on the desired purity and application
leather, which is highly valued in the production of of the tannin extract. The unique chemical properties
high-quality leather goods. of Divi divi tannins make them valuable in diverse
Pharmaceutical and Nutraceutical Applications: industries, including leather tanning, pharma-
Divi divi tannins have significant pharmaceutical ceuticals, food processing, and environmental
potential due to their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, management. As the demand for natural and
and antimicrobial properties. They are used in sustainable products increases, the significance of
formulating topical creams and ointments for wound Divi divi tannins is likely to grow, underscoring the
healing and skin infections. Their antioxidant importance of efficient extraction techniques and
properties make them valuable in nutraceuticals, further research into their applications.
where they help in preventing oxidative stress-
related diseases.
Food Industry: In the food industry, tannins are
used as natural preservatives due to their ability to
inhibit the growth of bacteria and fungi. They are
also employed as clarifying agents in beverages such
as wine and beer, where they help in removing
unwanted proteins and other compounds that cause
haze.
Environmental Applications: Tannins from Divi
divi pods have potential environmental applications,
such as in wastewater treatment. Their ability to bind
heavy metals and other pollutants makes them
suitable for use in water purification systems. They
are also explored as natural pesticides and herbicides,

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Small Scale Aquaponics Integrated with Ornamental Fish Tanks

Pratiksha Nimbarte and Prathamesh Ade
Abstract
Aquaponics, an environmentally friendly technique that merges aquaculture with hydroponics,

provides a multitude of advantages for domestic usage. Combining aquaponics with ornamental fish
tanks may improve the visual appeal of households while offering a sustainable method for cultivating
plants and caring for fish. Fundamental concepts of aquaponics, the advantages of including decorative
fish tanks, the many techniques of integration, the benefits, suitable plants and fish species to enhancing
home aesthetics and promoting sustainability are discussed here.
Introduction hydroponics (Aquaponic Gardening Community,

Aquaponics is a food production technique November 2010). The greatest environments for
that blends hydroponics growing plants in water and aquaponics are said to be those with expensive land,
aquaculture, which involves rearing aquatic species limited water supplies, and poor soil. Because
in tanks. Under this approach, the hydroponically aquaponics requires the least amount of water, it is
grown plants receive nutrients from the farmed fish best suited for dry and arid locations, sandy islands,
or other aquatic creatures generated waste, therefore and urban gardens. Aquaponics eliminates the need
purifying the water. This technique allows fish, for soil and all of its associated issues, including
plants, and microbes to develop symbiotically and compaction, salinization, pollution, illness, and
work together to provide a healthy growth environ- fatigue. Similar to this, aquaponics may be used to
ment for each of them, provided the system is produce intense vegetable crops on terraces, inside
balanced appropriately. spaces, courtyards, and tiny balconies in urban and
Aquaponics is the method of raising plants suburban settings with little to no accessible land
and fish in a regulated environment that circulates (Maurya et al., 2023).
water and utilizes the fish waste cycle to naturally Principles of Aquaponics
produce nutrients for the plants. With no need for Basic Concepts: The greatest environments for
chemical fertilizers or water waste, this organic, aquaponics are said to be those with expensive land,
environmentally friendly method of food production limited water supplies, and poor soil. Because
combines the greatest features of aquaculture and aquaponics requires the least amount of water, it is
Pratiksha Nimbarte
Department of Aquaculture, College of Fisheries, Ratnagiri, Maharashtra
Prathamesh Ade
Department of Aquatic Environment Management, College of Fisheries, Ratnagiri, Maharashtra

174
best suited for dry and arid locations, sandy islands, Types of Aquaponics Systems
and urban gardens. Aquaponics eliminates the need Several types of aquaponics systems can be
for soil and all of its associated issues, including integrated with ornamental fish tanks, including:
compaction, salinizeation, pollution, illness, and Media-Based Systems: Plants are grown in a
fatigue. Similar to this, aquaponics may be used to medium (substrate) that supports root growth and
produce intense vegetable crops on terraces, inside filtration. Various types of substrates used in
spaces, courtyards, and tiny balconies in urban and aquaponics are:
suburban settings with little to no accessible land  Coconut fibre
(Maurya et al., 2023).  Clay (expanded)
Fish Aquarium: In aquaponics system the main  Perlite
source of nutrients is the fish tank. It is the location  Peat
of fish farming, and the plants mostly get their  Organic substrate
nutrients from the waste generated or produced by  Stone wool
the fishes. The water circulation, aeration, and  Polyurethane foam, etc.
temperature management in the fish tank are all Nutrient Film Technique: The Nutrient Film
designed to give the fish the best possible environ- Technique, which involves a nutrient solution
ment. flowing in troughs with a 1-2 cm film of water, is
Grow Bed: Plants are cultivated in an area called a widely used and is considered of as the classic
grow bed. Usually, it is filled with a material that hydroponic growing technique. The nutritional
promotes healthy root development and water solution's cycling and the NFT system's lack of
circulation, such gravel or clay pellets. Rich in substrate are two of its main characteristics. The
nitrates and other vital elements, the water provides enormous potential for automation to reduce labor
nutrients that the plants consume. costs (planting and harvesting) and the ability to
System of Water Circulation: The network of pipes control the right plant density throughout the crop
and pumps that makes it easier for water to circulate cycle are two other advantages (Maurya et al., 2023).
between the grow bed and fish tank is known as the Deep Flow Technique (DFT): In this technique the
water circulation system. The fish can swim in clean, plants are grown on floating or hanging support
nutritious water because of this constant exchange of (rafts, panels, or boards) in tanks which are filled
water, which also supplies the plants with the with a 10-20 cm height nutrient solution. The plants
nutrients they need. The water circulation system is in the tank are supported above the water by floating
essential to preserving the ecosystem's equilibrium rafts, while their roots descend below the surface to
and avoiding the accumulation of pollutants. absorb nutrients. The technology is especially intrig-

175
uing since it reduces management and expenses dissolved oxygen concentrations between 7.2-6.5 mg
(Maurya et al., 2023). l-1 and little conc. of ammonia (NH4), nitrite (NO2),
Benefits of Ornamental Fish Tanks and nitrate (NO3) is acceptable (Sicuro et al., 2024;
Aesthetic Appeal: Ornamental fish tanks enhance Settanni et al. (2020); Patil et al. (2019) and Nicolae
household aesthetics by providing a visually et al. (2015).
appealing and dynamic display. The vibrant colours Koi carp (Cyprinus carpio var. Koi): In tank of a
and graceful movements of ornamental fish, 0.15 m3 volume, koi carp show a range of nitrate
combined with the lush greenery of aquatic plants, (NO3) concentrations from 5 to 150 mg l-1 at a
create a captivating focal point in any room. temperature between 16 and 26.5 °C and dissolved
Stress Reduction: Studies have shown that oxygen content above 5 mg l-1 (Sicuro et al., 2024;
watching fish can reduce stress and promote Luo et al., 2021 and Settanni et al., 2020).
relaxation. The calming effect of observing fish in a Guppy fish (Poecilia reticulata): Guppy fish in a
beautifully maintained tank can contribute to overall volume of 0.1 m3 should have a pH between 6.0 and
mental well-being and create a tranquil environment 7.8 and a dissolved oxygen content of 4.5-7.8 mg l-1
in the home. (Sicuro et al., 2024).
Educational Value: Maintaining an ornamental fish
tank can provide educational opportunities for
household members, particularly children. It offers a
hands-on way to learn about aquatic ecosystems, fish
biology, and the principles of aquaponics. Choosing Suitable Aquatic Plants: Suitable plants
Choosing Suitable Fish: Selecting the right include leafy greens (lettuce, spinach), herbs (basil,
combination of fish and plants is crucial for a mint), and ornamental aquatic plants (water lilies,
successful integrated system. Popular choices for Java fern). In research, home, and commercial
ornamental fishes include goldfish, guppies, tetras, aquaponic systems, over 150 different vegetables,
and bettas. These fish are hardy, visually appealing, herbs, flowers, and tiny trees have been successfully
and produce sufficient waste to support plant growth. grown too far. The optimal development conditions
Key water quality characteristics for three different for plants in an aquaponic system include light,
kinds of fish: Goldfish (Carassius auratus), Guppy oxygen, carbon dioxide, pH, temperature, and
fish (Poecilia reticulata), and Koi carp (Cyprinus nutrients. Aquaponic systems are perfect for growing
carpio var. Koi). green crops with low to medium nutritional
Goldfish (Carassius auratus): The requirements for requirements, such watercress, lettuce, basil,
3
goldfish in a 10 m volume are as follows: a pH of 8, spinach, bell peppers, broccoli, cauliflower, coriand-

176
er and sweet corn. Certain plants, including peppers, water quality, feeding fish, cutting plants, and
tomatoes, and cucumbers, need more nutrients to ensuring the system remains clean and
develop well, and therefore can only be produced in functional.
sophisticated aquaponic systems with a high fish Benefits of Integrated Aquaponics Systems
stocking density. The most popular plant species in There are several advantages for owners of
aquaponic systems is lettuce, by far (Maurya et al., indoor fish tanks when aquaponics is combined with
2023). decorative fish tanks (Rizal et al., 2018).
General System Maintenance for Aquaponics Effective Recycling of Nutrients: The plants are
General tasks for system maintenance for fertilized by the nutrient-rich water from the fish
aquaponics includes, Feeding fish, cleaning sludge tank, resulting in a closed-loop system that reduces
from the fish tank, testing grow bed performance, waste and the requirement for outside inputs.
cleaning grow beds, harvesting and replacing plants, Aquaponics is based on this symbiotic link that exists
providing nutrient supplements, and filling up water. between fish and plants.
Components in Aquaponic Units Lower Water Consumption: When it comes to
 Fish Tank: Crucial component accounting for a water usage, aquaponics is far less than traditional
major amount of the system cost. Tank form, agriculture. There is never a need for frequent top-
material, and colour are crucial choices. ups since the water is constantly recirculated
 Filtration: Mechanical and biological filtration between the grow bed and fish tank.
are crucial for eliminating solid waste and Whole-Year Food Production: Aquaponic systems
preserving system health. may produce fish and plants consistently throughout
System Setup and Maintenance the year by managing the natural environment. This
Establishing and maintaining an integrated makes it possible to grow a wide variety of species.
aquaponics system comprises many critical steps: Chemical- and Organic-Free: There is no need for
 Initial Setup: Assembling the fish tank, grow chemical fertilizers because the fish faeces give the
bed, and water circulation system. Introducing plants natural nutrients. Grown in aquaponic
fish first and letting them to adjust before systems, food is organic and devoid of toxic residues.
introducing plants. Aesthetic appeal: Combining aquaponics with
 Cycling the System: Allow the system to grow decorative fish tanks results in a showpiece that is
helpful bacteria that convert fish waste into plant- both aesthetically pleasing and useful, improving a
usable nutrients through a process known as home's interior design. Rich vegetation and vibrant
nutrient cycling (Nitrogen cycle). fish make for a visually beautiful and useful combo.
 Ongoing Maintenance: Regularly monitoring Owners of indoor fish tanks may establish an effect-

177
ive and sustainable system that produces fresh, Maurya, P. and Ranjan, D. (2023). Aquaponics book
organic vegetables while preserving the aesthetic chapter.
appeal of their decorative fish exhibit by utilizing the Mohapatra, B. C., Panda, S. K., Chandan, N. K. and
advantages of aquaponics. Majhi, D. (2023). Current World Environ-
Conclusion ment.
Including ornamental fish tanks into Nicolae, C. G., Popa, D. C., Turek, R. A.,
aquaponics provides a sustainable and environ- Dumitrache, F., Mocuţa, D. and Elia, E.
mentally responsible way to beautify the interior of a (2015). Low- tech aquaponic system based
house. Aquaponics' practical advantages combined on an ornamental aquarium. Scientific
with ornamental fish's visual appeal allow homes to Papers. Series D. Animal Science, 58: 385-
produce visually spectacular and environmentally 390.
sound displays. Though setup and upkeep might be Patil, P. A., Dube, K., Verma, A. K., Chadha, N. K.,
difficult, the many advantages such as sustainability, Sundaray, J. K. and Jayasankar, P. (2019).
locally grown food, aesthetic appeal, and improved Growth performance of goldfish, Carassius
air quality make this approach a desirable choice for auratus and basil, Ocimum basilicum in
environmentally conscious households. media bed aquaponics. Indian Journal of
References Fisheries, 66(1): 112-118.
Rizal, A., Dhahiyat, Y., Hasan, Z., Andriani, Y., Settanni, L., Lombardo, F., Tamborra, G. M. and
Suryana, A. and Sahidin, A. (2018). The Orsini, F. (2020). Design of an aquaponic
economic and social benefits of an aquaponic system for integrated fish and plant
system for the integrated production of fish production in Bologna (Italy). Acta
and water plants. IOP Conference Series: Horticulturae, 1298: 129-134
Earth and Environmental Science, 137. Sicuro, B., Akther, K. R., Tafuro, V. and Roy, N. C.
012098. 10.1088/1755-1315/137/1/012098. (2024). Exploring the Intersection of
Luo, X. L., Rauan, A., Xing, J. X., Sun, J., Wu, W. Aquaponics and Ornamental Fish Culture in
Y. and Ji, H. (2021). Influence of dietary Se Italy’s Aquaculture Evolution: A Review of
supplementation on aquaponic system: Innovative Integration. American Journal of
Focusing on the growth performance, Multidisciplinary Research and Innovation.
ornamental features and health status of Koi
carp (Cyprinus carpio var. Koi), production
of Lettuce (Lactuca sativa) and water quality.
Aquaculture Research, 52(2): 505-517.

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Precision Agriculture: Path to Smart Farming

Introduction zones, areas where different management practices

Precision farming is a method of crop will apply for a single
management by which areas of land within a field crop type on a single
may be managed with different levels of inputs field over time are
depending upon the yield potential of the crop in that difficult to define.
particular area of land. The benefits of doing so are Various researcher
twofold: Cost of producing the crop in that area can has articulated a number of approaches that are
be reduced and risk of environmental pollution from currently being used to define management zones.
agrichemicals applied at levels greater than those Those include hand drawn polygons on yield maps,
required by the crop can be reduced. It can be said supervised and unsupervised classification proced-
that precision farming is an integrated agricultural ures on satellite or aerial imagery, identification of
management system incorporating several techno- yield stability patterns across seasons. Among these
logies. The technological tools often include the many approaches is a Phyto geomorphological
global positioning system, geographical information approach which ties multiyear crop growth stability
system, remote sensing, yield monitor and variable characteristics to topological terrain attributes. The
rate technology. interest in the phyto geomorphological approach
Precision Agriculture stems from the fact that the geomorphology
It is a concept based on observing, measuring component typically dictates the hydrology of the
and responding to inter and intra field variability in farm field. Multiyear data sets are now becoming
crops. Crop variability typically has both a spatial available that show this stability and these effects.
and temporal component which makes statistical However, there is a lot of work remaining to create
computational treatments quite involved. The holy an actual DSS system that could universally help
grail of precision agricultural research will be the farmers.
ability to define a Decision Support System (DSS) Need for Precision Farming
for whole farm management with the goal of The Green revolution of 1960’s has made our
optimizing returns on input while preserving country self-sufficient in food production. The food
resources. The reality today is that seemingly simple grain production shot up from 51 million tonnes (mt)
concepts such as the ability to define management from 97 m ha (1950-51) to a record of 241 mt from
Krishi Vigyan Kendra – Ra Bhoi, ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam, Meghalaya

179
123 m ha (2010-11). This showed a growth rate of world product, 4 % of world carbon emission, 3.6%
360 percent with a of CO2 emission intensity and 2% of world forest
meagre 24 percent area. One of the major reasons for this status of
increase in gross environment is the population growth of 2.2 % in
cultivated area. All this 1970-2000. The Indian status on environment is
has been possible due to high input application, like though not alarming when compared to developed
increase in fertilization, irrigation, pesticides, higher countries gives an early warning.
use of HYVs, increase in cropping intensity and In this context there is a need to convert this
increase in mechanization of agriculture. green revolution into an evergreen revolution which
Fatigue of Green Revolution: Green revolution of will be triggered by farming system approach that
course contributed a lot. However, even with the can help to produce more from the available land,
spectacular growth in the agriculture, the water and labour resources, without either ecological
productivity levels of many crops are far below than or social harm (Swaminathan, 2002). Since precision
expectation. We have not achieved even the lowest farming proposes to prescribe tailor made manage-
level of potential productivity of Indian high yielding ment practices it can help to serve this purpose.
varieties, whereas the world’s highest productive Basic Components of Precision Farming
country have crop yield levels significantly higher Precision Farming basically depends on
than the upper limit of the potential of Indian HYV’s. measurement and under-
Even the crop yields of India’s agriculturally rich standing of variability, the
state like Punjab is far below than the average yield main components of preci-
of many high productive countries. sion farming system must
Natural Resource Degradation: The green revolu- address the variability. Precision farming technology
tion is also associated with negative ecological/ enabled information based and decision focused, the
environmental consequences. The status of Indian components include remote sensing, geographical
environment shows that in India about 182 m ha of information system, global positioning system, soil
the country’s total geographical area of 328.7 m ha is testing, yield monitors and variable rate technology.
affected by land degradation of this 141.33 m ha are Precision farming requires the acquisition, manage-
due to water erosion, 11.50 m ha due to wind erosion ment, analysis and output of large amount of spatial
and 12.63 and 13.24 m ha area are due to water and temporal data. Mobile computing systems were
logging and chemical deterioration (salinization and needed to function on the go in farming operations
loss of nutrients) respectively. On the other end India because desktop systems in the farm office were not
shares 17 % of world’s population, 1 % of gross sufficient. Because precision farming is concerned

180
with spatial and temporal variability and it is ables are more produced in space rather with time,
information based and decision focused. making them more conducive to current forms of
Accurate guidance and navigation systems precision management.
will allow for farming operations at height and under Managing variability: Once variation is adequately
unfavourable weather conditions even. In India we assessed, farmers must match agronomic inputs to
have all these technologies available and they can be known conditions employing management recomm-
implemented through agricultural training centres by endations. Those are site specific and use accurate
giving training to agriculture officers in these applications control equipment. We can use the
technologies. technology most effectively. In site specific
Basic steps in Precision Farming variability management, we can use GPS instrument,
 Assessing variation so that the site specifically is pronounced and
 Managing variation managing will be easy and economical. While taking
 Evaluation the soil/plant samples, we have to note the sample
Assessing variation: It is the critical first step in site coordinates and further we can use the same for
precision farming. Quantifying the variability of management. This results in effective use of inputs
these factors and processes and determining when and avoids any wastage and this is what we are
and where different combinations are responsible for looking for. The potential for improved precision in
the spatial and temporal variation in crop yield is the soil fertility management combined with increased
challenge for precision agriculture. The major part of precision in application control make precise soil
precision agriculture lies in assessing to spatial fertility management as attractive, but largely
variability. Techniques for assessing temporal uproven alternative to uniform field management.
variability also exist but the simultaneous reporting a For successful implementation, the concept of
spatial and temporal variation is rare. We need both precision soil fertility management requires that
the spatial and temporal statistics. We can observe within field variability exists and is accurately
the variability in yield of a crop in space but we identified and reliably interpreted, that variability
cannot predict the reasons for the variability. It needs influences crop yield, crop quality and for the
the observations at crop growth and development environment. Therefore, inputs can be applied
over the growing season, which is nothing but the accurately. The higher the spatial dependence of a
temporal variation. Hence, we need both the space manageable soil property, the higher the potential for
and time statistics to apply the precision farming precision management and the greater its potential
techniques. But this is not common to all the value. The degree of difficulty, however, increases as
variability/ factor that dictate crop yield. Some vari- the temporal component of spatial variability increa-

181
ses. Applying this hypothesis to soil fertility would unconsciously soft PA technology for centuries.
support that phosphorus and potassium fertility are Presently, India is producing more than 200 Mt of
very conducive to precision management because food grain which makes India self-sufficient in food
temporal variability is low. For N, the temporal production. But only quantity cannot meet the need
component of variability can be larger than its spatial of the globalized agricultural market. Excellent
component, making precision N management much quality as well as high productivity will be the key
more difficult in some cases. factor to compete with others, and the huge scope of
Evaluation: There are important issues regarding PA lies here.
precision agriculture evaluation. Constraints in Precision Agriculture: A lack of
Economics, Environment and Technology interdisciplinary skills is one of the major
transfer: The most important fact regarding the roadblocks, as big data engineers, data analysts, and
analysis of profitability of precision agriculture is data scientists do not have an agricultural back-
that the value comes from the application of the data ground. On the other hand, farmers with long
and not from the use of the technology. Potential experience and practical knowledge are not educated
improvements in environmental quality are often enough to handle high technology like artificial
cited as a reason for using precision agriculture. intelligence. The production and development costs
Reduced agrochemical use, higher nutrient use of high-tech applications and the capital for
efficiencies, increased efficiency of managed inputs establishing them in real-world agriculture are also
and increased production of soils from degradation high]. This high cost of the production and
are frequently cited as potential benefits to the implementation of advanced technologies may
environment. Enabling technologies can make render them inaccessible to small-scale farmers, who
precision agriculture feasible, agronomic principles may lack the financial resources to invest in such
and decision rules can make it profitable. technologies
Scope of adoption of PA in India: PA can be Conclusion
classified into two categories namely: Soft and Hard. Precision agriculture is a promising solution
It can be commented that balanced use of soft and for improving crop productivity and resource
hard PA will be the deciding factor for its success in management. By leveraging advanced technologies
India. Land fragmentation is considered to be the like sensing, variable rate applications, and
main obstacle for large scale agricultural automation, precision agriculture optimizes farming
mechanization in India. But these fragmented lands practices. It enables informed decision-making,
are cultivated in a family responsibility system, and reduces resource waste, and enhances sustainability.
all small farmers have been following consciously or However, challenges remain in terms of cost, acess-

182
ibility, data management and education. With

further research and collaboration, precision
agriculture has the potential to revolutionize farming
and meet global food demand while minimizing
environmental impact.
References
FAO. (2017). The future of Food and Agriculture-
Trends and Challenges. Rome.
Filipe, J., Śmiałek, M., Brodsky, A. and Hammoudi,
S. (2019). (Eds.) Enterprise Information
Systems: 21st International Conference,
ICEIS 2019, Heraklion, Crete, Greece, 3-5
May 201.
Revised Selected Papers. In Lecture Notes in
Business Information Processing; Springer
International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland,
2020; Volume 378.

183
Innovations in Food Packaging Technology

Introduction These technologies not only provide

Packaging is a critical component of modern protection and prolong shelf life but also actively
trade, ensuring the preservation and quality of food engage with the packaged products to ensure their
products while safeguarding them from external freshness and safety. While active packaging
factors that can impact their safety and quality. It systems currently represent a small share of the
facilitates easier transportation, storage, and overall packaging market, their rapid growth is
dispensing of products, contributing to their access- anticipated in the coming years. This growth is
ibility and convenience. The evolving significance of fueled by increasing consumer demand for
packaging has spurred continuous advancements in innovative packaging solutions and supported by
production methods and technologies to meet the advancements in research and development.
growing demands of consumers for fresh products Although initially introduced in regions like Japan
with extended shelf life and controlled quality. In and the USA, active packaging solutions are gaining
response to consumer preferences, manufacturers are traction in Europe, driven by intensifying interest
increasingly focused on developing modern and safe and investment in research projects focused on their
packaging solutions that offer enhanced properties development. The future of food packaging lies in
such as gas barrier, UV protection, extended shelf the continued evolution of active packaging
life, transparency and environmental sustainability. solutions, which offer unprecedented opportunities
These advancements have reshaped the food to enhance the quality, safety and sustainability of
packaging market, with modern packaging solutions packaged food products. As research and innovation
playing a crucial role in extending the shelf life of in this field continue to advance, active packaging is
food products and optimizing storage and transport- poised to become increasingly integral to the food
ation logistics. The emergence of active packaging industry, revolutionizing the way we package,
systems, which actively interact with the packaged preserve and consume food. Since these newer
products to maintain or enhance their quality, concepts of active, intelligent and bioactive
represents a significant innovation in the field. packaging have had a stronger impact on food
Active packaging solutions include oxygen and marketing, their mechanism of action and
moisture scavengers, ethylene regulators and applicability for food applications are discussed in
antimicrobial packaging, among others. the following sections.
Research Scholar, Department of Processing and Food Engineering, CAE, UAS, Raichur, Karnataka

184
Active Packaging: Active packaging, as defined by intelligent packaging into two types: simple
European Regulation (EC) No. 450/2009, refers to intelligent packaging, which resembles Summers'
packaging systems that interact with food by definition, and interactive or responsive intelligent
intentionally including components that release or packaging, which incorporates sensors to alert
absorb substances into or from the packaged food or consumers of product impairment, enabling them to
its surroundings. These systems can be divided into mitigate negative changes. These packaging
two types: active scavenging systems, which remove products include sensors that can detect and transmit
undesirable compounds such as moisture, carbon data about the functions and qualities of packed
dioxide, oxygen, ethylene, or odour, and active- foods (Day, 2001). They may also include external
releasing systems, which add compounds such as or internal indications for active product history and
antimicrobial agents, carbon dioxide, antioxidants, quality assessment. These devices can be divided
flavours, ethylene, or ethanol to the packaged food or into three categories. The first category contains
its headspace. external indicators such as time-temperature and
Table 1 summarises key active packaging physiological stress indicators. The second category
technolo-gies and their potential benefits in food includes internal indications, such as oxygen leaks
applications. Active compounds such as anti- and microbiological indicators, which are located
microbials and antioxidants can be used in active within the package or lid. The third group includes
packaging rather than directly added to food, devices that improve information flow and
reducing the amount necessary. Traditional communication between product and user, such as
approaches entail adding active ingredients to the specialised bar codes for recording consumption
bulk of the food; however, because food deterio- details and traceability, anti-theft, anti-counterfeiting
ration or microbial growth frequently happens at the and tamperproof features (Han et al., 2005) and some
food surface, direct addition may be less effective. applications of intelligent packaging are summarized
Furthermore, direct addition may result in reduced in Table 2.
activity due to interactions with nutrients or Bioactive packaging: The evolution of prior
processing. As a result, adding active chemicals technologies indicates a paradigm shift towards the
through active packaging may provide better creation of bioactive packaging materials, as
effectiveness (Yildirim et al., 2018). indicated by Lagaron (2005). These novel materials
Intelligent Packaging: Intelligent packaging seek to encapsulate bioactive principles and assure
comprises packages that can sense environmental their regulated release into food products, either
changes and communicate this information to during storage or immediately before consumption,
consumers. Rodrigues and Han (2003) classified customised to specific product qualities. A literature

185
Table 1: Potential benefits of active packaging for food applications

Type of active packaging Type of food Potential benefit
Active scavenging systems (Sliced) Cooked meat products, Grated Prevention of discolouration, Prevention of mold
(absorber) cheese, (par-baked), bakery products, Fruit growth, Retention of vitamin C content,
and vegetable juices, Seeds, nuts and oils; prevention of browning
fat-containing instant powders
Moisture scavenger Mushrooms, tomatoes, strawberries, maize, Extension of shelf life through maintaining
grains, seeds, fresh fish, and meat moisture content, decrease in moisture
condensation in the packaging, positive impact
on the appearance,
reduction in browning or discoloration
Ethylene absorber Climacteric fruits and vegetables Reduction in ripening and senescence, thereby
enhancing quality and prolonging shelf-life
Table 2: Applications of intelligent packaging
Indicator type Indicator name Company name Purpose Indicating point
Gas indicator Ageless Eye TM Mitsubishi Gas Chemical Co. Detection of oxygen gas Change of colour from
Japan pink to blue or purple
Shelf-Life Guard UPM-Kymmene Corporation, Detection of air within Change of colour from
Finland the package environment transparent to blue
Freshness Fresh Tag COX Technologies, USA Detection of decompo- Change of colour from
Indicator sition in seafood and yellow to dark blue or
other protein products pink
Food Sentinel System SIRA Technologies Inc. Detection of pathogens The bar code becomes
California, USA in food packages unreadable upon
scanning
search on bioactive packaging yielded few relevant health benefits are among the proposed new
findings, which were mostly unconnected to the food solutions. The development of such functional
business or focused mainly on antimicrobial hybrid food/packaging systems, which incorporate
qualities. It is critical to distinguish between active prebiotics, probiotics, phytochemicals, marine oils,
and bioactive packaging technologies. While active lactose-free options, encapsulated vitamins and
packaging generally aims to preserve or improve the bioavailable flavonoids, provides more efficient and
quality and safety of packaged foods, bioactive in some cases, novel industrial solutions for
packaging directly benefits consumer health by improving the health impact of foods after
encouraging healthier food choices. The foundation consumption and some of the potential benefits of
for a revolutionary technological approach in which bioactive packaging are mentioned below (Lopez et
functional packaging concepts address current al., 2006).
manufacturing challenges in functional foods. Enhanced food quality: Bioactive packaging helps
Successful application of these concepts necessitates maintain and improve the quality of packaged foods
multidisciplinary collaboration across multiple study by preserving freshness, extending shelf life, and
disciplines. The integration and controlled release of minimizing spoilage. This can lead to better sensory
bioactive components from sustainable packaging attributes and overall consumer satisfaction.
systems, micro- and nanoencapsulation of active Increased food safety: By incorporating anti-
substances, and enzymatically active packaging for microbial agents or other bioactive substances, bio-

186
active packaging can inhibit microbial growth, References

reducing the risk of foodborne illnesses and Day, B. P. F. (2001). Active packaging-a fresh
improving food safety. approach. Journal of Brand Technology,
Healthier food choices: Bioactive packaging can 1(1): 32-41.
contribute to healthier food choices by incorporating Han, J. H., Ho, C. H. and Rodrigues, E. T. (2005).
functional ingredients such as vitamins, minerals, Intelligent packaging. Innovations in Food
antioxidants and phytochemicals into the packaging Packaging, 138-155.
materials. These ingredients can provide additional Lagaron, J. M. (2005). Bioactive packaging: A novel
health benefits to consumers. route to generate healthier foods. In Second
Reduced food waste: By extending the shelf life of conference in food packaging interactions.
perishable foods and reducing spoilage, bioactive Lopez-Rubio, A., Gavara, R. and Lagaron, J. M.
packaging helps minimize food waste, which is (2006). Bioactive packaging: turning foods
beneficial for both consumers and the environment. into healthier foods through biomaterials.
Convenience and ease of use: Certain types of Trends in Food Science and Technology,
bioactive packaging, such as time-temperature 17(10): 567-575.
indicators or smart labels, provide consumers with Rodrigues, E. T. and Han, J. H. (2003). Intelligent
convenient tools to monitor food freshness and packaging. Encyclopedia of Agricultural and
safety, enhancing their overall food experience. Food Engineering, pp. 528-535.
Sustainability: Many bioactive packaging materials Yildirim, S., Rocker, B., Pettersen, M. K., Nilsen‐
are derived from renewable or biodegradable Nygaard, J., Ayhan, Z., Rutkaite, R.,
sources, contributing to sustainability efforts within Radusin, T., Suminska, P., Marcos, B. and
the food industry. Additionally, bioactive packaging Coma, V. (2018). Active packaging
can help reduce the need for certain food additives or applications for food. Comprehensive
preservatives, further promoting environmentally Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety,
friendly practices. 17(1): 165-199.
Market Differentiation: Products packaged with
bioactive packaging may stand out in the market due
to their perceived health benefits and innovative
features, leading to increased consumer interest and
brand loyalty (Lopez et al., 2006).

187
Role of Male Sterility in Vegetable Crops

A. V. Malviya, Harsh S. Hathi, J. M. Ganvit, A. I. Patel and R. D. Vekariya
Abstract
Male sterility serves as a key method for efficiently producing hybrid seeds in various
vegetable crops, contributing to increased yield, early maturity and pest-disease resistance. Progress
in understanding its mechanisms has enabled the development of cost-effective hybrid seeds.
Globally, cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) and cytoplasmic genetic male sterility (CGMS) are widely
employed for vegetable hybridization. CGMS finds commercial use in chilli, onion and carrot, while
CMS is utilized in cabbage, cauliflower, and onion. Additionally, genetic male sterility (GMS) is
applied in chilli and cucurbit crops. This article underscores the importance of different male sterility
systems: GMS, CMS and CGMS for plant breeders aiming to produce more efficient and
economically viable hybrid seeds. By harnessing male sterility, breeders can enhance agricultural
productivity and sustainability, meeting the growing demand for high-quality vegetables while
optimizing resources. Understanding and leveraging these mechanisms are pivotal steps toward
advancing vegetable crop production globally.
Introduction Male sterility is a condition observed in

Vegetables are essential for nutrition, but flowering plants where the pollen is either absent or
with a growing population, demand rises. Hybrid non-functional, while the female gametes function
varieties are increasingly popular, replacing open- normally. This phenomenon can manifest in various
pollinated ones over the past two decades. Adoption forms, including:
of hybrids boosts vegetable production significantly,  Absence or malformation of male reproductive
especially considering limited land availability. organs in bisexual plants.
Hybrid technology, utilizing male sterility lines,  Failure to develop normal microsporogenous
offers efficient seed production, enhancing tissue, leading to impaired pollen production.
productivity and economic output. This advance-  Anomalies in microsporogenesis, resulting in the
ment in agriculture promises to meet future production of viable, deformed, or aborted pollen
challenges, ensuring food security and sustainability  Viable pollen development, but the anthers rem-
in our country. ain indehiscent, hindering the release of pollen.
A. Malviya, Harsh S. Hathi and J. M. Ganvit
Research Scholar, Department of Vegetable Science, ASPEE College of Horticulture, NAU, Navsari, Gujarat
A. I. Patel
Assistant Professor, Department of Vegetable Science, ASPEE College of Horticulture, NAU, Navsari, Gujarat
R. D. Vekariya
Assistant Research Scientist, Wheat Research Station, NAU, Bardoli, Gujarat

188
History of Male Sterility isolated field known as the “hybrid seed production
Male sterility in flowering plants was first block.” In this system (block), male and female lines
documented by Koelreuter in 1763. Subsequent are strategically interplanted in a 1:2 ratio (Fig. 1).
reports in onions (Jones and Clarke, 1943), carrots The female line produces both male fertile and male
(Welch and Grimball, 1947), peppers (Martin and sterile plants in a 1:1 ratio. To initiate cross-
Grawford, 1951), and cabbage and cauliflower pollination for hybrid seed production, the male
(Nieuwhof, 1961) marked significant milestones in fertile plants are removed from the female line. In
understanding male sterility. most cases, male sterile plants are indistinguishable
These discoveries spurred further research from their fertile counterparts, except in a few
into its genetic mechanisms. Today, male sterility is instances where the male sterile flowers may be
crucial in hybrid seed production and seedless fruit smaller, such as in chili plants.
development, revolutionizing modern vegetable
breeding and agricultural practices.
Classification of Male Sterility
Male sterility can be classified into five basic Fig. 1: General Scheme of hybrid seed production
types, each with distinct characteristics and utilizing GMS
underlying mechanisms. (1) Genetic Male Sterility, Table 1: Utilization of GMS in vegetables
Gene number/ Variety
(2) Cytoplasmic Male Sterility and (3) Cytoplasmic Crops Gene
condition developed
Shalimar Tomato
Genetic/Genic Male Sterility. There are two other Single recessive Hybrid-1
Tomato ps-2
types, viz., Chemical Induced Male Sterility and gene Shalimar Tomato
Hybrid-2
Transgenic Male Sterility. Chilli
Single recessive
ms-12 & ms-3 CH-1, CH-3
gene
Genetic Male Sterility (GMS): Pollen sterility Musk- Single recessive
ms-1 Punjab Hybrid-1
melon gene
caused by nuclear genes is termed genic or genetic
male sterility. It has been reported in crop plants such Cytoplasmic Male Sterility (CMS): Cytoplasmic
as tomato, pepper, brinjal, cucurbits, and cole crops. Male Sterility (CMS) is determined by the cytoplasm
This type of sterility enables efficient hybrid seed of the plant. As the cytoplasm comes mainly from the
production and ensures genetic purity in breeding egg cell during zygote formation, progeny from male
programs, contributing to improved crop yields and sterile plants will always be male sterile. CMS can
high-quality varieties. be transferred to a specific strain by using it as a
Hybrid Seed Production Procedure for GMS pollinator (recurrent parent) in successive
Based Hybrids generations of a backcross program. After 6-7
Hybrid seed production takes place in an backcrosses, the nuclear genotype of the male sterile

189
line becomes almost identical to the recurrent the pollinator strain's nuclear genotype must be NN-
pollinator strain (Fig. 2). rr to ensure fertility restoration.
Utilization of CMS for Hybrid Seed Production: Utilization of CGMS for Hybrid Seed Production:
Cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) can be maintained Cytoplasmic-Genetic Male Sterility (CGMS) can be
by crossing a male sterile line (A line) with the maintained by crossing a cytoplasmic male sterile
recurrent pollinator strain (maintainer line) in a line (SS-rr) or A line with a pollinator strain (NN-rr)
backcross program, as their nuclear genotypes are used as a recurrent parent in backcross programs.
identical. The male fertile line used for maintaining The nuclear genotype of the pollinator is identical to
the male sterile line is called the maintainer line or B the new male sterile line (Fig. 3). The male fertile
line. CMS is particularly valuable for hybrid seed line used to maintain the male sterile line is called the
production in vegetables where the economic value maintainer line or B line.
lies in the vegetative parts, such as onion, carrot, For hybrid seed production, 2 to 3 rows of
radish, cole crops and others. line A (SS-rr) are alternated with 1 row of line C,
which is generally expected to have the genotype
NN-RR. Commercial hybrid seed is harvested from
line A. Line C may have genotypes NN-rr, NN-Rr,
SS-Rr, or SS-RR. Hybrids developed using the first
three genotypes will be sterile and suitable for
Fig. 2: General Scheme of hybrid seed production situations where seed is not a commercial product.
utilizing CMS
However, for cases where seed is important, the
Cytoplasmic Genetic Male Sterility (CGMS): In
pollen parent should have the genetic constitution
this case of cytoplasmic male sterility, fertility
NN-RR.
restoration is possible due to a dominant nuclear gene
The main advantage of CGMS over GMS is
known as the fertility restorer gene (RR). This gene
the ability to obtain 100% male sterile plants for
can be found in certain strains of the species or
direct use as female parents in hybrid seed
transferred from a related species. The sterility factor
production.
results from the interaction of nuclear genes and
cytoplasm, where neither of them alone can control
sterility. This type of sterility has been reported in
crops like carrot, onion, chili, capsicum, and
Brassica napus.
To develop a new male sterile line, the same Fig. 3: General Scheme of hybrid seed production
procedure as the cytoplasmic system is followed, but utilizing CGMS
190
Table 2: Utilization of CGMS in vegetables Petaloid Male Sterility (PMS): Petaloid sterility, a
Commer
Crops Gene -cially Variety homeotic mutation, is widely used for commercial
utilized
hybrid seed production worldwide. This mutation
Arka Meghna, Arka
Single recessive
Chilli ms-2 Sweta, Arka Harita, leads to the replacement of stamens with petals
gene
Kashi Surkh
Onion
Single recessive Arka Kirtiman, Arka (white petaloidy) or both stamens and petals with
gene Lalima
Single recessive Pusa Nayanjyoti, green bract-like structures (green petaloidy)
Carrot
gene Pusa Vasuda
(Kitagawa et al., 1994). Petaloid sterility remains
Chemically Induced Male Sterility (CiMS): CHA
stable across diverse environmental conditions
(Chemical Hybridizing Agents) are chemicals that
during flowering and seed production.
artificially induce non-genetic male sterility in
Role of Male Sterility in Vegetables
plants, making them suitable as female parents in
Tomato: Over 55 male sterile (ms) alleles causing
hybrid seed production. They are also known as Male
sporogenous, structural, and functional sterility have
gametocides, male sterilants, selective male steril-
been reported (Kaul, 1988). Some of these genes'
ants, pollen suppressants, pollenocide, androcide,
chromosomal locations are known (Table 4). The list
and other names. The effectiveness of these
of artificially induced and spontaneously isolated
compounds, such as FW-450, ethephon, RH-531,
male sterile mutants in tomato is continuously
and PPX 3778, depends on treatment time and
growing. There are four types of male sterility in
dosage.
tomato, each governed by a single recessive gene
The first report of using CHA for inducing
(Table 5). The stamenless type produces misshapen
male sterility was given by Moore and Naylor in
fruit in the F1 hybrid generation, and positional
1950. They successfully induced male sterility in
sterility is not stable. The pollen abortive type and
maize using maleic hydrazide (MH).
functional sterilities are commonly used in F1 hybrid
Table 3: Potential gametocides used for induction
male sterility in vegetable crops production.
Gametocides Concentration Vegetable crops Table 4: Chromosomal location of some ms genes
GA3 2000-3000 ppm Onion, lettuce
0.4-0.5% Chilli, muskmelon
in tomato
Chromosome ms genes
2400-2600 ppm Carrot
M.H 1 ms-6, ms-32, ms
100-500 ppm Tomato
ms-2, ms-5, ms-10, ms-15, ms-26, ms-35, ms,
400-500 ppm Okra 2
ps
0.2-0.4% Tomato
3 ms-9
FW-450 0.4% Okra 4 Ls
(Mendok) 0.2% Brinjal 6 ms-16, ms-32, cl-2
0.3% Muskmelon 8 ms-8, ms-17, vms
Phosphon-D 750-1000 ppm Onion 10 ms-31
50 ppm Tomato 11 ms-3, ms-7, ms-12, ms-14, ms-42, ms, ap
2-4 D
20 ppm Brinjal
TIBA 50-100 ppm Watermelon, Tomato Sher-E-Kashmir University of Agricultural
GA3 1000 ppm Capsicum
Ethrel Brinjal
Science and Technology (SKUAST) in Kashmir,

191
Table 5: Description of different male sterile mutants in tomato

Mutant Description Inheritance Governing genes
Monogenic recessive (except MS-
Pollen sterile Pollen abortive msseries (- 49 independent genes)
48), monogenic dominant)
Stamenless Stamens absent Monogenic recessive sl-1, sl-2
Positional sterility Stigma exerted Monogenic recessive ps
Functional sterility Anthers do not dehisce Monogenic recessive ps-2
India, has released two tomato hybrids (Shalimar Jwala, A2 x Pant C1, A3 x Japani Longi, and A7 x
tomato hybrid-1 and Shalimar tomato hybrid-2) Pant C1. PAU Ludhiana is also actively working on
based on the Genetic male sterility system. Similarly, utilizing CGMS in chilli hybrid breeding.
work on GMS lines is underway at PAU for tomato. Onion: The first CMS plant was reported in the
Chilli: In chilli, Punjab Agricultural University progenies of the onion cultivar Italian Red (Jones and
(PAU) has developed the MS-12 line, which carries Emsweller, 1936). Male sterility in onion was
genetic male sterility (GMS) controlled by the controlled by a single recessive nuclear restorer locus
recessive gene (msms). This male sterile line (MS- (Jones and Clarke, 1943).
12) was created by transferring the sterility gene (ms- The first CMS source in onion was CMS-S
509, renamed as ms-10) from capsicum imported type, which likely had an alien cytoplasm with
from France into the “Punjab Lal” cultivar through differences in chloroplast and mitochondrial
backcrossing (Singh and Kaur, 1986). Using this genomes compared to N cytoplasm. The CMS-S
male sterile line, PAU has released two chilli system has been widely used due to its stability in
hybrids, CH-1 and CH-3, showing 80-100% various environments. The CMS line (S ms/ms) and
heterosis and outperforming all recommended chilli its near-isogenic maintainer line (N ms/ms) are
varieties. The popularity of these hybrids has led to a crucial for breeding F1 hybrids using the CMS
significant increase in chilli acreage in Punjab State system.
and other states like Haryana and Rajasthan. Over 50% of globally cultivated onion
The World Vegetable Centre, Taiwan, varieties are F1 hybrids derived from S-cytoplasm.
identified two Cytoplasmic-Genetic Male Sterility In India, CMS research gained momentum in the
(CGMS) lines in chilli, CCA-4759, and CCA-4757, 1980s at IIHR (Bangalore), IARI (New Delhi), and
which are reliably sterile under night temperatures MPKV (Rahuri). IIHR has released two hybrids,
below 15ºC (Liu and Gniffke, 2004). CGMS lines Arka Kirtiman and Arka Lalima, after developing
(CCA-4261) were recently introduced to IIVR in CMS lines and maintainers from a commercial
India and are being used to produce CGMS-based variety Pusa Red.
hybrids like Kashi Surkh. Several promising CGMS- CMS and CGMS are the most widely used
based hybrid combinations have been identified at male sterility systems globally, particularly in crops
IIVR and IIHR, such as A2 x Pusa Jwala, A3 x Pusa like onion and carrot with many small-sized flowers

192
that make hand emasculation difficult. By utilizing nuclear gene, indicating close linkage or a pleiotropic
male sterility, hybrid seed cost can be reduced by 40 effect of the involved locus (Watts, 1967). However,
to 70%. Genetically engineered male sterility offers the gms gene not only affected male reproductive
breeders significant opportunities to enforce pollin- function but also reduced female reproduction,
ation control in hybrid seed production systems. resulting in limited commercial application (Zhang
Cucurbitaceous vegetables: Cucurbit vegetables, et al., 1994).
with their larger male and female flowers, allow for Cole crops: In cole crops, F1 hybrids offer
various pollination control strategies. Most genetic significant advantages, including uniform maturity,
male sterile mutants in cucurbits are monogenic high early and total yield, and improved curd/head
recessive. In muskmelon, male sterility has been quality in terms of compactness, color, and resistance
successfully commercially exploited. Five recessive to insect pests, diseases, and heat.
and non-allelic male sterile genes (ms-1, ms-2, ms-3, In Brassica oleracea L., the first CMS system
ms-4, and ms-5) have been identified in melon was developed by Pearson in 1972 through
(Cucumis melo L.). However, greenhouse studies interspecific hybridization between B. nigra and B.
have shown that male-sterile plants in ms-1 and ms- oleracea var. italica. Backcrosses were made
2 progenies are challenging to identify, as aberrant between the resulting amphidiploids and the cabbage
flowers can also be observed on genetically fertile cultivar Green Globe, leading to the establishment of
siblings, leading to unstable gene expression and two CMS systems: petaloid and vestigial anther male
potential genetic impurity in F1 hybrid seed sterility. The flowers of petaloid male sterile plants
(McCreight, 1984). were less attractive to pollinating insects due to
In India, the male-sterile gene ms-1 was enlarged, malformed pistils lacking in nectarines
introduced in 1978 and used to release two (Pearson, 1972). In vestigial anther types, although
commercial cultivars, “Punjab Hybrid” and “Punjab the flowers were smaller and normal with functional
Anmol.” nectarines, homozygous plants could not be obtained
The first male sterility in watermelon even after six generations of backcrossing in broccoli
(Citrullus lanatus, Thunb.) was reported by Watts (Dickson, 1975).
(1962), who discovered a male sterile mutant in the Carrot: Brown anther (ba) male sterility was first
X2 generation of 'Sugar Baby' irradiated with gamma observed in the cultivar Tendersweet and reported by
rays. The mutant, known as a glabrous male sterile Welch and Grimball in 1947. Studies by Hanshe and
(gms), exhibited a lack of hairs on the plant foliage Gabelman (1963) and Banga et al. (1964) indicated
alongside male sterility. Both glabrousness and male that the expression of brown anther sterility was
sterility were inherited together as a single recessive caused by a homozygous recessive locus Ms5 or a

193
dominant allele for Ms4. However, the fertility could Banga, O., Petiet, J. and Van Bennekom, J. L. (1964).
be restored by a dominant allele of either of the two Genetical analysis of male sterility in carrots,
complementary loci. Daucus carota L. Euphytica, 13: 75-93.
In India, the CMS system was established for De, L. C. and Bhattacharjee, S. K. (2011). Handbook
the first time in Asiatic carrot germplasm at IARI of Vegetable Crops. Pointer Publisher,
(Indian Agricultural Research Institute). IARI, New Jaipur. pp. 76-81.
Delhi, developed the first public sector tropical carrot Dickson, M. H. (1975). G1117A, G1102A and
hybrid, Pusa Vasudha, using this male sterility. G1106-A cytosterile broccoli inbreds. Hort.
Additionally, the first temperate carrot hybrid, Pusa Science, 10: 535-537.
Nayanjyothi, was developed at IARI regional station, Geng, S. S., Chen, B. and Zhang X. F. (2005). A new
Katrainutilizing CMS. Introducing CMS into carrot hot pepper F1 hybrid Jingla No. 2. China
breeding materials has proven to be an efficient tool Vegetables, 10/11: 41-42.
for mass-scale pollination control, facilitating hybrid Hansche, P. E. and Gabelman, W. H. (1963). Digenic
seed production in carrots. control of male sterility in carrots, Daucus
Conclusion carota L. Crop Science, 3: 383-386.
Vegetables are vital for nutrition, but with a Hundal, J. S. and Khurana, D. S. (2001). A new
rising population, demand surges. Hybrid vegetable hybrid of chilli, CH-3 Suitable for
varieties, utilizing male sterility for production, have processing. Journal of Research Punjab
become popular to meet the recommended 300 g per Agricultural University, 39(2): 326.
capita daily consumption. Male sterility in flowering Hundal, J. S. and Khurana, D. S. (1993). CH-1- A
plants allows efficient hybrid production, essential new hybrid of chilli. Progressive Farming,
for increasing vegetable output and addressing the 29: 11-13.
growing need for nutritious food in our country. Jones, H. A. and Emsweller, S. L. (1936). A male
Acknowledgement: I humbly acknowledge the co- sterile onion. Proc. in American Society of
authors for their assistance and guidance to review Horticultural Sciences, 34: 582-585.
the papers and provide the necessary editing/ Kaul, M. L. H. (1988). Male sterility in higher plants.
corrections for the same. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
References Kitagawa, J., Gerrath, J., Posluszny, U. and Wolyn,
Jones, H. A. and Clarke, A. E. (1943). Inheritance of D. J. (1994). Developmental and morpholo-
male sterility in onion and the production of gical analysis of homeotic cytoplasmic male
hybrid seed. Proc. in American Society of sterile and fertile carrot flowers. Sexual Plant
Horticultural Sciences, 43: 189-194. Reproduction, 7: 41-50.

194
Koelreuter, J. G., Hayes, H. S., Immer, F. R. and Singh, J. and Kaur, S. (1986). Present status of hot
Smith, D. C. (1763). In: Methods of Plant pepper breeding for multiple disease
Breeding Mc. Graw Hill Book Co. Inc. New resistance in Punjab. Proceeding of VI
York. EUCARPIA Meeting on Genetic and
Lal, T., Vashisht, V. and Dhillon, N. P. S. (2007). Breeding on Capsicum and Eggplant,
Punjab Anmol-A new hybrid of muskmelon Zaragoza (Spain). pp. 111-114.
(Cucumis melo L.). Journal of Research Watts, V. M. (1962). A marked male-sterile mutant
Punjab Agricultural University, 44: 83. in watermelon. Proc. of American Society of
Liu, W. Y. and Gniffke, P. A. (2004). Stability of Horticultural Sciences, 81: 498-505.
AVRDC’s cytoplasmic male sterile (CMS) Watts, V. M. (1967). Development of disease
pepper lines grown under low temperatures. resistance and seed production in watermelon
Capsicum and Eggplant Newsletter, 23: 85- stocks carrying msg gene. Journal of
88. American Society of Horticultural Sciences,
McCreight, J. D. and Elmstrom, G. W. (1984). A 91: 579-580.
third male sterile gene in muskmelon. Hort. Welch, J. E. and Grimball, J. E. L. (1947). Male
Science, 19: 268-270 sterility in the carrot. Science, 106: 594-597.
Moore, R. H. (1950). Several effects of maleic
hydrazide on plants. Science, 112: 52-53.
Nandpuri, K. S., Singh, S. and Lal, T. (1982). Punjab
Hybrid-a variety of muskmelon. Progressive
Farming, 18(6): 3-4.
Nieuwhof, M. (1961). Male sterility in some cole
crops. Euphytica, 10: 351-356.
Pearson, O. H. (1972). Cytoplasmically inherited
male sterility characters and flavour
components from the species Brassica napus
L. Journal of American Society of
Horticultural Sciences, 97: 397-402.
Zhang, X. P., Skorupaka, H. T. and Rhodes, B. B.
(1994). Cytological expression in the male-
sterile ms mutant in watermelon. Journal of
Heredity, 85(4): 279-285.

195
Leaf Quality and Its Effects on Silkworm Growth, Survival and Adult
Reproduction
Shudeer, Chandana C. R., Jayant J. M. and Arpita
History of Silkworm for 10-14 days.

In China, a legend indicates that the Adult stage: It last for 5-10 days, the fully developed
discovery of silkworm silk was made by an ancient moth emerges from the cocoon, ready to mate. Adult
empress named Leizu, the wife of the Yellow moths have a short lifespan and do not eat. Their
Emperor, also known as Xi Lingshi. She was primary purpose is reproduction. After mating, the
drinking tea under a tree when a silk cocoon fell into female moth lays eggs, and the cycle begins anew.
her tea. As she picked it out and started to wrap the
silk thread around her finger, she slowly felt a warm
sensation. When the silk ran out, she saw a small
larva. In an instant, she realized that this caterpillar
larva was the source of the silk. She taught this to the
people, and the knowledge became widespread.
Life cycle of silkworm Fig 1: Life cycle of silkworm
Egg stage: The female silk moth lays hundreds of Silkworm larvae are monophagous in nature
tiny, pinhead-sized eggs that last for 10-14 days. due to morin (Zhang et al., 2018) and obtain all
Initially yellow, the eggs gradually turn dark grey nutrients from mulberry leaves to build its body,
just before hatching. sustain and spin cocoons. Mulberry leaves provide
Larval stage: The average larval duration varies as proteins, vitamins and other nutrients from which
3.50±0.51, 3.53±0.51, 4.47±0.51, 5.60±0.45 and silk proteins are synthesized. Quality and quantity of
6.60±0.50 days for first, second, third, fourth and mulberry leaves along with environmental factors
fifth instar larva, respectively with total larval affect production of raw silk spun by larvae before
developmental period of 23.77±0.774 days. pupation in the form of cocoons.
Pupal stage: Once the larva reaches its full size, it Nutrition is the most important and very
spins a protective cocoon around itself using silk much essential component for all the living being.
produced from its salivary glands. This process lasts Like other organisms’ silkworms are also very much
Shudeer
Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, GKVK, UAS, Bengaluru, Karnataka
Chandana C. R., Jayant J. M. and Arpita
Department of Entomology, UAS, Raichur, Karnataka

196
sensitive towards nutritional factor. It is well known

that the amount and quality of leaves affects growth
rate, developmental period, body weight and survival
rate of larvae, as well as influencing the subsequent
fecundity, longevity, movement and competitive
ability of the adults. If the optimum required
nutrients are not present in the leaves, then silkworm Fig. 3: Impact of Nutrition supplementation on
Silkworm, Bombyx mori
acquire disease and the percentage of effective rate
The feeding of nutritionally enriched leaves
of rearing will be decrease as the mortality rate is
showed better growth and development of silkworm
higher in silkworm which is reared in poor foodstuff
larvae, as well as directly influence on the quality and
(Borah and Praban, 2020).
quantity of silk production. The host leaves mainly
constitute proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, sterols,
phagostimulants and minerals. Such nutritional
requirement in food consumption has direct impact
on the all-genetic traits such as larval and cocoon
weight, quantity of silk production, pupation and
reproductive traits.
Fig. 2: Major nutritional requirement of silkworm
Protein: Protein is one of the essential materials of
Although the mulberry leaves are complete
the body. It is the most important component of cell
diet for silkworm but it is possible that some
molecular structure for survival. Fortification of
deficiencies occur for different reasons. The
mulberry leaves with royal jelly increases moulting
nutritional status of the mulberry leaves can be
and larval weight of silkworm. It contains
improved by enriching them with different nutrients.
acetylcholine, which is important requirement in the
Fortification of mulberry leaves with complementary
diet of silkworm larvae for normal moulting as well
compounds was found to increase the larval growth
as growth.
and post cocoon characteristics. Nutritional
Vitamins: A kind of organic active substance mainly
requirements are the chemical factors of ingested
are the component enzyme and other catalysts. They
food essential for normal metabolism and
are essential substances to adjust the physiological
development of insect. The required essential
function and metabolism in cells. Leaf supplemented
nutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,
with vitamin B derivatives enhanced disease
vitamins and amino acids, water are generally
resistance, body weight and silk yield in silkworm.
present in the natural food plants of the species
Ascorbic acid enhanced the larval survival rate.
(Borah and Praban, 2020).
197
Minerals: Minerals may represent a limiting factor to harbour antiviral substances. Administration of
for the growth of the insects, principally true for all seed extract of Plectranthes corylifolia and leaf
types of diet composition. Nutritional supplement- extract of P. ambonicus to third instar silkworms
ation of nickel chloride, potassium iodide and copper resulted into reduction in mortality due to grasserie
sulphate increased the economic parameters of the disease (Manimegalai and Chandramohan, 2006).
silkworm. Nickel chloride considerably increased Antifungal activity of certain botanicals in which the
the growth of silkworm larvae, pupae, adults and highest growth inhibition and lowest sporulation of
subsequently cocoon production. The cocoon weight Beauveri bassiana were observed with Phyllantus
was increased after feeding silkworm larvae with niruru (Savitha and Bhaskar, 2005). According to
nickel and zinc fortified mulberry leaves. Shuba and Bhaskar (2006), the leaf extract of
Probiotics: Probiotics derived from Latin and Greek Adhathoda vasica, P. niruri, P. corylifolia, Tribulus
words pro means “or” and biotic means “life” terrestris and Withania somniferum when
together “for life” and defined in many ways. supplemented through mulberry leaf to BmNPV
Probiotics are the live microbial food supplements infected larvae, were able to inhibit multiplication of
beneficially affecting host by improving the BmNPV.
microbial balance and enhanced rapid cellular Conclusion
growth and development. The silkworm larvae were Use of different nutritional sources in
fed on mulberry leaves treated with four different sericulture is one of the eco-friendly methods to
kinds of probiotics feed supplements viz., spirulina, minimize the use of chemical fertilizers. Nutritional
azolla, yeast and soya milk at five different supplementations have beneficial effects on the feed
concentrations (1, 2, 3, 4 and 5%) each was efficacy, growth of the silkworm larval, pupal and
supplemented to silkworm hybrid, PM x CSR-2 from cocoon parameters and also increased the quantity of
fourth instar onwards through mulberry leaves. silk production by enhancing the feed efficacy.
Among the probiotics tested azolla was found to be Nutritional efficiency of mulberry leaves is
superior for all larval parameters such as larval considered as important factor to assess the cost
weight a day before spinning, fifth instar and total benefit ratio of sericulture practices up to the level of
larval duration, effective rate of rearing and fresh cocoon production
weight of silk glands on the day of 50 per cent References
spinning (Shruti et al., 2019). Borah, S. D. and Praban, B. (2020). A review of
Role of nutrition supplementation in silkworm nutrition and its impact on silkworm. Journal
disease management of Entomology and Zoological Studies, 8(3):
In nature, a number of plants have been found 1921-1925.

198
Manimegalai, S. and Chandramohan, N. (2006).

Efficiency of botanicals against grasserie
disease of silkworm, Bombyx mori L.
Serecologia, 46: 15-25.
Shruti, Ashoka, J., Hadimani, D. K., Sreenivas, A. G.
and Beladhadi, R. V. (2019). Effect of
probiotic feed supplements to mulberry
silkworm, Bombyx mori L. for larval growth
and development parameters. International
Journal of Chemical Studies, 7: 3914-3919.

199
Exploring the Importance of Plamyrah

Introduction relationship to India's cottage, agricultural, and rural

Palmyrah palm (Borassus flabellifer L.) livelihood sectors. The plant's applications can be
belongs to palmae, chromosome number 2n=32 and broadly divided into non-edible, edible, and value
native to tropical Africa. It is a dioecious tropical added uses. The entire tree can be used for economic
crop of significant commercial importance. purposes as well as to carry out traditional tasks in
Historically, diverse plant parts such the roots, Tamil culture. It is regarded as nature's eternal gift
leaves, seeds, and fruits have been used for a variety and is referred to as “Kalpakatharu” in Tamil, which
of purposes. Palmyrah is also called toddy palm and means the tree that grants all a person's requests. The
sugar palm. It is cultivated throughout India, Sri ancient palm of palmyrah is known as the “Wishing
Lanka, Bangladesh, Burma, the Philippines, Tree” or “a palm that yields anything and
Malaysia and several east African nations. In the everything” because of its extraordinary capacity to
semi-arid states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, produce several economically significant goods.
Gujarat, Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar, Karnataka, and Every portion of the palm is used almost entirely.
Maharashtra, palmyrah brightens the barren environ- Due to the fruit's therapeutic and nutritional benefits,
ment. At the moment, Tamil Nadu is home to half of palmyrah is in high demand worldwide. In Sri Lanka,
India's estimated 102 million palmyrah palms. More around 1500 tons of fruits are annually accessible
than 50 percent of Tamil Nadu's 51.90 million palm during the seasons when the female palm's
trees are clustered in the Southern district of inflorescences begin to mature and bear fruits. For
Thoothukudi. In 1978, the Tamil Nadu government one season, a palm may produce 200-300 fruits.
designated palmyrah. Palmyrah (Borassus flabellifer September and October are the fruiting season. The
L.), the state tree of Tamil Nadu, is a gift from nature fruit is big, fibrous, and often has three portions that
to humankind. It is a plant that provides the resemble nuts with a seed encased in each. The
community with several ecological, medical, juvenile fruit kernel of the palmyrah has a layer of
economic, and sociological advantages. It is a plant gelatinous endosperm or kernel, as well as some
from heaven that could resist extreme weather and sweet tasting water, enclosed in a tough shell. The
natural disas-ters. It is one of the most advantageous endosperm is referred to as “Nungu,” in Tamil which
species and each and every portion of it has is the juvenile fruit kernel of a palmyrah. Under
economic and medical worth. The plant has a close appropriate conditions, the endosperm of mature
Department of Horticulture, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, BHU, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh

200
fruits hardens. During August month palmyrah fruit nutritional value as well as their total phenolic
ripens, while September and October the ripe fruits content and vitamin C, both of which exhibit
fall from the tree. After using the pulp from the antioxidant characteristics. To maintain nutritional
palmyrah fruit, the seeds of the fruits were collected, needs, prevent chronic diseases including cancer,
and sown in beds with three or four levels of seeds cardiovascular disease, and age related pathologies,
and the moisture level of the seeds is properly and boost overall health, people should increase their
maintained. The seed's shoot root axis descends to consumption of these palmyrah products. A
the soil during germination, while the distal piece proximate analysis revealed that it has a small
that is still inside the seed grows into the haustorium amount of fat but is a high source of fiber, protein,
both during and after germination. The seed and carbohydrates. The remaining tubers in the seed
generates a stalk that gives rise to the product bed after harvesting of palmyrah are thrown to nature
palmyrah tuber, while the palmyrah seed produces even though they have greater advantages for people.
the mouthwatering white, spongy edible portion The haustorium, a tasty and nutrient dense portion of
known as the haustorium. Before being harvested, the seed, makes up most of the remaining material.
this shoot reaches a height of 20-30 cm. Palmyrah The haustorium, which is now harvested at the very
haustorium is a delicious spongy white edible portion end after the tubers have been dug up is nevertheless,
formed at the time of germination. During tasteless, and watery. Additionally, the tubers
germination of the tuber, the embryo develops and produce sugars, and their starch content decreases
enlarges to form cotyledon structure, it is called significantly, making them of low quality for
haustorium. The embryo receives the nutrients processing. As a result, it is very beneficial to
through the haustorium. The haustorium will analyze the haustorium for its nutrients and
therefore be more nutrient dense since it will contain palatability to determine the right harvesting period
carbohydrates, protein, amino acids, and other trace for both the haustorium and tubers of palmyrah to
nutrients and bioactive substances that are very good keep their actual detectability and to get all their
for our health. The fruit endosperm also has several nutrients at ideal levels. The palmyrah seed's
health promoting activities like anti-inflammatory, haustorium, which forms during germination, trans-
antibacterial, anti-cancer and anti-diabetic properties ports nutrients to the embryo. People in rural areas
(Vasudevan et al., 2023). Palmyrah tubers were take it raw and fresh, and it is good. Scientific studies
collected when they were fully mature with high have demonstrated that increasing consumption of
fibre, starch content. Young fruit kernels, these offers various health promoting and disease
haustorium, and freshly boiled tubers from palmyrah preventing effects are due to particular compounds
are nutrient-rich foods. They are valued for their known as phyto-chemicals, including polyphenols.

201
Different areas of the plant have concentrations of Prasad, B., Kumar, A. A., Vignesh, S., Chidanand,
secondary metabolites. The phytochemical like oleic D. V. and Baskaran, N. (2022). Exploring the
acid and unsaturated fatty acid possesses nutritional profiling and health benefits of
cardioprotective effect (Prasad et al., 2022). Most Palmyra haustorium (palmyra palm). South
these palms secondary metabolites are commercially African Journal of Botany, (IF 3.111)
exploitable because they are used as active Bayton, Ross P. (2007). A review of Borassus
pharmaceutical ingredients in novel medications and (Arecaceae). Kew Bulletin, 62(4): 561-585.
are responsible for the species antioxidant, anti- Glanista, T., Ponnuchamy, N., Sri Thayalan and Sri
inflammatory, antiallergic, antimicrobial, antimuta- Vijeindran. (2018). Preservation of Palmyrah
genic, anti-platelet, and vasodilatory functions. Haustorium, Young Fruit Kernel and Boiled
Conclusion Tuber with Lengthen Shelf-Life Consisting
Palmyrah (Borassus flabellifer L.) belongs to their Native Characters. Annals of Biological
palmae, chromosome number 2n=32 and native to Research, 9(2).
tropical Africa. It is a dioecious tropical crop of Jody, H. and John, McLaughlin. (2000). Edible
significant commercial importance. Palmyrah tubers palms and their uses. University of Florida,
are fully mature, they are harvested. The delightful Institute for Food and Agricultural Sciences.
white, spongy edible portion called palmyrah Fact Sheet MDCE-00-50-1.
haustorium, which is formed enlarges during Karuppusamy, A., Shanmugam, S. and Thangaraj, P.
germination to produce cotyledony structure. The (2011). Nutritional Analysis and Antioxidant
embryo receives the nutrients through the activity of Palmyrah (Borassus flabellifer L.)
haustorium. The haustorium will be more nutrient Seed Embryo for potential use as Food
dense since it will contain carbohydrates, vital amino Source. Food Science Biotechnology, 20(1):
acids, and other trace nutrients and bioactive 143-149.
substances that are very good for our health. Lim, T. K. (2012). Edible Medicinal and Non-
References Medicinal Plants. Springer, the Netherlands,
Srivastava, A., Bishnoi, S. K. and Sarkar, P. K. 371-380.
(2017). Value addition in palmyra palm
(Borassus flabellifer L.): A potential strategy
for livelihood security and poverty
alleviation. ICAR Research Complex for
Eastern Region, Research Centre. Rashtriya
Krishi, 12(1): 110-112.

202
Production Technology of Avocado

Sangeetha A., Vaishnavi C. and Venkatesh C.
Introduction Gautemalan Race: Native to highlands of Central

Avocado (Persea americana), belongs to the America to Ecuador and Mexico. Fruits are fairly
family Lauraceae. Chromosome number is 2n=24. It large upto 600 g fruit-1. Fruits ripen in 9-12 months
is native of Tropical America. It is originated in after planting. Oil content is 8-15%.
Mexico and Central America. In India commonly West Indian Race: Native to lowland of Central and
called as Butter fruit. Other names of avocado is South America, only introduced into West Indies.
vennai pazham, Makhanphai and Alpukat. Fruits are medium sized and ripen in 9 months after
Area and Production flowering. Oil content is 3-10%.
Avocado is commercially cultivated in the Cultivars: The important cultivars of avocado are
states of Tamilnadu, Kerala, Maharashtra, Karnataka Furete, Gwen, Bacon, Zutano, Reed, Pinkerton,
and Sikkim. Mexico is a largest producer and Xanh, Pollock and Chesa-1.
exporter of avocado in the world. The countries Propagation: It is normally propagated by seeds.
followed by Mexico are Chile, Indonesia, United Vegetatively propagated by cutting and grafting. The
States, Brazil, etc. normal planting distance for avocado is 6-12 m
Soil and Climate depending on variety.
Avocado plants are grown in tropical and sub Manuring: Seeding of avocado should be applied
tropical, humid areas. These plants connot tolerate with N:P:K in a proportion of 1:1:1, Whereas older
hot dry wind and Frost. Avocado can be grown plants can be applied in the ratio of 2:1:2. Soil pH>7,
successfully in varying soil conditions and extremely shows iron deficiency which can prevented by
sensitive to poor drainage and saline conditions. adding iron chelate @30-35 g tree-1.
Optimum soil pH is 5-7. Irrigation: Irrigation is done as soon as
Varieties transplantation takes place in the main field.
Mexican Race: It is native to highlands of Mexico Subsequent irrigation carried out @ 3-4 weeks
.Fruits are Small in size (<250 g). Oil content upto interval. Drip irrigation is preferred irrigation
30%. Fruits are ripening in 6-8 months after method as it improves the size of fruit and oil
flowering. percentage and also reduces the harvesting time.
Sangeetha A. and Vaishnavi C.

Venkatesh C.
Assistant Professor (Horticulture), J. K. K. Munirajah College of Agril. Science, T. N. Palayam, Gobi, Erode, Tamil Nadu

203
Intercultural Operation
Pruning: Pruning is rarely done in avocado except
in upright cultivars such as Pollock. Avoid heavy
pruning which promotes excessive vegetative growth
and results in yield loss.
Weed Control: Hand weeding can be carried out in
avocado plantation. Chemical weedicides can be
applied to prevent weeds.
Pest and Disease: Common pest are mealybug,
scales and mites. Control measures should be taken
by spraying appropriate insecticides.
Disease are fruit spots, leaf spot and root rot.
To control root rot disease apply metalaxyl.
Harvesting: Plants grown from seeds will ready for
fruit harvesting in 5-6 years after planting. There are
two varieties of fruit in avocado purple and green.
Purple variety will change colour from purple to
maroon. Green will change from green to yellow.
Value Addition
 Avocado oil: It used for beauty care.
 Briquettes: It used as substitute for charcoal.
 Avocado powder: It used in beauty industry.
 Avocado paste: It used in flavoring food.
Benefits
 Avocado are healthy for heart.
 It may help in fighting against cancer.
 It helps in protecting chronic disease.
 Avocado are good source of fiber.
Conclusion
Cultivation of Avocado will promote
sustainable land use as well as provide a highly
nutritious food and generate a regular income.

204
Value Addition of Kiwi Fruit

Sujitha M., Vaishnavi S. and P. Karuppasamy
Introduction includes sorting kiwifruit by kiwi sorter, washing,

Kiwifruit has a stable position in the fresh crushing, juice extracting, blending with ingredients,
fruit market. It is also processed to obtained various homogenizing, sterilization and canning.
Kiwi fruit products including jams, jellies, Kiwi Juice Concentrate: After washing and peeling
marmalades, juice, juice concentrates, wine, purees kiwi fruit, kiwi juice is extracted which is then
and canned, frozen and dried slices. Kiwi fruit concentrated by means of vaccum evaporation. Kiwi
products can be made by utilizing kiwi sorter, kiwi juice concentrate is used in beverages, cakes, pies,
peeler machine etc. pastries, sauces, yogurt, ice cream, candy, jams and
Jam, Jellies and Marmalades: To make kiwi jams, jellies etc...
you can wash kiwi, peel the Individual Quick Frozen (IQF) Kiwifruit: To
kiwi, crush it, boil with pectin make IQF kiwi, fresh kiwis are sorted by using kiwi
and sugar, seal in jars and sorter, washed, peeled by using kiwi peeler machine,
process in a boiling water sliced and cubed and then subjected to quick freezing
bath. to lock in the great taste and nutrition.
To make kiwi jellies, you can clean kiwi, peel IQF Kiwi fruits are packaged and sorted and
the kiwi, puree it, boil with can be kept for 24 months from the date of
sugar and agar-agar, pour the manufacturing. They are ideal for smoothies, yogurt,
mixture on to a baking sheet pastries, cakes, muffins, pies, icecream topping,
and allow to set for 3 hours, cut into attractive shapes salads, etc...
and roll in sugars. Kiwi Puree: The skin and seeds are removed and
Kiwi marmalades can be made by washing then fruit is grounded into puree
kiwi, peeling the kiwi, crushing, mixing with sugar by fruit puree grinding machine.
and cornstarch, pasteurizing and filling into jars. Kiwi fruit puree can be used to
Kiwi Juice: Kiwi juice can be make beverages, desert, yogurt,
extracted by using a screw jams, ice cream, fruit leather, etc.
juice extractor. The process Drying Kiwi fruit: The fruits are washed, peeled,
Sujitha M. and Vaishnavi S.

P. Karuppasamy
Assistant Professor (FSN), J. K. K. Munirajah College of Agricultural Science, T. N. Palayam, Gobi, Erode, Tamil Nadu

205
sliced, coated with sugar syrup and then subjected to

hot air drying. The dried slices can
be eaten as snack or used in
breakfast cereals, garnishing in
cakes, cookies and baked goodies. Kiwi fruit also
makes an excellent fruit leather by drying fruit puree
and other ingredient in the hot air dryer.
Conclusion
Kiwi fruit has a high nutritional value and is
rich in vitamin C, E, A, potassium fibre and also
contain calcium, iron, phosphorus, magnesium and
carotenoids and flavonoids.

206
Black Night Shade and Its Value Addition

S. V. Santhiya, P. Shanmathi and C. Venkatesh
Introduction white to pale blue colour which occur in clusters. The

The term night shade include wide ranging immature fruits are green and turn purplish colour
group of plants which are poisonous, medicinal, and when it is ripen. The type of root system is tap root.
edible species from the genus Solanum. Solanum It consists of various minerals like iron,
nigrum is used for both phosphorous, proteins and fibre. Propagation is done
table and culinary purpose. by seeds and it is viable for 5 years, so it so it is
The ripened fruits and considered as weed for others season crops.
tender leaves are used to treat mouth ulcer. The Uses of black night shade and its medicinal
immature fruits and also leaves are used for cooking properties
purpose. It has some alkaloids such as solanin and  It is used as both table and culinary purpose.
saponin which are poisonous to humans and animals.  In some countries, it is considered as weed, but
Due to presence of poisonous substance, black night in developing countries it is used as a minor food.
shade has limited consum-ption but it has many  It is used to cure mouth ulcer.
nutritional values and also have many medicinal  The fruits are used in pie-making and young
properties. shoots are consumed as pot herbs.
Botanical description of black night shade Medicinal properties
Common name: Black night shade (Manathakkali) It consists of various medicinal properties
Scientific name: Solanum nigrum L. such as,
Family: Solanaceae  Traditional medicine
Black night shade is also referred as garden  Antioxidant properties
night shade or common night  Anti inflammatory effects
shade. It is an annual or short  Antibacterial and antifungal properties
lived perennial herb in the  Digestive aid
family of night shade or solanaceae. They have  Wound healing
smooth stem which is 6 to 24 inches long. Leaves are  Antiviral and anticancer potential
alternate, ovate and wavy edged. Flowers are small, Bread incorporated with leaves of black night
S. V. Santhiya and P. Shanmathi

C. Venkatesh
Assistant Professor (FSN), J. K. K. Munirajah College of Agricultural Science, T. N. Palayam, Gobi, Erode, Tamil Nadu

207
shade: Bread is a stable food in India which is warm water)

required to improve the contents of iron, phosphor-  Bread dough
ous, protein and fibre by naturally available plant  Proofing (bread dough leaf of 150 g in bread pan
material mainly black night shade. The incorporation for 1 hour)
of black night shade leaves in bread by the following  Baking (bread pan kept inside the deck oven
process: at180° for 35 mins)
 Pre processing of raw materials. Conclusion
 Yeast activating process. The value addition in black night shade can
 Preparation of black night shade bread. provide several benefits such as increased nutritional
Pre-processing of raw materials value, extended shelf life, enhanced taste and
Preparation of black night leaves improve marketability.
 Black night shade leaves
 Cleaning
 Washing
 Sun-drying (6-7 days)
 Grind it
 Powdering
 Packing
 Stored in tight container
Bread ingredients: Wheat flour + Black night shade
leaves powder. For baking, palm sugar, salt, dry
yeast are needed.
Yeast activating
 Collection of dry yeast in a cup
 Add hot water
 Mix it using a spoon
 Kept it in undisturbed condition in closed manner
for about 10 minutes
 After 10 minutes, yeast is activated and ready to
use
Preparation of black night shade bread
 Wheat flour + activated yeast (Sugar + yeast+

208
Innovative Solar Powered Air Inflated Grain for Onfarm Drying

Abhinav Dubey
Abstract
A technology for on farm solar drying of grain has been developed at Indian Agricultural
Research Institute. The developed solar powered air inflated dryers provides a promising alternative for
on farm drying of grains because of its low cost of construction, easy operation, green energy utilization
and portability. The developed dryer can be used more efficiently in the rural areas where sun drying is
still a major practice. It is particularly very useful for the poor farmers in rural areas where there is no
electricity or its supply is erratic to use the solar dryer with the help of solar energy. In addition the
portability of the dryer enables its easy handling and movability.
Drying is a physiochemical method of depends largely on weather parameters and thus

moisture removal from the product. Drying is helpful drying gets affected. Exposure to dirt, microbes and
in preserving food product for long time meanwhile animals lead to degradation of final dried product.
it prevent product from contamination. Cereal crop The idle time in between session allows growth of
drying is done after harvesting in order to remove the unwanted microorganisms. Sudden rains, strong
excess moisture and attain safe moisture content for winds might ruin whole batch of cereals and in sun
storage. Food grains are generally harvested at drying frequent mixing is also required in order to get
moisture content of 18-25% (wb) whereas safe uniform drying. The drying rate and final moisture
storage of cereals occurs at nearly 13-14% (wb) and content cannot be controlled in sun drying (Sahu et
pulses at 7-8% (wb). Thus excess moisture in al., 2016).
harvested grains needs to be removed in short time. Large amount of the grain produced is lost as
Various drying methods are being used across the post-harvest losses due to inappropriate handling and
globe depending upon the crop to be dried, amount practices after harvesting. One-third of the food
of moisture to be removed, economic and technical produced (1.3 billion ton), is lost globally during
feasibilities. In India sun drying is the most common postharvest operations every year (Gustavsson et al.,
method for drying of cereals after harvesting. It 2011). The post-harvest losses in two major food
involves spreading of cereals in sun on mats, roofs grains, i.e. rice and wheat are about 75 per cent of the
and drying floors. This method has lot of total post- harvest losses occurring at the farm level
disadvantages such as the drying can be done only and about 25 per cent at the market level (Nanda et
when the sunlight is available i.e. the day time. It also al., 2012). The average solar radiation incident over
Abhinav Dubey
Scientist, AS & EC, ICAR-Central Institute of Post-Harvest Engineering and Technology, Ludhinan, Punjab

209
India is 4-7 Kwh m-2 day-1 with an annual radiation Performance of the solar PV system
ranging from 1200 kwh m-2 with 250-300 clear sunny (1.1x0.6x0.3 m panel size) was analyzed and found
days (Sharma et al., 2009). Thus solar energy can be to develop average power of 58.8 W during the
put to effective usage for drying of grains. In India daytime. The power was sufficient for the air
sun drying on mats, roofs, roads or drying floor is blowing unit. The developed dryer was designed for
most common method of grain drying. The batch capacity of 100 kg of paddy grain when depth
mechanical dryers consume fuel are relatively of bed was maintained at 4 cm. in order to obtain the
costlier and non-flexible in operation. This provokes optimized operating conditions for the solar powered
need for a solar powered grain drying system air inflated dryer various combinations of two
constructed using locally and available materials and different levels of thickness of upper transparent
provides flexibility in operation and ease of sheet (200 and 300 µm), inlet air velocities (1.5 and
handling. 3 m s-1) and grain bed depth (2 and 4 cm) were
A solar powered air inflated grain dryer was compared w.r.t parameters like thermal efficiency of
developed and evaluated at Division of Agricultural the dryer, temperature rise in drying air and drying
Engineering, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, rate. It was found that least mean square values of
New Delhi. The developed dryer worked on the thermal efficiency, temperature rise in the drying air
principle of greenhouse effect in the drying chamber. and drying rate of the developed dryer varied from
Drying chamber was made up of upper transparent 18.7-45.7%, 3.35-5.81°C and 0.36-0.98 kg hour-1
UV stabilized polyethylene sheet and 350 micron respectively. Upper transparent sheet thickness (300
polyethylene sheet at the base zipped together. A DC micron), inlet air velocity (3 m s-1) and grain bed
axial fan (40 cm dia.) operating on solar power was depth (4 cm) was found to have highest least Square
used for inflation of drying chamber and ensured mean values in the selected parameters and was
forced circulation of drying air through the provided selected for optimized operation of the dryer. The
outlet. developed dryer performance was evaluated by
drying freshly harvested paddy (PB 1121) with initial
moisture content 22±0.3% (w.b.) in comparison to
sun drying considering both the drying parameters
and quality parameters of the dried product. The
developed dryer was found to produce a significant
difference in temperature of the drying air and drying
rate compared to sun drying. The time required for
Fig. 1: Schematic diagram of solar powered air
inflated grain dryer developed at ICAR-IARI drying of paddy up to milling moisture content of

210
14% in the developed dryer ranged from 7.5-9 hours Nanda, S. K., Vishwakarma, R. K., Bathla, H. V. L.,
and 11-12.8 hours in sun drying respectively. The Rai, A. and Chandra, P. (2012). Harvest and
quality of dried product was analyzed in terms of post harvest losses of major crops and
milling yield and head rice yield. Milling yield of the livestock produce in India. AICRP, (ICAR)
dried paddy in the dryer didn’t vary significantly but Dubey, A., Sharma, P. K. and Mani, I. (2019).
the head rice yield was found to have significance Development of solar powered air inflated
difference compared to sun drying. The cost of grain dryer. Indian Journal of Agricultural
manufacturing of developed dryer was found to be Sciences, 89(4): 695-700.
Rs. 10850 and the dryer can be operated for 2400 Sharma, A., Chen, C. R. and Lan, N. V. (2009).
hours throughout the year for various agricultural Solar-Energy Drying Systems: A Review.
products/cereals etc. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews,
13(6-7): 1185-1210.
Sahu, T. K., Gupta, V. and Singh, A. K. (2016). A
review on solar drying techniques and solar
greenhouse dryer. IOSR Journal of
Mechanical and Civil Engineering (IOSR-
Fig. 2: Outer and Inner view of Solar Powered air
inflated grain dryer JMCE), 13(3): 31-37.
Solar powered air inflated grain dryer
provided faster drying along with better quality of
dried paddy compared to sun drying. The dried
product was also dust and contamination free
compared to sunlight. The dryer can be operated
throughout the year depending upon the sunshine
availability for various grains. The low cost of
construction, easy operation, green energy
utilization, portability and usage of locally available
material promotes its usage as an on farm dryer.
References
Gustavsson, J., Cederberg, C., Sonesson, U., Van
Otterdijk, R. and Meybeck, A. (2011). Global
Food Losses and Food Waste, 1-38.

211
Optimizing Container Gardening for Urban Vegetable Production: Best

Practices and Benefits
Abstract
Urbanization has driven the rise of container gardening as an effective way to grow vegetables
in limited spaces, optimizing the use of urban areas while providing various environmental and health
benefits. This method allows urban residents to cultivate vegetables on balconies, rooftops, and small
patios, overcoming spatial constraints. Key practices for maximizing productivity include selecting
suitable container types and sizes, using high-quality soil and organic fertilizers, implementing
efficient watering systems and choosing appropriate vegetable varieties. Additionally, positioning
containers to maximize sunlight exposure and employing vertical gardening techniques can enhance
yields. The benefits of optimized container gardening are significant: it enhances food security by
supplying fresh produce, reduces the urban heat island effect, and improves air quality. It also fosters
community engagement and provides educational opportunities about sustainable agriculture and
healthy eating, while economically lowering food costs and potentially generating income from
surplus produce. In essence, implementing best practices in container gardening can greatly
contribute to urban sustainability and improve the well-being of residents, addressing the challenges
of urban living.
Introduction all part of container gardening optimization, which

Modern living has changed as a result of guarantees successful and fulfilling vegetable
urbanization, which frequently makes it harder to planting in urban environments. Because of its
reach traditional gardening areas. However, urban adaptability, container garden-ing may be used in a
people now have a variety of urban settings, including roofs and
practical way to grow their residential balconies. Urban gardeners may yield
own veggies thanks to the much more if they grasp the concepts of soil health,
growing popularity of appropriate container selection and effective water
container gardening. This approach has several management. Product-ivity can also be increased by
advantages for the economy, health, and implementing techniques like companion planting
environment in addition to making the most of the and making use of vertical space. The benefits of
available space. Strategic planning, creative urban container gardening extend beyond the
methods, and environmentally friendly practices are immediate access to fresh produce. It contributes to
School of Agriculture, Lovely Professional University, Jalandhar, Punjab

212
urban greening, reduces food miles, and fosters a room for roots. In order to avoid water accumulation
sense of community among city residents. and root rot, proper drainage is crucial. The choice of
Furthermore, growing vegetables in containers can material is important because: wood provides good
serve as an educational tool, promoting awareness insulation but may decay; clay is permeable but dries
about sustainable food practices and encouraging rapidly; cloth encourages strong roots but requires
healthier eating habits. This introduction sets the frequent watering; metal can overheat. Form and
stage for a deeper exploration of best practices in mobility are crucial for movement and space
container gardening for urban vegetable production, efficiency, and aesthetics should go well with your
highlighting its potential to transform urban living decor for a fun and lovely garden.
spaces into green, productive, and sustainable Soil and Fertilization
environments. Plant development is directly impacted by the
Benefits of Container Gardening soil combination selection, which is crucial for
Small areas like windowsills or balconies are effective container gardening. For the majority of
ideal for container gardening, which is adaptable plants, use a general-purpose potting mix that
enough to grow almost any type of plant, including includes peat moss or coconut coir, perlite or
flowers, vegetables and herbs. Because it is movable, vermiculite, and compost or aged bark. Use a mixture
you may reposition plants to take advantage of the of topsoil, compost, and sand or perlite for veggies.
best sunshine or weather protection. With this To avoid waterlogging, a mixture of sandy soil,
approach, you can easily adjust the growth perlite, and small amounts of compost or peat moss
conditions, including the amount of water and soil is beneficial for cacti and succulents. Adapt
needed. Because tiny gardens are easy to maintain homemade mixtures to the specific demands of your
and have fewer weeds and pests, maintenance is plants. Use organic fertilizers, such as compost or
straightforward. Not only is container gardening organic mixes, for gradual improvements in soil
accessible it doesn't need bending or kneeling but it's quality and slow-release nutrients. On the other hand,
also a great exercise for kids and adults with physical balanced NPK synthetic fertilizers offer instant
disabilities. nourishment but might need to be applied more
Choosing the Right Containers often. Start fertilizing 2-4 weeks after planting, apply
Selecting appropriate containers is essential evenly, and adjust frequency based on plant growth
for effective container gardening, since it affects the to maintain healthy, balanced nutrition without over-
development and well-being of plants. Size and fertilizing.
depth are important considerations to make sure Watering Techniques
containers fit plant requirements and allow adequate Since plants only receive water from the gar-

213
dener, efficient watering is essential to the success of maintenance, combine pots with similar demands
container gardening. Every day, especially in hot and select plants that suit the amount of sunshine
weather, check the moisture content of the soil by available. Ensuring adequate exposure to sunshine
feeling it or using moisture meters. To promote root can facilitate robust development and colorful
development, apply deep watering, focusing on the container gardening.
base of the plants to reduce evaporation and avoid Plant Selection and Varieties
overwatering and subsequent root rot. To minimize Select small-growing cultivators such as
water loss and prevent daytime heat, watering should micro bell peppers, bush beans, and determinate
be scheduled for early morning or evening. To tomatoes for planting in containers. Think about the
effectively distribute water, use gentle techniques depth of the roots; although carrots require deeper
like watering cans or drip irrigation. For best pots, herbs and lettuces thrive well in shallower ones.
development and health, adjust watering frequency Make sure your pots receive 6-8 hours of sunshine
according to seasonal weather variations and the every day, and choose plants that are appropriate for
individual water requirements of the plants in your your region. For pest control and space economy, use
container garden. companion planting. Squash, tomatoes, peppers,
Sunlight and Placement cucumbers, salad greens, and herbs are all healthy
For container gardening to be effective, it is options. To keep the soil damp but not soggy, use
essential to comprehend high-quality potting mix, fertilize as needed, and
sunshine requirements keep an eye on the watering schedule. A plentiful
and container location. crop may be produced at home with container
Full-sun plants, such as gardening provided careful planning and maint-
tomatoes and peppers, require six to eight hours of enance are given.
direct sunshine each day. Plants that require partial Maintenance and Troubleshooting
sun or shade, like lettuce, may survive for four to six To guarantee optimum growth and take care
hours, while plants that prefer shade, like ferns, need of typical problems, a healthy container garden has
less time or filtered light. Keep an eye on solar to be maintained with regular care. Water deeply
patterns, turn pots to provide even exposure, and take when the top inch of soil feels dry, and check the
wall-adjacent microclimates into consideration. For moisture content of the soil often, particularly during
optimal light inside, position containers near south- hot weather. For continued harvesting and healthy
facing windows or use grow lights as required. development, trim dead leaves and apply a balanced
Provide shade to protect plants from intense heat and, fertilizer every four to six weeks. As needed, use
in colder climes, protect them from frost. For easy organic cures while keeping an eye out for infections

214
and pests. Keep an eye on the pH levels, replace or Worldwide, container gardening has flourish-
amend the soil once a year, and support tall plants ed in a variety of urban and compact environments.
with well-maintained soil. Liquidation, fertilization, Urban rooftop gardens serve to improve urban green
or sunshine exposure can be adjusted to address areas and sustainability initiatives by using
problems such as wilting, yellowing leaves and lanky containers to grow fruits, vegetables, and herbs in
growth quickly. You may have a bumper harvest of places like Tokyo and New York. Apartment vertical
crops all season long with a container garden that gardens make the most of available space by growing
receives regular care. a variety of plants in wall-mounted or tiered planters,
Harvesting and Crop Rotation which also enhance internal aesthetics and air
When vegetables in your container garden quality. School and community gardens teach
have fully grown, harvest them for maximum students about horticulture and sustainability while
nutrition and flavor. Plants are kept fruitful and also promoting community involvement. Balcony
overpopulation is avoided by regular harvesting. gardens enable homeowners to cultivate flowers,
Pick off outer leaves of herbs and leafy greens to herbs, and vegetables while transforming compact
encourage new development, and use clean outdoor areas into verdant havens. Because they may
equipment to prevent harming plants. To get the most be easily moved in accordance with sunlight and
flavor from fruits like tomatoes and peppers, pick seasonal requirements, mobile container gardens are
them when completely ripe. These procedures flexible enough to accommodate tenants and short-
guarantee a steady and abundant yield from your term inhabitants.
container garden. Conclusion
Crop rotation is essential in container Maximizing container gardening for the
gardening to preserve soil health and stave off pest production of urban vegetables requires adopting
and disease problems. To avoid nutrient depletion excellent methods and enjoying a host of advantages.
and lower the incidence of soil-borne illnesses, rotate Through the implementation of strategies such as
your crops once a year by classifying them into rooftop containers and vertical gardening, cities may
groups such as legumes, root vegetables, and leafy use their limited space to promote sustainable
greens. Consider moving containers to new positions agriculture and improve green areas. By involving
or replacing soil to refresh nutrients and minimize people directly in the food production process,
disease risks. These practices improve soil health, community and educational programs can foster
optimize space, and keep plants vigorous, ensuring social cohesion and education. Residents may easily
productive and healthy gardening seasons over time. plant fresh herbs and vegetables on their balconies or
Case Studies and Success Stories in portable container gardens, which enhances their

215
nutrition and general well-being. In the end,

container gardening is a useful tool in urban settings
all over the world since it not only promotes local
food resilience but also develops community relati-
onships and adds to environmental sustainability.
References
https://thepottedgardener.com/benefits-of-container-
gardening/
https://thegardenmagazine.com/15-best-vegetables-
for-container-gardening/
https://www.treehugger.com/how-to-choose contain
ers-garden-5198107
https://extension.umn.edu/managing-soil-and-nutrie
nts/fertilizing-and-watering-container-plants
https://thefarminginsider.com/container-gardening-
water-smart-techniques/
https://medium.com/@HydroponicHar/revolutionizi
ng-farming-with-hydroponic-shipping-
container-farms-179d89a695a6
https://www.freightfarms.com/case-studies
https://farmingaide.com/placing-containers-for-
sunlight/

216
Effect of Microplastics on Soil Physical Properties

Introduction Liu et al. (2019) defined microplastics (MPs)

The surge in the use of plastic materials, its are small pieces of plastic, less than 5 mm (0.2 inches)
poor handling and disposal have led to an increase in in length, that occur in the environment as a
microplastic pollution in terrestrial environments. consequence of plastic pollution. Microplastics are
Any plastic material less than 5mm is termed as present in a variety of products, from cosmetics
Microplastics (MPs). Microplastic pollution in soils to synthetic clothing to plastic bags and bottles. Many
is of concern due to potential influences on soil of these products readily enter the environment in
properties which play a critical role in plant growth waste.
and soil fertility. Microplastics mainly entered soil
through mulch degradation, application of organic
fertilizer and plastic landfill and their distribution in
soil systems showed significant spatial differences.
Fig. 1: Classification of plastic litter based on their
Microplastics size as microplastics
Plastics are considered one of the most Microplastics effect on soil physical properties
omnipresent and long-lasting pollutants. Recent Bulk density: Machado et al. (2019) conducted an
concern in the usage of plastic is its fragmentation experiment by using
and accumulation on the earth's surface. Plastic different kinds of
pollutants were classified (Fig. 1) as macro-debris microplastics such
whose size is greater than 20 mm diameter, meso- as polyamide, poly- Fig. 2: Bulk density vs MPs
debris whose size ranges between 5 and 20 mm, and propylene, polyest-er and polystyrene, they found
mega-debris where the size is greater than 100 mm that bulk density was decreased as compared with
(Loganathan and Kizhakedathil, 2022). Macro- control (Fig. 2), bulk density also depends on the
plastics are mostly in the form of smaller fragments, type of microplastics.
which are readily visible to the naked eye. Plastic Soil aggregation stability: Ingraffia et al. (2022)
debris divided into two classes based on their sizes in conducted an experiment
which the macro plastics are larger than 5 mm while in with and without use of
the microplastics are smaller than 5 mm (Moore, microplastics they found Contol MPs
2008). Fig. 3: Soil aggregation
that the newly formed
stability with MPs
College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, Kerala Agricultural University, Kerala

217
aggregates reduced in microplastics contaminated

soil than the control (Fig. 3).
Hydraulic conductivity: Guo et al. (2022)
conducted an experiment using different sized that is
20 µm (PF), 200 µm (PM), 500 µm (PL) at various
concentration such as C1 (0.5 %), C2 (1 %), C3 (2 %),
C4 (4 %) and C5 (5 %). The hydraulic conductivity
reduced as size and concentration of microplastics
increases as compared to control (CK) (Fig. 4 and 5).
Fig. 4: Saturated hydraulic Fig. 5: Saturated hydraulic

conductivity of sand with conductivity of clay with
MPs MPs
Water holding capacity: Jazaei et al. (2019)

conducted an
experiment using
different forms
of microplastics
such as pellets,
strands and fibre, Fig. 6: Water holding capacity
they found that the water holding capacity
fluctuating with contamination of different forms of
micro-plastics. Among that water holding capacity
decreased in pellet and strand forms of microplastics,
while water holding capacity increased in fibre forms
of microplastics (Fig. 6). However, the water holding
capacity depends on the position of microplastics
present in the soil pores.

218
Revolutionizing Agriculture: The Role of Drones in Future Farming

Introduction shift towards an environmentally friendly farming

The primary sector of the Indian economy is approach. These aerial tools optimize the use of
agriculture. The majority of farmers still rely resources by targeting areas in need of attention
significantly on agriculture as their main source of thereby reducing wastage of water, fertilizers and
income. In the ever-evolving landscape in pesticides. They offer a customized approach to
agriculture, technology continues to play a pivotal manage crops ensuring that agricultural inputs are
role in driving efficiency, sustainability and utilized efficiently, boosting yields while minimising
productivity. Among the latest advancements, their negative effect on environment. With
agricultural drones have emerged as a game-changer, advancement in technology, these drones get more
offering farmers innovative solutions to address agile, versatile and efficient. Their applications range
challenges ranging from crop monitoring to pest from livestock monitoring to weather forecasting
management. These unmanned aerial vehicles are thus, transforming farming practices and opening the
equipped with sensors, cameras and data analysis door for robust and flexible farming methods.
tools marking a phase in farming precision and Essentially the integration of farming drones signi-
efficiency. The crucial role of drones in fies a change, towards a sustainable and effective
revolutionizing precision agriculture lies at the core agricultural environment. Their impact extends
of this shift. They serve as flying guardians that roam beyond being innovative acting as cornerstones of a
over fields to gather data on crop health, soil quality movement focused on promoting a blend of
and environmental factors. This abundance of productivity, environmental care and worldwide
information offers farmers insights for targeted food security.
actions and informed decision making. As we look Exploring the Significant Potential of Drones
towards the future of farming, it becomes Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), have
increasingly apparent that drones will be at the evolved beyond their original military uses to
forefront of this transformation, reshaping traditional become adaptable device with significant effects in a
agricultural practices and paving the way for a more range of industries. Drone technology in particular
sustainable and productive industry. has the potential to completely transform various
The significance of drones extends well sectors, including agriculture, healthcare and disaster
beyond collecting data. Their integration signifies a management.

Division of Agronomy, SKUAST-J, Chatha, Jammu, UT of J&K

219
Precision Agriculture: One of the most significant egic decision-making and other important aspects of
applications of drone technology is in precision farming. Wang et al. (2018) studied that employing
agriculture. With previously unheard-of precision, drones to monitor crops was 85% less expensive than
farmers can now monitor crops, soil and using conventional techniques.
environmental conditions using drones fitted with Data analytics and remote sensing: Large scale
cutting-edge sensors and imaging systems. With the data collection is made possible by the remote
use of this detailed data, farmers are able to sensing skills of agricultural drones. The integration
maximize yields, reduce waste and optimize resource of this data with advanced data analytics, provides
consumption which results in more effective and valuable insights into crop status, soil health and
sustainable farming practices. environmental influence. This data analysis helps in
Crop Monitoring: One of the most significant making informed decisions, forecasting trends and
contributions of agricultural drones lies in their implementing precision farming practices.
ability to provide real-time and high-resolution data Integration with other technologies: Drones can be
for crop monitoring. They are equipped with various made even more effective by integrating them with
sensors and imaging technology such as other technologies like artificial intelligence (AI) and
multispectral, hyperspectral and thermal cameras machine learning (ML). Artificial intelligence
that can capture detailed information about crop algorithms can be used to evaluate drone-captured
health, moisture levels and nutrient deficiencies. data in order to find trends, forecasting crop yields
This data enables farmers to make informed and offer predictive insights for improved decision-
decisions regarding irrigation fertilization and pest making.
control ultimately optimizing crop yield and Challenges and limitations of using drones
reducing resource wastage. For example, He et al. Although there are many benefits of using
(2021) conducted a study which showed that drones drones in agricultural operations, there are a number
mounted with multispectral cameras could detect of issues and restrictions that must be resolved.
damaged tomato plants with over 95% accuracy. Restricted flight duration and range: The
Enhanced Farm Management Efficiency: By restricted flying duration and range of drones may
automating a variety of farming operations, drones make them less effective in intensive farming
enhance labour efficiency and resource management. practices. Galieni et al. (2021) reported that the
They support planning irrigation systems, mapping majority of commercial drones have a flying duration
fields and livestock monitoring. By automating of 15 to 30 minutes and a range of 2-3 kilometres
repetitive chores, agricultural drones’ free up which may not be enough for large farms.
farmers’ time so that they can concentrate on strat- Weather Dependence: The weather especially the

220
direction and speed of the wind has a significant tighten and technology progresses.
impact on drone operations. Rain and fog can reduce Future Prospects
visibility and strong winds can make it challenging The future of using drones is quite promising,
to fly a drone safely. Daponte et al. (2019) studied spanning a wide range of industries and applications.
that weather conditions were one of the main factors Drones are revolutionizing precision farming and
preventing drone adoption for crop monitoring. crop monitoring in agriculture, increasing product-
Restricted capacity for payload: the quantity and ivity while reducing costs. Aerial delivery drones are
kind of sensors and cameras that can be carried by being investigated by businesses to increase speed
drones are constrained by their payload capacity. and efficiency in logistics, particularly in isolated
This may restrict their capacity to collect particulars locations. Additionally, drones are becoming
kinds of data like hyperspectral or thermal imaging essential to disaster response because they can
data. Huang et al. (2013) surveyed that majority of distribute help in difficult to reach areas and conduct
commercial drones have a payload capacity of less real time observation. Drone technology is also
than 1 kg. advancing, resulting in new developments in
Legal and regulatory issues: There are several legal environmental monitoring and urban planning. With
and regulatory obstacles to drone use in agriculture, ongoing advancements in artificial intelligence,
especially when it comes to privacy concerns and battery life and legal frameworks, drones are poised
airspace restrictions. Godfray et al. (2018) revealed to become an essential tool in modern society,
that drone use in agriculture was frequently restricted bringing forth as host of positive social and economic
by legal constraints. effects.
Cost: The initial expense of buying a drone and Conclusion
associated equipment can be a barrier for many Drone technology has emerged as an
farmers, even though drones can be more affordable essential device for present agricultural operations,
than traditional methods of crop monitoring and offering farmers an economical and effective way of
management. According to Huang et al. (2018) the gathering data and overseeing their crops. Drones
price of a commercial drone for agricultural usage with a range of sensors and imaging capabilities can
might vary from $ 1000 to $ 10,000 based on the kind give farmers useful information and insights to assist
and calibre of the drone and its accessories. them make decisions that will boost yields and cut
Drone use in agriculture has many advent- expenses. Drones’ usage in agriculture offers many
ages, but there are a number of issues and restrictions benefits like, enhanced accuracy, sustainability and
that must be resolved. Drone applications in efficiency. But there are other obstacles to overcome
agriculture are likely to grow more creative as rules such as financial constraints and regulatory frame-

221
work. Despite these obstacles, drone techno-logy He, C., Li, X., Liu, Y., Yang, B., Wu, Z., Tan, S. and
appears to have a bright future in agricultural Weng, H. (2022). Combining multicolor
operations. It is anticipated that drones will progress fluorescence imaging with multispectral
further, making them even more useful for reflectance imaging for rapid citrus
autonomous systems and precision farming. Huanglongbing detection based on light-
Furthermore, the usage of drones would result in weight convolutional neural network using a
more sustainable farming methods, lessening the handheld device. Computers and Electronics
influence of agriculture on the environment. The use in Agriculture, 194: 106808.
of drone technology in farming is a step towards a Huang, Y., Chen, Z. X., Tao, Y. U., Huang, X. Z. and
more productive and sustainable agricultural sector Gu, X. F. (2018). Agricultural remote sensing
and agricultural technology’s future is expected to be big data: Management and applications.
greatly impacted by its continuous development in Journal of Integrative Agriculture, 17(9):
farm operations. 1915-1931.
References Huang, Y., Thomson, S. J., Hoffmann, W. C., Lan,
Daponte, P., De Vito, L., Glielmo, L., Iannelli, L., Y. and Fritz, B. K. (2013). Development and
Liuzza, D., Picariello, F. and Silano, G. prospect of unmanned aerial vehicle techno-
(2019). A review on the use of drones for logies for agricultural production manage-
precision agriculture. In IOP conference ment. International Journal of Agricultural
series: earth and environmental science, and Biological Engineering, 6(3): 1-10.
275(1): 012022. IOP Publishing.
Galieni, A., Ascenzo, D.N., Stagnari, F., Pagnani, G.,
Xie, Q. and Pisante, M. (2021). Past and
future of plant stress detection: an overview
from remote sensing to positron emission
tomography. Frontiers in Plant Science, 11:
609155.
Godfray, H. C. J., Beddington, J. R., Crute, I. R.,
Haddad, L., Lawrence, D., Muir, J. F. and
Toulmin, C. (2018). Food security: the
challenge of feeding 9 billion people.
Science, 327(5967): 812-818.

222
Ice Apple: Nature’s Gift to Beat Heat with Exotic Allure

Seelothu Rakesh, Ameda Swarnalatha and J. Cheena
Abstract
Ice apple fruit of the palmyrah palm, popularly called as “nungu” in Tamil. It is a tropical delicacy
primarily found in South Asia. Resembling a small coconut with a white, jelly-like interior, it's a
refreshing treat enjoyed during hot summer months to beat heat. Rich in nutrients and hydrating
properties, it's often consumed fresh or used in various desserts and beverages. The fruit's unique texture
and subtle sweetness make it a beloved part of regional cuisines and cultural traditions
Ice Apple that steals the spotlight during the ed as is or mixed with other ingredients to make
sweltering summer months. refreshing drinks.
In the scorching heat of Desserts: The fruit is used in desserts such as
summer, nothing beats the puddings, ice creams, and sorbets. Its unique texture
satisfaction of sinking your adds an interesting element to sweet dishes.
teeth into a succulent, juicy fruit that not only Traditional Medicine: In some cultures, the fruit is
refreshes your senses but also quenches your thirst. believed to have medicinal properties. It is used in
Enter the “Ice Apple,” a delightful gem from the traditional medicine to treat ailments such as
Palmyra Palm tree that has been a cherished summer dehydration, heatstroke, and digestive issues.
treat in tropical regions for centuries. Cosmetics: Extracts from the fruit are sometimes
Uses of ice apple used in skincare products due to their hydrating and
Consumption: The fruit is often eaten fresh as a nourishing properties.
refreshing snack, especially during hot weather. Its Crafts: The hard outer shell of the fruit can be used
jelly-like flesh has a subtle sweetness that appeals too in crafts and decorative items. It's often carved or
many. painted to create intricate designs.
Beverages: Ice Apple fruit juice is a popular Health benefits of Ice apple
beverage in South Asian countries. It can be consum- Heat Relief: In traditional medicine, the fruit is beli-
Seelothu Rakesh
Research Scholar, Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, Sri Konda Laxman Telangana State
Horticultural University, Mulugy, Telangana
Ameda Swarnalatha
Research Scholar, Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, BCKV, Mohanpur, West Bengal
J. Cheena
Associate Dean, College of Horticulture, Malyal, Sri Konda Laxman Telangana State Horticultural University, Mulugy,
Telangana

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eved to have cooled properties, making it a popular consume Ice apple fruit as part of a balanced diet to
choice during hot summer months to help cool the reap its full advantages.
body and prevent heat-related illnesses. Conclusion
Reduce Risk of Cancer: It greatly reduces the As summer temperatures soar, beat the heat
chances of breast cancer in women. Nuts are useful in style with the exotic allure of Ice Apples. Whether
in preventing cancer cells. Eliminates petro- enjoyed fresh, blended into a smoothie, or
chemicals like anthocyanins that promote tumor and incorporated into your favorite dessert recipe, these
breast cancer cells. luscious fruits are sure to tantalize your taste buds
Hydration: With its high-water content, Ice apple and keep you cool all season long. So go ahead,
fruit helps in maintaining hydration levels, making it embrace the tropical vibes, and savor the natural
an excellent choice for staying refreshed, especially goodness of this timeless summer delight. After all,
during hot weather. life's too short not to indulge in nature's sweetest
Nutrient-Rich: It contains essential vitamins and offerings.
minerals like vitamin C, potassium, and calcium,
which support overall health, including immune
function, bone health, and electrolyte balance.
Antioxidant Properties: The fruit is rich in
antioxidants, such as vitamin C, which help combat
oxidative stress and reduce the risk of chronic
diseases by neutralizing harmful free radicals in the
body.
Digestive Health: The fiber content in Ice apple fruit
aids digestion by promoting regular bowel move-
ments and supporting gut health.
Electrolyte Balance: Its potassium content helps
regulate fluid balance, muscle function, and nerve
signals, contributing to overall electrolyte balance in
the body.
Weight Management: Being low in calories and fat,
Ice apple fruit can be included in a weight manage-
ment plan as a nutritious, low-calorie snack option.
While these benefits are notable, it's essential to

224
Thriving Under Cover: Sustainable Production of Horticultural Crops

under Protected Cultivation
Abstract
Protected cultivation of horticulture crops involves the use of structures like greenhouses and
tunnels to create a controlled environment. The core principle of protected agriculture revolves around
harnessing the greenhouse effect to regulate the temperature of cultivated spaces. It offers protection
from adverse weather conditions and pests, leading to improved crop quality and yield. This method is
pivotal for enhancing agricultural productivity and sustainability.
Introduction This enables year-round production and

India ranks as the world's second-largest availability of crops, making it suitable for a variety
producer of fruits and vegetables, yet falls short of of vegetables, flowers, medicinal and aromatic
meeting the demand for a balanced diet for its plants, as well as certain fruits. Protected cultivation
population, according to the Medical Council of technology addresses this challenge by adjusting
India. To bridge this gap, various strategies can be environmental and soil conditions according to the
employed. These include expanding cultivation areas specific requirements of crops.
for horticultural crops, adopting hybrid seeds and Advantages of protected cultivation
superior planting materials and implementing  Yield potential can increase significantly,
advanced agro-techniques. There is significant reaching 10-20 times higher than outdoor
potential to enhance the area under protected cultivation.
cultivation, particularly through the proliferation of  There's a greater likelihood of producing better-
low-cost greenhouses in peri-urban regions. quality crops compared to open-field conditions.
Why protected cultivation?  Ideal for cultivating vegetables, flowers, and
Protected cultivation involves exerting some select fruits.
degree of control over the microclimate surrounding  Enables extended growing periods and off-
plants to mitigate various abiotic stresses, thereby season production of vegetables and flowers.
promoting optimal plant growth. This control can be  Enables the adoption of modern hydroponic
achieved through structures such as greenhouses, techniques like soilless culture, aeroponics, and
polyhouses, net houses, polytunnels and cold frames. nutrient film techniques.

Research Scholar, Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture, GBPUA&T, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand

225
 Facilitates the year-round production of disease- upon it, while allowing the transmittance of photo-
free and superior-quality transplants for planting. synthetically active solar radiation within the range
 Demands minimal water usage and provides of 400-700 nm wavelengths.
easier control over irrigation. Greenhouses designed for cultivating high-
 Supports the hardening process of tissue-cultured value, low-volume crops, such as flowers and
plants. vegetables, come in various forms including
 Acts as a safeguard against the impact of both glasshouses, polyhouses, insect-proof net houses,
biotic and abiotic stresses on crops. low tunnel polyhouses, and zero-energy polyhouses.
Adoption of appropriate technologies These structures vary in shape (e.g., lean-to, even-
Protected cultivation offers farmers the span, ridge and furrow), functionality (temperature
opportunity to significantly enhance productivity, and humidity control), construction (wooden, pipe,
improve quality, and maximize their financial gains. or truss-framed), and covering material (glass,
The adoption of such technologies not only benefits fiberglass, plastic film).
individual farmers but also contributes to the Different types of plastic film covering
development of the industry and service sectors materials, such as acrylic, polycarbonate, fiberglass-
involved in establishing structures and marketing the reinforced polyester, polyethylene film, and
final high-quality produce to both terminal and local polyvinyl chloride film, offer unique advantages for
markets. Achieves higher productivity and improves greenhouse applications. Plastic-glazed greenhouses
the overall quality of produce. are particularly favoured over glasshouses due to
Design and inputs for protected structures their cost-effectiveness. Overall, the diverse range of
The core principle of protected agriculture greenhouse options caters to specific needs and
revolves around harnessing the greenhouse effect to preferences, providing opportunities for efficient and
regulate the temperature of cultivated spaces. This is profitable cultivation of specialty crops.
achieved by utilizing sunlight for heating and Different types of greenhouses
implementing ventilation systems for cooling and air Hi- tech or climate control greenhouse: This type
circulation, including the distribution of CO₂. Within of greenhouse is specifically engineered to achieve
the greenhouse, objects emit long-wave thermal precise climate control, thereby extending the
radiations, to which the cladding material has lower cultivation period of crops. Utilizing evaporative
transparency. Consequently, solar energy becomes cooling systems and exhaust fans, the greenhouse
trapped, elevating the temperature inside the maintains the desired temperature levels as required.
greenhouse. Typically, the greenhouse reflects Climate regulation is typically automated, with
approximately 43% of the net solar radiation incident computer-controlled systems managing environmen-

226
tal, soil and nutritional factors. Constant monitoring covered with plastic sheeting, while the side walls
via computer allows for real-time adjustments over are enclosed with insect-proof nets extending from
extended periods. These advanced greenhouses are ground level to a height of 1.5 to 2 meters. Some
commonly employed for the prolonged cultivation of variants may include manually rollable plastic covers
crops such as tomatoes and sweet peppers, as well as for added protection. To facilitate air circulation and
various flowers like roses, gerberas, orchids, and effective cooling, these greenhouses often have a
anthodium’s. central height ranging from 6 to 8 meters.
Fig: Hi-Tech and Semi Climate Control Greenhouse

Fig: Ventilated Low-Cost Greenhouses and Plastic
Semi-climate-controlled greenhouses: In this type Low Tunnel structure
of greenhouse, the structural frame consists of Plastic low tunnels: Plastic low tunnels or covers
Galvanized Iron pipes, similar to climate-controlled serve as economical and straightforward structures
greenhouses. However, instead of sophisticated for off-season vegetable production in open fields.
climate control systems, only exhaust fans paired These flexible, transparent coverings are installed
with evaporative cooling pads are installed to over single or multiple rows of vegetable crops
regulate temperature and humidity, particularly during the winter season, creating a favourable
during the summer season. These greenhouses are microclimate around the plants. As a result, plant
best suited for flower and vegetable cultivation in growth is enhanced, and the soil temperature is
regions with mild winter and summer conditions. elevated. Additionally, these covers provide
They are also commonly utilized for nursery raising protection from adverse weather conditions such as
of various horticultural crops and the hardening of hail, cold winds and frost.
tissue-cultured plants. Use of mulches: Mulching involves covering the soil
Naturally ventilated or low-cost greenhouses: around plants with either organic or synthetic
These simple greenhouses are characterized by their materials to create conditions that are conducive to
low initial investment costs. The frame can be plant growth, development, and crop production.
constructed using Galvanized Iron pipes, wooden Black plastic mulch is commonly used during the
logs, or steel pipes. Unlike more advanced summer months to conserve soil moisture and
greenhouse types, these structures do not incorporate control weeds. Coloured plastic mulches are
heating or cooling systems. The roof is typically employed to reduce insect infestations, with yellow-
227
coloured mulch particularly effective in lowering cs): The soil system within protected environments
virus incidence in various vegetable crops such as often requires frequent replacement due to issues
tomatoes, chili peppers, sweet peppers, and okra. such as soil degradation, over-fertilization, or soil-
Plastic mulches offer numerous advantages, borne diseases. This necessity led to the development
including: Early crop growth, Reduction of water of soil-less cultivation methods, where local
loss through evaporation, effective weed suppress- materials like rock wool, peat moss, coir, sand,
ion, decreased nutrient loss, mitigation of soil perlite, and coconut fiber are combined to create a
compaction, cleaner crop produce, minimized insect substrate or medium to support plant growth and
infestation, and natural enrichment of crop plants allow them to reach their full potential. Liquid
with carbon dioxide. By leveraging these benefits, systems, commonly known as hydroponics, are
plastic mulches contribute significantly to improved typically closed-circuit systems in terms of nutrient-
crop yields and overall horticultural productivity. solution supply. In these systems, the nutrient
solution is continuously or intermittently recirculated
over a period of days or weeks. This process is
closely monitored using computer-attached sensors
to ensure optimal nutrient levels for plant growth.
Fig: Organic and Inorganic/Plastic Mulch Micro irrigation, fertigation and nutrient need
Floating mulch or floating row cover: Floating diagnosis: Micro-irrigation is a precise method that
mulches represent temporary and cost-effective delivers the right amount of water, at the right time,
protected structures that do not require mechanical to the right place, and in the right manner. This
support such as wire hoops. These structures are approach has demonstrated its effectiveness in
primarily designed to shield horticultural crops, conserving water, enhancing yields, and reducing
particularly tender warm-season vegetables, from disease incidence, particularly in crops that are
adverse temperature conditions during out-of-season susceptible to moisture-related diseases. To
cultivation. By providing protection, floating effectively implement fertigation, a thorough under-
mulches facilitate the advancement of maturity, standing of plant growth behaviour, including
enhance crop quality, and extend the growing season. nutrient requirements and rooting patterns, soil
Typically, these mulches are laid directly on the soil chemistry (such as solubility and mobility of
surface, acting as a barrier against temperature nutrients), fertilizer chemistry (including mixing
fluctuations and other environmental stresses, thus compatibility, precipitation, clogging, and corro-
promoting optimal growth conditions for the crops. sion), and water quality factors (such as pH, salt, and
Soil less cultivation (Hydroponics and Aeroponi- sodium hazards) is essential.

228
Nursery management for plant propagation: The ing enhanced yield, quality, and protection from
production of quality planting material and achieving adverse weather conditions and pests. Its versatility
high success rates through various propagation and adaptability make it a valuable technique for
techniques are challenges often faced under open optimizing production and ensuring consistent crop
field conditions. Protected structures have emerged supply, contributing to sustainable agriculture
as the preferred solution, utilized by many nursery practices.
growers for the multiplication of healthy planting References
materials. Given the substantial demand for high- Singh, D. K. and Peter, K. V. (2014). Protected
quality planting materials, there is significant cultivation of horticulture crops present
potential for the large-scale expansion of nursery scenario and future prospects. New India
activities within cost-effective, low-cost structures Publishing Agency, India, pp. 1-33.
that create favourable microclimates. Singh, V. K., Rajan, S., Soni, M. K. and Singh, A.
Flowers and vegetable seeds, especially (2015). Protected cultivation of horticultural
hybrids, are not only expensive but also require an crops. Technical bulletin, 1-16.
optimum temperature range of 18-20°C for proper Sabir, N. and Singh, B. (2013). Protected cultivation
germination, subsequent growth, and development. ofvegetables in global arena: A review.
Micro-propagated plant hardening, vegetative propa- Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences,
gation, grafting/budding, and rooting of cuttings 83(2): 123-135.
have demonstrated significantly higher success rates
in polyhouse conditions compared to traditional
open-field methods.
Plant protection under protected condition
With evolving horticultural practices, new
pests such as thrips, scales, whiteflies, mites,
phytoplasma, viruses, and viroids are emerging,
posing threats to crops grown not only in open
conditions but also under protected structures used
for cultivating vegetables and flowers. To safeguard
crops from these pests, heightened vigilance and
stringent quarantine measures are essential.
In conclusion, protected cultivation offers
significant advantages for horticulture crops, includ-

229
Innovative Approaches in Nutrient Management for Sustaibale Cropping

Systems
Vinayak Maurya, Yamini S., Shivendra Kumar Singh and Tarun Kumar
Abstract
Nutrient management within cropping systems has advanced significantly as a result of the
increased demand for sustainable agriculture methods. This research investigates novel strategies
targeted at increasing crop yields, decreasing environmental impact, and optimizing nutrient use
efficiency. We assess the efficacy of contemporary technical innovations in various agro-ecological
situations by thoroughly reviewing their innovations, including precision agriculture, biofertilizers and
integrated nutrient management (INM) methods. Our results show that these strategies support long-
term agricultural sustainability in addition to enhancing soil health and lowering reliance on synthetic
fertilizers.
Introduction management practices.

Managing nutrients effectively is crucial for Precision Nutrient Management
preserving soil fertility, enhancing crop yield, and It involves the targeted application of
safeguarding the environment. Yet, conventional nitrogen, phosphorus, and lime at specific locations,
methods of crop and nutrient management have guided by specialized equipment or multiple
resulted in soil degradation, diminished productivity, application events based on site-specific recomm-
and environmental risks. This research topic seeks to endations for each GPS-referenced sampling point.
gather modern research and strategies centered on The goal is to minimize nutrient runoff into surface
inventive nutrient management techniques. It and groundwater and enhance water quality.
underscores their pivotal role in nurturing soil health, Precision nutrient management encompasses the use
maximizing crop output, and preserving ecosystem of advanced, innovative, and site-specific technology
integrity. Topic aims to involve a wide range of to address spatial and temporal variations in natural
professionals including researchers, agronomists, nutrient distribution in the soil, thereby enhancing
soil scientists, environmentalists, policymakers, and productivity, efficiency and profitability in agricul-
agricultural practitioners in advancing the tural production systems.
comprehension and application of efficient nutrient Precision nutrient management tools & technique
Vinayak Maurya, Yamini S. and Shivendra Kumar Singh

Prof. Rajendra Singh (Rajju Bhaiyya) University, Naini, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh
Tarun Kumar
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, SHUATS, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh

230
Nutrient Management Models: In crop production, ion that is rendered unavailable by fixation or losses.
computer-based decision support systems like Nutrient cycling and soil health: The physical,
Nutrient Expert (NE) and the QUEFTS model are chemical, and biological properties of soil can be
frequently used, especially for precision nutrient dramatically changed by a variety of procedures used
management. These models enable tailored nutrient in agriculture, such as crop rotation plans,
treatments depending on particular crop require- management techniques, and chemical application.
ments by taking into consideration geographical and Due to their severe disturbance of soil organic matter
temporal variations in nutrient availability. and structure, traditional tillage techniques are
Integrated Plant Nutrient Management: Resource frequently perceived as more aggressive since they
conservation, environmental protection, and more raise the danger of erosion and decrease microbial
economical farming are all made possible by variety and activity.
integrated plant nutrient management (IPNM),
which uses commercial fertilizers to replace the
nutrients found in crop wastes and manures. The total
nutritional potential (NPK) of different organic
resources was estimated to be 14.85 Mt in 2000, and
it is expected to rise to 32.41 Mt by 2025.
Maximum recovery of fertilizer nutrients in the
crop: Variations in soil fixation or losses can affect
the efficacy of additional fertilizer fertilizers. As a Microbial Inoculants: The rhizosphere is the soil
result, only a fraction of the fertilizer's entire zone that surrounds plant roots and is affected by
nutritional content referred to as the potential supply their respiration, growth, and nutrient exchanges.
is accessible for crop uptake. This is the maximum This zone, which is about 1 mm broad, has no distinct
amount of nutrients from fertilizer that the crop can boundary and is characterized by intensive biological
use in ideal circumstances. Nevertheless, this and chemical activity caused by root exudates and
maximum uptake may not be reached by the crop's bacteria that feed on these substances.
actual uptake of fertilizer nutrients. Fertilizer A Way towards Healthy Soil: Integrated Soil
nutrients can therefore be divided into three fractions Nutrients Management
based on how efficiently they are absorbed by the Rhizospheric biodiversity is complex and
crop: the fraction that is truly recovered by the crop, dynamic, with compositions shifting across compart-
the fraction that accounts for the discrepancy ments and layers, offering a considerable challenge
between actual and maximal recovery, and the fract- to soil ecology. It is one of the world’s most diversi-

231
fied habitats, critical to ecosystem function and Seed inoculation of mustard with Azotobacter or
sustainability. As a result, the quick breakdown of Azospirillum has significantly increased yields.
soil organic matter requires an adequate supply of Similarly, the combined inoculation of Rhizobia with
nitrogen (N). The optimal carbon-to-nitrogen ratio Azospirillum and phosphobacteria has significantly
(C: N) is 30:1. improved pod yield in groundnut compared to
Field crop: In Indian diets, pulse crops are an individual inoculations.
essential source of protein. Nevertheless, low New Approaches for Improving Nutrient Use
production results from their cultivation being Efficiency in Plants
restricted to marginal and impoverished lands. The In order to fulfil the increasing need for food
low yield of pulses in India is also caused by the worldwide, breeding programmers aimed at creating
country’s reliance on rainfed conditions and scant novel crop genotypes with higher Nutrient Use
usage of artificial fertilizers. Enhancing these Efficiency which permits greater uptake and
symbiotic N-fixing bacteria together with utilization of minerals to promote yield are crucial.
phosphorus-solubilizing bacteria (PSB) can enhance Breeding programmers to increase NUE for green
biomass production and economic yield of many plants like lettuce, spinach, and rocket must be
legume crops, as legume crops can fix atmospheric customized to the particular production techniques
nitrogen through root modulating Rhizobium employed. For instance, in hydroponic systems, it’s
species. Thus, symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria, P- crucial to keep the roots of these crops small to avoid
solubilizers, and biocontrol agents are examples of problems with circulation of the nutrient solution and
plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) that a rise in organic matter in the solution that can upset
can be applied to legume crops to boost yields and the fertigation system.
decrease the frequency of serious illnesses such root Next Generation Breeding
rot and wilt. Environmental issues are brought up by The transcriptome and genome may be
the way oilseed diseases are currently treated using sequenced quickly and accurately thanks to Next
chemical fungicides. Furthermore, small and Generation Sequencing (NGS) technologies. With
marginal farmers cannot afford these costly NGS, transcription profiles or genome information
fungicides. Utilizing efficient plant growth- of different species, along with particular mutations,
promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) offers a viable can be obtained in a reasonable amount of time.
alternative to enhance crop production. A synergistic The technology known as “Targeted Genome
effect has been observed in sunflower with triple Editing,” which involves the use of artificial
inoculation of Azotobacter chroococcum, Penici- nucleases such as the CRISPR/Cas9 system, has
llium glaucum, and Glomus fasciculatum. great promise for accelerating plant breeding through

232
the accurate and consistent alteration of individual they support higher microbial populations, which in
genes. There are more and more instances of genome turn promote biological activity, which adds to the
editing being appropriate for plant breeding, biological elements. Furthermore, organic compo-
notwithstanding the continuous discussion over nents can improve the chemical characteristics of soil
whether this technique should be categorized as a by strengthening its capacity to store nutrients
GMO (Genetically Modified Organism). However, through improved cation exchange and its resistance
as far as the authors are aware, no cases of utilizing to pH variations. Plant development is notably
targeted genome editing to improve nutrient use benefited by improving the physical characteristics
efficiency (NUE) have been reported. of the soil, especially in well-drained, aerobic
Sources of organic and alternative nutrients environments. In submerged paddy field soils,
Approaches similar to organic farming are however, where soil structure collapse frequently
often referred to by a variety of names in the happens during land preparation, usually as a result
literature, including low-input agriculture, organic of puddling, the effect can be less noticeable. In
farming, natural farming, alternative farming, contrast to aerobic soils, submergence or flooding
regenerative farming, and sustainable agriculture. tends to keep pH values close to neutral and
Organic supplies include decomposed or undecom- decreases the mineralization of soil organic nitrogen
posed plant and animal components, and inorganic (SON) and the breakdown of native soil organic
sources include chemical fertilizers made from fossil matter (SOM). Moreover, rice soil puddling inhibits
fuels. To reduce losses and improve fertilizer water movement downhill, which lessens the need
efficiency, novel fertilizers such as slow-release or for increased nutrient-holding capacity to prevent
controlled-release fertilizers (like poly-coated urea), nutrient loss through leaching. Additionally, in well-
deep placement methods (like urea super granules), drained soils, organic materials can promote aerobic
and nitrification inhibitors are being created and bacterial activity and, to a lesser extent, anaerobic
used. bacterial activity in submerged soils.
Organic versus Inorganic Fertilizers Chemical Fertilizers Deteriorate Soil Physical
Though used in small amounts, organic Properties and Degrade Lands
materials are widely used, especially in subsistence The idea that chemical fertilizers cause the
farming systems in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. physical and chemical qualities of soil to deteriorate
They are essential for improving many aspects of the whereas organic materials or fertilizers improve soil
soil. For example, they can enhance the physical structure and water-holding capacity in all types of
properties of soil, including drainage, aggregation, soil is a common misunderstanding among support-
structure, and water-holding capacity. Additionally, ers of organic farming. Furthermore, chemical fertili-

233
zers are frequently blamed for degrading soil quality nutrient management strategy that is specific to the
by changing the physical characteristics of the soil area and takes field variances and seasonal needs into
and causing acidity. There are politicians, research- account. The guiding principles of SSNM include
ers, extension agents, and policymakers who think applying fertilizer sparingly in accordance with crop
that inorganic fertilizers can degrade soils and reduce requirements, determining root nutrient availability
crop or soil productivity no matter how much of them using plant-based techniques, modifying nitrogen
are applied. fertilizer management in response, and guaranteeing
Organic Fertilizers Are Cheaper and Affordable profitable but sustainable phosphorus (P) and
The idea that organic nutrition sources are potassium (K) management strategies.
more cost-effective than inorganic fertilizers is a Site Specific Nutrient Management
frequent fallacy spread by proponents of organic The cultivation of a healthy environment is
fertilizers. Nevertheless, studies have shown that based on the fundamental idea of balanced
inorganic fertilizers are actually less expensive per fertilization. Balanced fertilization maintains agricu-
unit of nutrients than organic fertilizers. When ltural yield while optimizing soil fertility by
compared to organic manures, inorganic fertilizers precisely adjusting fertilizer volumes and proporti-
usually contain much larger levels of nutrients, ons to crops' needs. This method encourages
particularly macronutrients. Furthermore, plants can resource saving in addition to fostering the physical
access nutrients from chemical fertilizers more easily and biological health of the soil. A balanced nutrient
than they can from organic ones. As a result, organic supply is considered a Best Management Practice
fertilizers may be less expensive than chemical ones (BMP) because it guarantees effective nutrient
when it comes to the costs of buying, shipping, and utilization, conserves resources, and maintains soil
applying organic materials like farmyard manure productivity. In addition to improving agricultural
(FYM) and composts that are high in moisture but sustainability, balanced fertilization practices also
low in nutrients. improve the general resilience and health of our
Economic evaluation ecosystems. Site-Specific Nutrient Management
This means that new approaches, such site- (SSNM) applies nutrients to crops in a dynamic
specific nutrient management (SSNM), must be manner based on the unique requirements of each
given top priority in order to maximize fertilizer field. The best possible use of nutrients from a
usage in agriculture. In order to maximize crop variety of sources, including soil, agricultural wastes,
output, economic returns, and nitrogen use efficiency and manures, is made possible by this method. To
(NUE), SSNM involves adjusting nutrient effectively manage nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P),
application to crop requirements. It aims to offer a and potassium (K), SSNM uses plant-based evaluate-

234
ons. This ensures that crops receive the critical management techniques.
nutrients required, as established by the International References
Rice Research Institute (IRRI). SSNM guarantees Brar, B. S. and Kaur, A. (2016). Precision Nutrient
effective nutrient management by optimizing Management: A Review. Indian Journal of
nutrient use from soil, plant wastes, and organic Fertilizers, 1: 15.
sources like manure. In order to promote sustainable Cardoso, E. J. B. N., Vasconcellos, R. L. F., Bini, D.,
crop development and production, fertilizers are Miyauchi, M. Y. H., Santos, C. A. D., Alves,
administered in a specified manner to close the gap P. R. L., … and Nogueira, M. A. (2013). Soil
between the crops' nutrient demand and the supply health: looking for suitable indicators. What
from soil and native sources. Use 4R concept of should be considered to assess the effects of
balance nutrient management Right product, Right use and management on soil health? Scientia
rate, Right time and Right place. Agricola, 70: 274-289.
Conclusion Ferrante, A., Nocito, F. F., Morgutti, S. and Sacchi,
To sum up, creative nutrient management G. A. (2017). Plant breeding for improving
strategies are essential to developing long-term nutrient uptake and utilization efficiency.
sustainable cropping systems. Site-Specific Nutrient Advances in Research on Fertilization
Management (SSNM) is one strategy that provides Management of Vegetable Crops, 221-246.
customized solutions to maximize crop output, Janssen, B. H. (1998). Efficient use of nutrients: an
encourage environmental stewardship, and increase art of balancing. Field Crops Research, 56(1-
nutrient use efficiency. Farmers may reduce resource 2):197-201.
waste, lessen their influence on the environment, and Kumar, R., Saurabh, K., Kumawat, N., Sundaram, P.
guarantee the long-term viability of agricultural K., Mishra, J. S., Singh, D. K., … and Bhatt,
methods by adopting these cutting-edge solutions. B. P. (2021). Sustaining productivity through
Furthermore, the continual improvement and integrated use of microbes in agriculture.
modification of nutrient management techniques to Role of Microbial Communities for
suit changing agricultural needs and problems is Sustainability, 109-145.
made possible by the integration of cutting-edge Malhi, G. S., Kaur, M., Singh, A., Singh, V. K.,
technologies and scientific knowledge. In the end, Saini, S. P. and Jatav, H. S. (2022). Agrono-
we can develop resilient cropping systems that not mic and economic assessment of site-specific
only sustainably supply the world's food needs but nutrient management in crop production.
also preserve the health of our ecosystems for future Ecosystem services: types, management and
generations by giving priority to sustainable nutrient benefits. Nova Science Publishers, USA.

235
Sustainable Agriculture and Future Perspectives

Shivendra Kumar Singh, Yamini S., Vinayak Maurya and Tarun Kumar
Abstract
Sustainable agriculture is critical in addressing the twin challenges of ensuring food security
and preserving environmental integrity in the face of a rapidly growing global population and climate
change. This abstract looks at the principles, practices, and future prospects of sustainable agriculture.
It emphasizes the significance of incorporating cutting-edge technologies such as precision farming,
biotechnology, and nanotechnology to increase crop yields, improve resource efficiency, and reduce
environmental impact. This abstract emphasizes the importance of sustainable agriculture for the long-
term viability of food systems, as well as the need for all stakeholders to work together to build a
resilient and sustainable agricultural future.
Introduction culture: Botanical pesticides, whether as isolated

The term “sustainable agriculture” was compounds or complex mixtures, demonstrate
defined in 1977 by the USDA as an integrated system various biological activities, functioning as
of plant and animal production practices having a repellents, insecticides, fungicides, nematicides, and
site-specific application that will, over the long term. bactericides. Research has shown that botanical
This approach prioritizes the utilization of ecosystem pesticides inhibit food intake, growth at different
services and seeks to maintain their balance and developmental stages, and egg laying in various
health for long-term sustainability. Creating mosquito species, including those significant to
sustainable food systems plays a crucial role in agriculture.
ensuring the sustainability of the human population. Botanical pesticides: The primary botanical
The concern over insufficient resources has driven pesticides are essential oils produced as secondary
the adoption of technologies aimed at enhancing metabolites in plants. Botanical pesticides that target
farm productivity within the sustainability sector. GABA receptors might be more effective because of
The ultimate goal of these advancements is to ensure the rapid action of these receptors, which are
the capability to feed the increasingly large global primarily found in the peripheral nervous systems of
population. insects, especially at neuromuscular junctions. In
Use of botanical insecticides for sustainable agri- contrast, compounds that act on G-protein-coupled
Shivendra Kumar Singh, Yamini S. and Vinayak Maurya

Prof. Rajendra Singh (Rajju Bhaiyya) University, Naini, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh
Tarun Kumar
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, SHUATS, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh

236
receptors (such as octopamine and tyramine ms. Natural polysaccharides such as alginate,
receptors) tend to be less effective due to the more chitosan, and cyclodextrins have been extensively
complex signaling cascades involved in these studied for developing sustained release systems in
pathways. agriculture because they are biodegradable,
Botanical insecticides and nanotechnology: is it a biocompatible, and have low toxicity to mammals.
real new possibility? Current and future perspectives on the use of
Nanotechnological approaches stand out nanofertilizers for sustainable agriculture
from other methods because they provide effective Agriculture is the most important and stable
solutions to a variety of challenges. These methods sector of the global economy because it directly and
have advantages such as protecting compounds from indirectly produces and supplies food to humans. As
degradation and volatilization losses, making the world's population grows, agricultural production
handling easier, enabling sustained release, and must increase to reduce poverty and provide
allowing for specific targeting of active agents. adequate nutrition for the growing population.
There is growing recognition that traditional Farmers are currently facing a number of challenges,
integrated pest management (IPM) methods are including water scarcity, loss of arable land due to
inadequate for effectively controlling pests and urbanization, climate change, declining crop yields,
boosting food productivity. The combination of sustainable resource use, micronutrient deficiencies,
botanical pesticides and bioinsecticides derived from decreased organic matter in soils, and environmental
microorganisms is a promising strategy for and logistical issues such as runoff, fertilizer buildup,
agricultural pest control. In this method, botanical pesticide toxicity, and labor shortages.
pesticides cause stress in pests, making them more Nanofertilizers: Nanofertilizers are plant nutrients
vulnerable to attack by disease organisms, whose composed entirely or partially of nanostructured
toxins act faster, increasing pest mortality. formulations that release active ingredients into the
Future trends in sustainable agriculture soil in a gradual and controlled manner.
While nanotechnological materials have
demonstrated exceptional results in a variety of
scientific domains, the manufacturing processes
involved may produce hazardous wastes, and the raw
materials used may be non-renewable resources. In
sustainable agriculture applications, it is preferable
to use natural biodegradable polymers rather than
synthetic ones when creating sustained release syste-

237
This avoids nutrient loss, eutrophication, and water ent Strategies for Sustainable Agriculture
and air pollution. Nanofertilizers outperform Agro seeds are vulnerable to environmental
conventional fertilizers in terms of efficacy, stressors, which reduce seed vigor, crop growth, and
performance, availability, and utilization due to their productivity. While various agrochemical-based
high surface area-volume ratio. seed treatments can improve seed germination, they
Nanofertilizers for sustainable and precision also have negative environmental effects. Nano-
farming: Sustainable agriculture necessitates the use agrochemicals can reduce the dose-dependent
of fewer agrochemicals, making the development of toxicity associated with traditional seed treatments,
an efficient plant nutrient system that minimizes increasing seed viability and allowing for the
environmental damage critical. Tropical and controlled release of these nano agrochemicals.
subtropical soils are typically acidic, deficient in Nanotechnology toward Sustainable Seed treat-
phosphorus, and have a high phosphate sorption ments: Sustainable seed treatment practices are
capacity. To address this global agricultural critical for ensuring agriculture's long-term viability.
challenge, nanotechnological and nanoengineering These practices benefit profitability, environmental
techniques are being used to provide innovative and health, social equity, and the well-being of both
advanced solutions for increasing crop production, current and future generations. Sustainable seed
improving pesticide treatment efficiency, developing treatment entails limiting the use of agrochemicals,
effective water management systems, and which can contaminate soil, water, and vegetation
encouraging the use of nanofertilizers to ensure while harming non-target organisms such as plants,
agricultural sustainability. Nano-composites outper- birds, animals, and fish. The use of nano-scale
form conventional fertilizers in several ways due to agrochemicals as smart chemicals for seed treatment
the combination of a polymeric matrix and inorganic has transformed traditional agricultural practices,
nanomaterials. Nano-composites also provide unique making them more sustainable and efficient.
design opportunities, resulting in significant benefits Incorporating nanomaterials and nanotechnology
for creating functional materials with specific into agrochemicals addresses several issues with
properties. The current research is focused on traditional agrochemicals, such as poor solubility,
developing nanocomposites and hybrid nano- low bioavailability, photolysis susceptibility, organic
materials capable of supplying essential nutrients to solvent pollution, and excessive toxicity. In recent
crops via smart delivery systems, thus preventing years, nanomaterials have been successfully used to
nutrient losses through soil leaching and develop seed treatments.
volatilization. Possible Next-generation Nano-scale Architect-
Recent Advances in Nano-Enabled Seed Treatm- ures for Future Seed Treatment Formulations:

238
Next-generation nanoscale systems can control Perspectives and Challenges

stability, solubility, and bioavailability, as well as the A single agronomic trait is influenced by
release of bioactives for seed treatment. These multiple quantitative loci, and different agronomic
formulations can be classified into two types: liquid traits are often correlated and regulated in a modular
and solid nanoscale systems. Using these advanced fashion. This complexity poses a significant
systems, highly effective seed treatment formul- challenge for conventional breeding. One of the
ations can be developed. primary challenges for future crop design is to
Polymeric nanocapsules and nanospheres can overcome undesirable trade-offs among traits,
be formed using preformed polymers or by particularly those involving crop yield and resistance
polymerizing monomers. These structures have a to abiotic or biotic stresses. For example, while the
vesicular or reservoir-like design, with an inner high-yielding semi-dwarf varieties from the Green
cavity surrounded by a polymer coating or memb- Revolution often require increased high-nitrogen
rane. Pesticide or fertilizer-loaded nanocapsule seed fertilizer and water, there is a need to improve current
treatments can be prepared using a variety of crops by enhancing fertilizer and water-use
techniques, including nanoprecipitation, emulsion- efficiencies and increasing stress tolerance without
solvent diffusion, emulsion-solvent evaporation, compromising yield. To achieve this goal, it is
layer-by-layer self-assembly, ionic gelation, poly- critical to conduct a genome-wide analysis of the
electrolyte complexation, and melt-dispersion. regulatory networks underlying the key genes
Challenges and strategies for sustainable involved in agronomic trait formation. This effort
agriculture will require ongoing funding and global collabo-
The Breeding 4.0 era is distinguished by its rations. Furthermore, rapid advances in genome-
ability to rapidly, rationally, and precisely integrate editing tools over the last decade have renewed
any known beneficial alleles into desired concerns about human health and environmental
combinations. We must create a strategy for future safety in the development of genetically modified
crop design that focuses on identifying specific (GM) crops.
beneficial alleles responsible for desirable crop Strategies for sustainable agriculture
variations, eliminating harmful variants, and Increased Yield: The current growth rates of the
leveraging cutting-edge technologies. These techno- four major crops maize (Zea mays), rice (Oryza
logies include advanced genome sequencing sativa), wheat (Triticum aestivum), and soybeans
pipelines, big data deep learning, high-throughput (Glycine max) are approximately half of the expected
phenotyping platforms, precise genome editing tools, rate. The primary goal of the Future Crops Design
and synthetic biology techniques. project is to create new varieties with high yield

239
potential to close this gap. For example, a trial found flowering time, seed number and size, dormancy,
that under ideal conditions, a super-high-yield rice food quality, and nutrient utilization efficiency.
variety could produce one to three times more grains Conclusion
than traditional paddy fields. Sustainable agriculture is the foundation of
Improving nutritional quality: Despite significant future food security and environmental stewardship.
improvements in food supply over the last five As the world's population grows, the challenge of
decades, changes in human lifestyles and food meeting food demands while maintaining ecological
consumption have resulted in a phenomenon known balance becomes more critical. Advances in
as hidden hunger. For example, in sub-Saharan sustainable agricultural practices, fueled by cutting-
Africa and America, 17-30% of children under the edge technologies such as precision farming,
age of five do not get enough Vitamin A on a daily biotechnology and nanotechnology, provide promi-
basis. Furthermore, the global population has grown sing solutions to these problems. Farmers who
by approximately two billion people over the last integrate these technologies can increase crop yields,
decade. As a result, the Future Crops Design project's improve resource efficiency, and reduce the
second mission is to develop crops with improved environmental impact of agricultural activities. The
and balanced nutritional quality or specialized future of agriculture is dependent on our ability to
metabolites using metabolic engineering and adopt holistic approaches that balance productivity
synthetic biology techniques. and sustainability. This includes not only techno-
Domestication of perennial crops: Perennial crops, logical innovation, but also policy support, research
on the other hand, do not require annual sowing and funding, and global collaboration. Crop development
have longer growing seasons. They also have long- with improved traits, such as increased nutrient and
lived deep root systems that efficiently maintain and water use efficiency and resistance to biotic and
utilize nutrients and water. Furthermore, perennials abiotic stresses, will be critical. Additionally,
are more stress tolerant and can sequester more sustainable practices such as crop diversification,
carbon in the soil than annuals. As a result, soil health management, and the use of biopesticides
developing diverse perennial grain-cropping systems will be critical in preserving ecosystem services.
is becoming increasingly important for long-term Finally, transitioning to sustainable agriculture is not
agricultural sustainability. For example, perennial a choice, but a requirement for ensuring the long-
wheat, maize, and sorghum are being developed by term viability of our food systems. Prioritizing
crossing annual cultivars with related wild species. sustainability allows us to protect the health of our
Improving perennial crops entails improving key planet and its inhabitants, ensuring that future
agronomic characteristics such as plant architecture, generations have access to adequate, nutritious food.

240
The path forward requires a collaborative effort from

all stakeholders, including farmers, researchers,
policymakers, and consumers, to create a resilient
and sustainable agricultural future.
References
Basavegowda, N. and Baek, K. H. (2021). Current
and future perspectives on the use of
nanofertilizers for sustainable agriculture: the
case of phosphorus nanofertilizer. Biotech,
11(7): 357.
Campos, E. V., Proença, P. L., Oliveira, J. L., Bakshi,
M., Abhilash, P. C. and Fraceto, L. F. (2019).
Use of botanical insecticides for sustainable
agriculture: Future perspectives. Ecological
Indicators, 105: 483-495.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_agricultur
e
Shelar, A., Nile, S. H., Singh, A. V., Rothenstein, D.,
Bill, J., Xiao, J. and Patil, R. (2023). Recent
advances in nano-enabled seed treatment
strategies for sustainable agriculture: challe-
nges, risk assessment and future perspect-
ives. Nano-Micro Letters, 15(1): 54.
Tian, Z., Wang, J. W., Li, J. and Han, B. (2021).
Designing future crops: challenges and
strategies for sustainable agriculture. The
Plant Journal, 105(5): 1165-1178.

241
Health Benefits of Spirulina: A Nutrient Dense Superfood

Introduction extend beyond human nutrition. It is increasingly

Spirulina is a type of multicellular and incorporated into aquaculture diets to enhance the
filamentous blue-green algae that has garnered health and growth of various aquatic species. The
significant popularity in the health food industry. high protein content and nutrient density of Spirulina
This alga is increasingly being recognized for its support the dietary needs of fish and crustaceans,
potential as a protein and vitamin supplement, not promoting better growth rates and overall health.
only for human consumption but also as an additive This has made Spirulina an attractive option for
in aquaculture diets. One of the key attributes of sustainable aquaculture practices, aiming to reduce
Spirulina is its ability to thrive in water, making it reliance on conventional feed sources and improve
relatively easy to cultivate, harvest, and process. This the nutritional quality of farmed aquatic organisms.
ease of production, coupled with its rich content of Cultivation of Spirulina: Spirulina is one among
macro- and micro-nutrients, has contributed to its various algal species discovered growing in natural
rising prominence as a nutritional supplement. freshwaters. These microalgae thrive in diverse
Historically, Spirulina has been utilized as a environments and can be found in natural habitats
dietary supplement by indigenous populations such as soil marshes, seawater, and brackish waters,
residing near the alkaline lakes where it is naturally particularly in areas where alkaline waters are
abundant. These communities have long recognized present. These habitats provide the ideal conditions
the nutritional benefits of Spirulina, integrating it for spirulina's growth, which is largely influenced by
into their diets to enhance their intake of essential the availability of essential nutrients. In these natural
nutrients. Spirulina's nutritional profile is indeed environments, spirulina's growth cycles are closely
impressive; it is a rich source of protein, containing tied to the supply of key nutrients like nitrogen,
all essential amino acids, making it an excellent phosphorus, and other minerals. These nutrients,
alternative to traditional animal-based proteins. essential for photosynthesis and cellular growth, can
Additionally, Spirulina is packed with vitamins such come from various sources, including agricultural
as B12, minerals like iron and magnesium, and anti- runoff, natural soil deposits, and decaying organic
oxidants including phycocyanin, which contribute to matter. Environmental factors such as sunlight,
its health benefits. temperature, and pH levels also significantly affect
In the modern context, Spirulina's benefits spirulina's growth and biomass production.
Department of Agricultural Extension Education, PGI, Dr. PDKV, Akola, Maharashtra

242
Presently, two major technologies are employed for (including iron, calcium, and magnesium), and
the commercial cultivation of spirulina: closed essential fatty acids like gamma-linolenic acid
photobioreactors (PBRs) and open pond methods. (GLA). Additionally, they are abundant in anti-
Both approaches are used to produce high-value oxidants such as phycocyanin and beta-carotene,
products derived from spirulina. Closed photo- which contribute to their health benefits.
bioreactors offer a controlled environment, which Health Benefits of Spirulina: Spirulina, a type of
can lead to higher purity and productivity, while blue-green algae, has gained significant attention as
open pond methods are typically more cost-effective a dietary supplement because of its rich nutrient
and suitable for large-scale production. The profile and various health benefits. Known
cultivation process of spirulina involves several scientifically as Arthrospira platensis and
phases, starting from strain selection to the formation Arthrospira maxima, Spirulina has been consumed
of pellets. Initially, the most suitable spirulina strain for centuries and is recognized today for its potential
is selected based on the desired product to enhance health in numerous ways. Below are
characteristics and environmental condit-ions. This some key health benefits of Spirulina
is followed by the preparation of a culture medium Nutrient-Dense Superfood: Spirulina is a power-
rich in essential nutrients. The algae are then grown house of essential nutrients. It is high in protein and
under controlled conditions, monitored for optimal provides all the essential amino acids required for
growth, and eventually harvested. The harvested human health. Additionally, it is rich in vitamins,
biomass is processed, often through drying and pellet particularly B vitamins (B1, B2 and B3), and minerals
formation, to produce the final commercial product. such as iron, magnesium, and potassium. Spirulina
Selection of the species also contains beneficial omega-3 and omega-6 fatty
Species selection is a very crucial stage in acids, which are vital for heart health and brain
Spirulina cultivation. This process involves identi- function.
fying and choosing the most suitable species of Powerful Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory
spirulina to cultivate, ensuring optimal yield and Effects: One of Spirulina's most notable benefits is
quality of the final product. Among the various its strong antioxidant properties. It contains
species of spirulina Spirulina platensis and Spirulina phycocyanin, a pigment that not only gives Spirulina
maxima are the most commonly used in commercial its unique blue-green color but also helps combat free
production. Both S. platensis and S. maxima are rich radicals and reduce inflammation. This antioxidant
in essential nutrients and bioactive compounds. They activity protects cells from damage, lowering the risk
contain high levels of protein, vitamins (such as B- of chronic diseases like cancer and heart disease.
complex vitamins, vitamin K and Vit. E), minerals Immune System Enhancement: Spirulina can bols-

243
ter the immune system by stimulating the production ce tumor size. While more research is needed, these
of antibodies and other immune cells that help fight findings are promising for its potential role in cancer
infections and diseases. Research indicates that prevention and treatment.
Spirulina can enhance the activity of natural killer Allergy Relief: Spirulina may help alleviate
cells and other components of the immune system, symptoms of allergic rhinitis, a condition marked by
thereby improving the body's defense mechanisms. inflammation of the nasal passages. Studies have
Detoxification Support: Spirulina can aid in shown that Spirulina can reduce nasal congestion,
detoxifying the body by binding to heavy metals and sneezing, and itching, offering relief for allergy
other toxins, facilitating their elimination. This sufferers.
detoxifying effect is especially beneficial for people Blood Sugar Regulation: Spirulina may benefit
exposed to high levels of environmental toxins such people with diabetes by helping to regulate blood
as lead and mercury. sugar levels. Some research indicates that Spirulina
Cardiovascular Health: Spirulina is associated with can lower fasting blood sugar levels and improve
improved cardiovascular health. It can help lower insulin sensitivity, which are crucial for effective
cholesterol levels by decreasing LDL (bad) diabetes management.
cholesterol and increasing HDL (good) cholesterol. Gut Health Improvement: Spirulina acts as a
Additionally, Spirulina may help reduce blood prebiotic, promoting the growth of beneficial gut
pressure, a significant risk factor for heart disease. Its bacteria. A healthy gut microbiome is linked to better
essential fatty acids also contribute to its heart- digestion, enhanced immune function, and improved
protective benefits. mood.
Enhanced Athletic Performance: Athletes and Conclusion
fitness enthusiasts may find that Spirulina improves Incorporating Spirulina into your diet can
endurance and muscle strength. Its high protein provide a wide array of health benefits, from
content aids in muscle repair and growth, while its strengthening the immune system and enhancing
antioxidant properties reduce oxidative stress caused exercise performance to protecting against chronic
by exercise. Some studies suggest that Spirulina diseases and supporting detoxification. As with any
supplementation can enhance exercise performance supplement, it is important to consult a healthcare
and reduce fatigue. provider before starting Spirulina, especially for
Potential Anti-Cancer Properties: Early research those with underlying health conditions or who are
suggests that Spirulina may possess anti-cancer pregnant or breastfeeding. With its rich nutrient
properties. Its antioxidants and immune-boosting profile and health-promoting properties, Spirulina is
effects may help inhibit cancer cell growth and redu- a valuable addition to a healthy lifestyle.

244
Endophytes: The Future of Plant Disease Management

Sulekha Pradhan, Disha Baishnabi, Lopamudra Sarangi, Sushree Sandhya Pradhan, R. Arutselvan,
V. B. S. Chauhan, K. Hanume Gowda, Kalidas Pati, K. Laxminarayana and N. Nedunchezhiyan
Abstract
Endophytes, the microorganisms residing within plant tissues without causing harm, have
emerged as promising agents in sustainable agriculture. They play a crucial role in enhancing plant
growth, improving stress tolerance, and protecting against pathogens. Plant genotype, as well as abiotic
and biotic factors like environmental circumstances, microbe-microbe interactions, and plant-microbe
interactions, all have an impact on the structure of endophytic communities. This article explores the
potential of endophytes in plant disease management, detailing their mechanisms, applications, and
future prospects in reducing reliance on chemical pesticides.
Introduction cause root rot, foot rot, and head blight in wheat. This
Agricultural sustainability is a pressing fungus affects yield loss in more ways than one.
global issue, with an increasing need to produce food However, it can also contaminate wheat grain by
in an environmentally friendly manner. Traditional generating mycotoxins such as zearalenone and
methods of plant disease management often rely on deoxynivalenol, which are dangerous for both human
chemical pesticides, which pose risks to human and animal health (Arshad Ali et al., 2024).
health and the environment. The search for What are Endophytes?
alternative solutions has brought endophytes into the Endophytes are bacteria, fungi, or actinomy-
spotlight. These symbiotic organisms can boost plant cetes that colonize the internal tissues of plants
health and provide a natural defense against diseases, without causing apparent harm. They establish a
making them a key player in the future of plant symbiotic relationship with their host plants, where
disease management. Various fungal pathogens very both the plant and the endophyte benefit. This
often colonize these crops. Numerous fungal relationship often enhances plant growth and
diseases frequently infest these crops. The rice blast resilience to various stresses as cited Figure 1.
pathogen Magnaporthe oryzae has the potential to  Endophytes improve the plant’s ability to absorb
reduce rice yields by 10-35%. Fusarium essential nutrients from the soil. By facilitating
graminearum is a destructive fungal disease that can better nutrient acquisition, they ensure that plants
Sulekha Pradhan, Lopamudra Sarangi, Sushree Sandhya Pradhan, R. Arutselvan, V. B. S.
Chauhan, K. Hanume Gowda, Kalidas Pati, K. Laxminarayana and N. Nedunchezhiyan
ICAR-Central Tuber Crops Research Institute, Regional Station, Dumuduma, Bhubaneswar, Odisha
Disha Baishnabi
College of Agriculture, OUAT, Bhubaneswar, Odisha

245
remain robust and healthy, making them less can trigger a plant's immune system, enhancing its
susceptible to diseases. ability to resist pathogens.
 Endophytes act as natural biocontrol agents by Enzyme Production: Certain endophytes produce
producing antimicrobial compounds that inhibit enzymes that degrade pathogen cell walls, providing
or kill pathogenic organisms. They can be direct protection to the host plant.
developed into biofungicides and biopesticides,
offering an environmentally friendly alternative
to chemical pesticides.
 Some endophytes produce phytohormones such
as auxins, gibberellins, and cytokinins, which
promote plant growth and development. By
modulating hormone levels, endophytes enhance
root and shoot growth, leading to stronger and
Fig. 2: Endophytes conferring Biotic stress
more resilient plants.
Applications in Agriculture Endophytes are being
harnessed in various ways to manage plant
diseases
Biological Control Agents: Endophytes can be used
as biofungicides and biopesticides, reducing the need
for chemical treatments.
Growth Promotion: By enhancing nutrient uptake
and stress tolerance, endophytes contribute to
healthier plants less susceptible to diseases.
Fig 1: Role of Endophytes in Plant Disease
Management Phytoremediation: Endophytes help plants in
Mechanisms of Disease Management: Endophytes absorbing and degrading environmental pollutants,
contribute to plant disease management through indirectly reducing disease prevalence.
several mechanisms: Case Studies and Research: Several studies have
Antibiosis: Some endophytes produce antibiotics demonstrated the effectiveness of endophytes in
that inhibit or kill pathogenic microbes. disease management:
Competition: Endophytes outcompete pathogens Fungal Endophytes in cereal crops: Trichode-
for space and nutrients, reducing pathogen rma isolates could provide an alternative and
colonization. sustainable disease management strategy for ergot
Induced Systemic Resistance (ISR): Endophytes infection. The efficacy of Trichoderma isolates in
246
managing ergot in rye, as well as inhibiting sclerotia Xia, Y., Liu, J., Chen, C., Mo, X., Tan, Q., He, Y.,
germination within the soil (Stange et al., 2023) Wang, Z., Yin, J. and Zhou, G. (2022). The
Bacterial Endophytes in rice: The bacterial Multifunctions and Future Prospects of
endophyte Azospirillum sp. B510, isolated from rice Endophytes and their Metabolites in Plant
(Oryza sativa cv. Nipponbare), triggered host Disease Management. Microorganisms, 10
systemic resistance against rice blast disease and (5): 1072.
bacterial blight (Xia et al., 2022).
Conclusion
Endophytes present a promising frontier in
plant disease management, offering sustainable and
eco-friendly alternatives to chemical pesticides.
Continued research and development are necessary
to fully harness their potential and integrate them into
mainstream agricultural practices. By reducing our
reliance on harmful chemicals, endophytes can play
a significant role in creating a healthier, more
sustainable future for global agriculture.
References
Arshad Ali M., Ahmed, T., Ibrahim, E., Rizwan, M.,
Chong, K. P. and Yong, J. W. H. (2024). A
review on mechanisms and prospects of
endophytic bacteria in biocontrol of plant
pathogenic fungi and their plant growth-
promoting activities, Heliyon, 10(11):
e31573.
Stange, P., Seidl, S., Karl, T. and Benz, J. P. (2023).
Evaluation of Trichoderma isolates as
biocontrol measures against Claviceps
purpurea. European Journal of Plant
Pathology, 167, 651-675.

247
Post Harvest Handling and Storage of Potatoes

K. Priyatharshini, D. Narmatha and C. Venkatesh
The potato, scientifically referred to as It is important to drying harvested tubers in storage

Solanum tuberosum is one of the most widely shed. Curing of potatoes is done at a temperature of
consumed crops in the world wide and stands fourth 45 to 60o F for 2 weeks. Cured potatoes are separated
most important food crop in India. Indian potatoes and sorted from damaged and diseased tubers. If
contribute approximately 8% of total potato storage temperature is above 45 degree, sprouting of
production in the world. Vegetable basket is potatoes occurs and at same time if stored below 40
incomplete without potato. They are susceptible to a degree, they develop sugary and sweet taste. Do not
number of types of lossess after harvest, including allow potatoes to freeze.
physiological, pathological and insect related Packaging: After the tubers are harvested they are
lossess. As a result of processing potato, a variey of heaped temporarily and covered with straw. The
innovative potato based products are developed. It is packaging materials protects from mechanical
imperative to store potatoes at the optimal damage and makes the product look attractive. The
temperature to preserve their quality and ensure that potatoes are packed in hessian cloth bags are nettlon
they need the standards of top quality products. bags they are used for packing potatoes with capacity
Harvesting: The time of harvesting of potato is 75 of 80 kgs, 50 kgs. Over packaging should be avoided
to 120 days after planting based on soil type and containers should be made of non toxic materials.
variety. The aerial parts is cut when it turns yellow. Storage: Potatoes cannot be stored in normal
Potato is harvested is dry weather condition. The temperature for longer duration as it is a living
plant is cutted to ground level 8 days before material and through respiration, the changes occurs
harvesting which is done by a potato dogger or by a due to heat, resulting in loss of dry matters. The
plough. The harvested potatoes are surface dried and quality of potatoes are maintained in good condition
kept in heaps for 10 to 15 days in shade for curing of for 3 to 5 weeks. Store the potatoes which are slightly
skin. They should not be exposed to direct sunlight dirty from the field. The fine layer of soil will protect
as it becomes green. them.
Drying and Curing of Potato: Curing is important Grading: As per recommended grades the potatoes
for healing the wounds of tubers during harvesting. should be packed in different bags before marketing.
K. Priyatharshini and D. Narmatha

Venkatesh C.
Assistant Professor (Horticulture), J. K. K. Munirajah College of Agril. Science, T. N. Palayam, Gobi, Erode, Tamil Nadu

248
As the number of market increases, they add fast to It is important to ensure the availability of fresh pest
the commodity. Grading is done based on size and free quality potatoes throughout their year. Prevent
shape. Labelling of the potato bags is based on excessive moisture lossess which leads to the
grading description. Grading helps the potato development of rots and sprouts. Temperature,
producers and traders to fix the price. Grading humidity play a major role in management of potato.
depends on greately on environment conditions and Storing the potatoes at normal temperature, elevated
handling by trained human inspectors who assess the temperatures and at low temperature have been
potatoes. traditionally followed.
Factors Affecting Post Harvest Lossess: If the post Storage of Potato under Sprout Suppressant:
harvest storage period is extended, the dormancy of They are chemicals applied to prevent the stored
tubers is broken. Absicisic acid and ethyelene are potatoes from the sprouting maintained under
responsible for inducing dormancy in potato tubers. controlled under storage conditions. Alcohols,
Indole acetic acid and gibberlic acid are found to be acetaldehyde, ethylene, NAA, 2,4 D at the various
effective in controlling sprouting. Sproutting of chemicals found to prevent from sprouting of
tubers, soft and dry rot caused by pest and pathogen, potatoes.
lossess due to respiration, low temperature and Conclusion
sweeting of potato, physical damage are the several By implementing various practices such as
factors contributing to post harvest lossess. curing, drying, storage, packing, cooling we can
Post Harvest Management: Poor harvesting, hand- ensure freshness, nutritional value and high quality
ling, storage, transportation play a major role in potatoes. Innovative storage should be explored.
mass of production. Potato tubers continue to respire They will contribute to the minimization of lossess
and transpire after harvest, which affects their their and meet the needs of consumers and leads to the
shelf life quality. sustainable use of the potato.

249
Women in Agriculture: Driving Force for Change in Uttarakhand

Introduction ablished a jewel of their species by maintaining

Farming has been the main occupation of the environmentally friendly methods and using very
inhabitants of Uttarakhand from time immemorial little resources. For example, mixed cropping,
and women have always been the major contributors organic fertilizers and many agricultural techniques
to the sector. The harsh natural conditions typical of have come from the systems of Indigenous
this mountain state, specific agro-climatic zones and knowledge among women farmers.
geographic conditions were not an obstacle for the Women’s involvement in the Self-Help
feminine gender to make necessary changes and Groups and community-based organizations made
introduce sustainable innovations, which would dissemination of this wealth of knowledge possible
drive further development of agriculture. This article where they share their views and knowledge, provide
will reveal the women’s contribution to farming in easy credit and marketing support for enhanced
Uttarakhand, the effect of ill-natured stipulations on economic growth.
earnings, and impact on rural developments. Major Constraints and Challenges
The Backbone of the Rural Agriculture There are many constraints to women
Women, in Uttarakhand, are a significant part working in agriculture, even though they contribute
of the agricultural sector. They are a big part of all a lot to agriculture in Uttarakhand. One of the
the farming processes, from sowing the seeds and constraints is the existence of gender discrimination
weeding to harvesting and post-harvest processing. laws. This makes women not access land, credit
According to IFAD (International Fund for facilities, and agricultural extension services. For
Agricultural Development), women constitute about example, less than 10% of Uttarakhand women own
60-80% of all agricultural labour. Such a high level land, which can be used as collateral to get credit
of involvement makes females the backbone of food used to buy farming inputs. The other constraint is
security and agricultural life from the rural regions. that the women are also denied access to resources.
Pioneers in Sustainable Practices They do not have money to buy necessary farming
They have been the pioneers of adopting inputs and tools.
sustainable agricultural practices in their land. These For example, they do not have money to buy
indigenous women are the holders of the age long modern farming tools. Also, working in the hilly land
knowledge and biodiversity for which they have est- is tough and few women have such strength to do the

Department of Rural Technology, HNBGU, Srinagar, Uttarakhand

250
work. There are other constraints like market ment of the farmer ecosystem. To realise their full
constraints for example; lacks of enough promise, gender inequality in agriculture must be
infrastructure. The women in these regions do not tackled, and conducive policies and programmes
have enough infrastructure like roads and more other should create a more level playing field for women.
which are very essential in the process of selling the If Uttarakhand respects and helps women farmers to
farm products. help them play their rightful part then the state could
Agents of Change spark off a more fertile farm succession- formula.
Women in Uttarakhand seem to be among the
powerful agents of change. There has been an
increased participation of women in the various
decision-making processes at the household and
community levels. This is attributed to the intervent-
ions by the government and other organizations in
empowering women. The Mahila Kisan
Sashaktikaran Pariyojana is one of the sub-
components of the National Rural Livelihood
Mission which focuses on enhancing the status of
women farmers through capacity building as well as
market linkages.
Moreover, with the advancement in
technology, women farmers have benefited greatly
from digital technology. There have been the use of
various mobile applications and other web-based
networks that have provided the women with real-
time information on issues such as weather, pest
control, as well as market prices. This has
consequently made farmers more productive and
profitable.
Conclusion
Uttarakhand Women Have Indispensable
Role in Agriculture Their sweat, hard work &
innovation are essential for the strength and develop-

251
Carbon Farming: Revolutionizing Agriculture for Eco-efficiency

Shalini Roy
Abstract
Carbon farming, an innovative agricultural strategy to mitigate climate change by sequestering

atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) in soil and biomass, is gaining popularity globally. This review
article examines carbon farming practices, their environmental and socioeconomic implications,
obstacles, and future possibilities, with a particular emphasis on new trends and applications in India.
Carbon farming has significant environmental benefits, including reduced greenhouse gas emissions,
improved soil health, and biodiversity. The study also delves into the considerable benefits, particularly
in rural Indian villages, where carbon farming has the ability to promote sustainable agriculture, raise
farmer income through carbon credits, and improve food security.
Introduction This article explores the principles, benefits,

In recent years, the term “carbon farming” challenges, and future prospects of carbon farming as
has gained traction as a sustainable agricultural a key strategy for eco-efficiency in agriculture.
practice with the potential to mitigate climate change Understanding Carbon Farming
while enhancing agricultural productivity. Carbon Carbon farming revolves around the
farming transforms agriculture from being a net fundamental concept of carbon sequestration, which
emitter of CO2 to a net sequester of CO2 (Jansson et involves capturing carbon dioxide from the
al., 2021). Carbon farming encompasses a range of atmosphere and storing it in soils, plants, and organic
techniques aimed at sequestering atmospheric carbon matter. Biological carbon sequestration is the process
dioxide into agricultural soils and biomass, thereby of photosynthesis in plants, in which CO2 is
reducing greenhouse gas emissions and improving transformed into organic molecules and stored in
soil health. In the face of mounting climate change plant tissues (Farrelly et al., 2013). This mechanism
consequences, there is a growing acknowledgment of is significant in the context of carbon farming
the need for innovative and sustainable measures to because it eliminates CO2 directly from the
lowering atmospheric carbon levels. Carbon farming atmosphere (Marks, 2019). This process is facilitated
is increasingly regarded as a feasible approach, by various agricultural practices designed to enhance
providing the twin benefits of mitigating climate carbon uptake and retention in agricultural
change and improving agricultural sustainability ecosystems. Key techniques include agroforestry,
(Toensmeier, 2016). cover cropping, no-till farming, crop rotation, rotati-
Shalini Roy
Research Scholar, Department of Agronomy, SVPUAT, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh

252
onal grazing, and composting. These practices not oring ecosystems and enhancing habitat connect-
only sequester carbon but also contribute to soil ivity, carbon farming contributes to the preservation
fertility, water retention, biodiversity conservation, of biodiversity and ecosystem services essential for
and resilience to climate change impacts. agricultural sustainability.
Benefits of Carbon Farming Challenges and Barriers
Climate Change Mitigation: One of the primary Despite its numerous benefits, carbon
benefits of carbon farming is its capacity to mitigate farming faces several challenges and barriers to
climate change by reducing atmospheric carbon widespread adoption:
dioxide levels. By sequestering carbon in soils and Knowledge and Awareness: Many farmers lack
biomass, carbon farming helps offset greenhouse gas knowledge and awareness about carbon farming
emissions from agricultural activities, thereby practices and their potential benefits. Educating
contributing to global efforts to limit climate change. farmers about the principles and techniques of
Soil Health Improvement: Carbon farming carbon farming is crucial for overcoming this barrier
practices enhance soil health by increasing organic and promoting adoption at the grassroots level.
matter content, improving soil structure, enhancing Technical Expertise: Implementing carbon farming
microbial activity, and promoting nutrient cycling. practices often requires technical expertise and
Healthy soils with high carbon content are more specialized equipment, which may pose challenges
resilient to erosion, drought, and extreme weather for resource-limited farmers. Providing training,
events, ensuring sustainable agricultural productivity technical assistance, and financial support can help
in the long term. overcome these barriers and facilitate the adoption of
Agricultural Productivity: Carbon farming can carbon farming on a larger scale.
boost agricultural productivity by improving soil Policy and Incentives: The lack of supportive
fertility, water retention, and crop resilience. policies and incentives can hinder the adoption of
Enhanced soil health and nutrient availability lead to carbon farming practices by farmers. Governments
higher crop yields, reduced input requirements, and and policymakers need to implement policies that
increased profitability for farmers, making carbon promote carbon sequestration, provide financial
farming a win-win solution for both the environment incentives, and reward farmers for adopting
and agriculture. sustainable agricultural practices.
Biodiversity Conservation: Many carbon farming Market Access and Certification: Farmers engaged
practices, such as agroforestry and cover cropping, in carbon farming may face challenges in accessing
promote biodiversity conservation by providing markets for carbon credits or certified products.
habitat for diverse plant and animal species. By rest- Establishing robust certification schemes and market

253
mechanisms for carbon farming products can create produced food and agricultural products can create
economic incentives and market opportunities for market opportunities for carbon farming products,
farmers, driving widespread adoption of sustainable driving investment and innovation in sustainable
practices. agriculture.
Future Prospects and Opportunities Conclusion
Despite the challenges, carbon farming holds Carbon farming represents a paradigm shift
tremendous potential as a key strategy for eco- in agriculture towards more sustainable and eco-
efficiency in agriculture. As awareness of climate efficient practices that simultaneously address
change grows and pressure mounts to reduce climate change, enhance soil health, and improve
greenhouse gas emissions, carbon farming is likely agricultural productivity. By harnessing the power of
to gain momentum as a viable solution for mitigating nature to sequester carbon and restore ecosystems,
climate change while enhancing agricultural carbon farming offers a promising pathway towards
sustainability. Key opportunities for advancing a more resilient, equitable, and sustainable food
carbon farming include: system. With concerted efforts from farmers, policy-
Research and Innovation: Continued research and makers, researchers, and consumers, carbon farming
innovation are essential for developing and refining has the potential to transform agriculture and
carbon farming practices, improving their efficacy, contribute to a greener, healthier planet for future
and adapting them to diverse agricultural contexts generations.
and climatic conditions. References
Collaboration and Partnerships: Collaboration Farrelly, D. J., Everard, C. D., Fagan, C. C. and
among governments, research institutions, NGOs, McDonnell, K. P. (2013). Carbon sequest-
farmers, and the private sector is crucial for ration and the role of biological carbon
promoting knowledge sharing, capacity building, mitigation: a review. Renewable and
and technology transfer to support the widespread Sustainable Energy Reviews, 21: 712-727.
adoption of carbon farming. Jansson, C., Faiola, C., Wingler, A., Zhu, X. G.,
Policy Support and Funding: Governments and Kravchenko, A., De Graaff, M. A. and
international organizations should provide policy Beckles, D. M. (2021). Crops for carbon
support, funding, and incentives to encourage farming. Frontiers in Plant Science, 12:
farmers to adopt carbon farming practices and invest 636709.
in sustainable agriculture. Marks, A. B. (2019). (Carbon) Farming Our Way
Consumer Awareness and Demand: Increasing Out of Climate Change. Denv. L. Revolution,
consumer awareness and demand for sustainably 97: 497.

254
Genome Wide Association Studies on Cucurbit Crops

Anjali Sharma, Akhilesh Tiwari and B. B. Sharma
Abstract
Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) in cucurbit crops have emerged as a powerful

approach to unravel the genetic basis of important agronomic traits. Cucurbits, including species
such as cucumber, melon, watermelon, and squash, are economically significant and exhibit
substantial phenotypic diversity. GWAS leverages high-throughput genotyping technologies and
extensive phenotypic data to identify genetic loci associated with traits such as disease resistance,
fruit quality, yield, and stress tolerance. Recent advancements in sequencing technologies and
bioinformatics tools have facilitated the assembly of high-quality reference genomes and the
identification of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) across diverse germplasm collections.
These studies have successfully pinpointed candidate genes and quantitative trait loci (QTLs),
providing insights into the complex genetic architecture of cucurbits. Furthermore, integrating
GWAS with other omics approaches, such as transcriptomics and metabolomics, has enhanced our
understanding of gene function and regulation. The knowledge gained from GWAS in cucurbit crops
not only accelerates breeding programs through marker-assisted selection but also contributes to the
development of improved varieties with enhanced traits, ultimately supporting sustainable
agriculture and food security.
Introduction stence of bicollateral vascular bundles where the

Cucurbitaceae is the second largest fruit and phloem is present on both the outer and the inner side
vegetable family and its members are among the of the xylem (Sui et al., 2018). Cucurbits frequently
most important edible plants in the world, next only contain cucurbitacin, which is the main substance
to Solanaceae (Schaefer et al., 2011). The family causing the bitter taste (Shang et al., 2014). The
contains 115 genera and 960 species, which are family Cucurbitaceae contains a variety of
mostly herbaceous annual vines or perennial lianas, vegetables or fruit crops, which are of great
often with tendrils. They can be monoecious or significance to the global or local economy. The
dioecious (occasionally hermaphrodite) and are vegetables include cucumber (Cucumis sativus),
mainly distributed in tropical and subtropical zones, zucchini (Cucurbita pepo), pumpkin (Cucurbita
rarely in temperate zones (Schaefer et al., 2009). A maxima, Cucurbita moschata and Cucurbita argyro-
characteristic feature of the Cucurbitaceae is the exi- sperma), wax gourd (Benincasa hispida), bottle
Anjali Sharma and Akhilesh Tiwari
Department of Horticulture, JNKVV, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh
B. B. Sharma
Department of Vegetable Science, RLBCAU, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh

255
gourd (Lagenaria siceraria), bitter gourd Population Selection and Phenotyping: The first
(Momordica charantia), ridge gourd (Luffa step in GWAS involves selecting a diverse
acutangula), sponge gourd (Luffa cylindrica), population of the target species and accurately
chayote (Sechium edule), and snake gourd phenotyping the traits of interest. For cucurbits, this
(Trichosanthes anguina) and the fruits include melon might include traits such as fruit size, shape, color,
(Cucumis melo), horned cucumber (Cucumis disease resistance, and yield.
metuliferus), watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) and luo- Genotyping: The next step is genotyping the
han-guo (Siraitia grosvenorii). Among them, bitter selected population. This is typically done using SNP
gourd and luo-han-guo both have rich edible and arrays or next-generation sequencing (NGS)
medicinal value (Urasaki et al., 2017) and snake technologies, which provide a comprehensive
gourd and bottle gourd can be used as food and overview of genetic variations across the genome.
ornaments (Devi, 2017). The advancement of Statistical Analysis: Various statistical methods are
genomic technologies has enabled detailed employed to test the association between SNPs and
exploration of the genetic architecture of important phenotypic traits. The most common method is the
traits in cucurbits. Genome-Wide Association linear mixed model, which accounts for population
Studies (GWAS) have become a crucial tool in structure and kinship to reduce false positives.
identifying genetic loci associated with various Validation and Functional Analysis: Significant
phenotypic traits, aiding in the enhancement of associations identified through GWAS are validated
breeding programs. using independent populations or through functional
Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS): An studies. This step ensures the reliability of the
Overview findings and helps in understanding the biological
GWAS involve scanning the genomes of relevance of the associated loci.
diverse populations to find genetic variations
associated with particular traits. This approach relies
on high-throughput genotyping technologies and
robust statistical methods to detect associations
between single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)
and phenotypes. GWAS have been instrumental in
uncovering the genetic basis of complex traits and
have provided insights into the molecular GWAS in Cucurbit Crops
mechanisms underlying phenotypic diversity. Cucumbers (Cucumis sativus): Cucumbers are one
Methodology of GWAS of the most studied cucurbit crops using GWAS.

256
Studies have identified numerous loci associated rbits

with key agronomic traits. For example, a GWAS on Breeding and Crop Improvement: The primary
a diverse cucumber population identified SNPs application of GWAS in cucurbits is in breeding
linked to fruit length, diameter and weight, providing programs. By identifying genetic loci associated with
valuable information for breeding programs aimed at desirable traits, breeders can use marker-assisted
improving fruit yield and quality (Weng et al., 2015). selection (MAS) to accelerate the development of
Melons (Cucumis melo): Melons exhibit significant improved cultivars. This approach enhances the
phenotypic diversity, making them an ideal efficiency of breeding programs and ensures the
candidate for GWAS. Research has uncovered incorporation of multiple beneficial traits.
genetic regions associated with fruit sweetness, flesh Understanding Genetic Architecture: GWAS
color, and disease resistance. A notable study provide a deeper understanding of the genetic
identified loci linked to powdery mildew resistance architecture of complex traits. This knowledge is
and sugar content, facilitating the development of crucial for dissecting the molecular pathways
disease-resistant and sweeter melon varieties involved in trait expression and for identifying
(Perpiñá et al., 2016). candidate genes for further functional studies.
Watermelons (Citrullus lanatus): Watermelon Understanding the genetic basis of traits helps in
GWAS have focused on traits such as fruit size, rind predicting plant responses to environmental changes
thickness, and sugar content. One significant study and in developing strategies for sustainable
identified several loci associated with these traits, agriculture.
providing insights into the genetic control of fruit Enhancing Nutritional Quality and Disease
quality and aiding in the breeding of superior Resistance: GWAS have identified loci associated
watermelon cultivars (Guo et al., 2019). with nutritional content and disease resistance in
Pumpkins and Squashes (Cucurbita spp.): Pump- cucurbits. For instance, loci linked to higher
kins and squashes are genetically diverse with a wide carotenoid content in pumpkins can be targeted to
range of fruit shapes, sizes, and colors. GWAS in develop nutritionally superior varieties. Similarly,
these crops have pinpointed genetic loci associated loci associated with disease resistance can be used to
with fruit morphology, disease resistance, and breed cucurbit crops that are resilient to pathogens,
nutritional content. A comprehensive study on a reducing the reliance on chemical pesticides.
diverse pumpkin population identified SNPs linked Limitations and optimizations
to fruit shape and carotenoid content, essential for GWAS have proven to be a highly successful
improving nutritional quality (Zhang et al., 2020). method for identifying trait-associated variants, yet
Applications and Implications of GWAS in Cucu- several outstanding methodological challenges still

257
need to be addressed, such as population stratifi- Limited Genetic Diversity in Study Populations:
cation and high polygenicity. Additionally, GWAS A diverse genetic pool is essential for effective
raise a range of ethical issues that require careful GWAS to identify associations between genetic
consideration, which we discuss below. variants and traits. Limited genetic diversity in
Limitations of GWAS in Cucurbit Crops breeding populations can reduce the power of
Population Stratification: Population stratification GWAS.
occurs when there are systematic differences in allele Impact in Cucurbits: Breeding programs often use
frequencies between subpopulations due to ancestry a narrow genetic base, limiting the detection of novel
rather than the trait of interest. This can lead to loci associated with important traits.Example:
spurious associations and biased results in GWAS. Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) breeding programs
Impact in Cucurbits: Cucurbit crops often have frequently rely on a limited genetic base, hindering
complex breeding histories and exhibit significant the identification of genetic variations linked to
genetic diversity within species. This can exacerbate disease resistance and other traits (Guo et al., 2019).
population stratification issues. Example: In Environmental Interactions
cucumbers (Cucumis sativus), population stratific- Environmental factors can significantly
ation due to domestication and breeding practices has influence the expression of genetic traits, leading to
been observed, complicating the identification of genotype-by-environment interactions that compli-
true genetic associations (Weng et al., 2015). cate GWAS analyses.
Polygenic Nature of Traits: Many agronomic traits Impact in Cucurbits: The phenotypic expression of
in cucurbits are polygenic, meaning they are traits like fruit quality and yield is often affected by
controlled by numerous genes, each contributing a environmental conditions, making it challenging to
small effect. This polygenicity makes it challenging identify consistent genetic associations. Example:
to detect individual genetic variants with significant The sweetness of melons varies with environmental
effects. factors such as temperature and soil conditions,
Impact in Cucurbits: Key traits such as fruit size, complicating the identification of genetic
shape, disease resistance, and yield are highly determinants (Esteras et al., 2016).
polygenic, complicating the identification of major Rare Variants and Small Sample Sizes
effect genes. Example: Fruit size in melons (Cucumis GWAS are less effective at detecting rare
melo) is influenced by multiple loci, each with minor variants and can suffer from reduced power when
contributions, making it difficult to pinpoint sample sizes are small.
significant genetic determinants (Perpiñá et al., Impact in Cucurbits: Rare variants may have
2016). significant effects on traits of interest, but small

258
sample sizes in specific studies can limit their capture a broader range of genetic variants, including
detection. Example: Rare alleles contributing to rare variants with larger effects. Example: Using
disease resistance in pumpkins (Cucurbita spp.) WGS in watermelon to identify rare alleles
might be overlooked in studies with limited sample associated with fruit quality traits (Guo et al., 2019).
sizes (Zhang et al., 2020). Increasing Genetic Diversity
Optimization Strategies for GWAS in Cucurbit Utilizing Diverse Germplasm Collections:
Crops Incorporating wild relatives and diverse germplasm
Addressing Population Stratification collections can broaden the genetic base of study
Advanced Statistical Methods: Utilizing linear populations. Example: Including wild watermelon
mixed models (LMM) and principal component accessions in GWAS to uncover novel genetic
analysis (PCA) can help control for population variations related to disease resistance (Guo et al.,
structure. These methods adjust for relatedness and 2019).
ancestry differences among individuals. Example: Managing Environmental Interactions
Incorporating PCA in cucumber GWAS to account Multi-Environment Trials: Conducting GWAS
for genetic substructure and reduce false positives across multiple environments helps identify stable
(Weng et al., 2015). QTLs (Quantitative Trait Loci) that are consistent
Family-Based Association Studies: These studies across different conditions. Example: Performing
can mitigate the effects of population stratification GWAS in squash across various growing regions to
by comparing genetic variants within families, identify QTLs for yield stability (Zhang et al., 2020).
thereby reducing bias. Example: Re-estimating Genotype-by-Environment Interaction Models:
effect sizes of significant variants identified in Developing models that explicitly account for
population-based GWAS through family-based environmental interactions can improve the accuracy
studies. of GWAS findings. Example: Modeling environ-
Enhancing Detection of Polygenic Traits mental interactions in melon studies to better
Increasing Sample Size: Larger sample sizes understand the genetic basis of fruit sweetness
improve the power to detect associations with small (Esteras et al., 2016).
effect sizes, which is crucial for polygenic traits. Detecting Rare Variants
Example: Combining multiple melon GWAS studies Targeted Sequencing: Focusing on candidate genes
through meta-analysis to identify common loci or genomic regions of interest can identify rare but
associated with fruit sweetness (Perpiñá et al., 2016). impactful variants. Example: Using targeted sequen-
Whole-Genome Sequencing (WGS) and Whole- cing in pumpkins to identify rare alleles associated
Exome Sequencing (WES): These approaches can with improved nutritional content (Zhang and co-

259
workers, 2020) improvement. Genomic selection uses genomic

Collaborative Efforts: Pooling resources and data information to predict the breeding values of
through collaborative networks can increase the individuals, speeding up the breeding cycle.
sample size and genetic diversity, enhancing the CRISPR/ Cas9 gene editing allows precise
detection of rare variants. The Cucurbit Genomics modifications of target genes identified through
Database (CuGenDB) as a platform for sharing GWAS, enabling the creation of crops with enhanced
genomic data and tools among researchers traits.
worldwide. Conclusion
Collaboration and Data Sharing: Consortia and GWAS have revolutionized the study of
Networks: Establishing collaborative networks to genetic variation in cucurbit crops, providing
share data, resources, and methodologies can valuable insights into the genetic basis of important
enhance the scope and impact of GWAS in cucurbit traits. The application of GWAS findings in breeding
crops. For Example The International Cucurbit programs is poised to significantly enhance the
Genomics Initiative (ICuGI) promotes collaboration productivity, nutritional quality and disease resist-
and data sharing to advance cucurbit research. ance of cucurbits. As genomic technologies continue
While GWAS have greatly contributed to our to advance, the potential for further discoveries and
understanding of the genetic basis of important traits improvements in cucurbit crops remains vast,
in cucurbit crops, several limitations must be contributing to global food security and agricultural
addressed to fully realize their potential. By sustainability.
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Shang, Y., Ma, Y. and Zhou, Yet. (2014).
Biosynthesis, regulation and domestication
of bitterness in cucumber. Science, 346:
1084-8.
Urasaki, N., Takagi, H., Natsume, S. et al. (2017).
Draft genome sequence of bitter gourd
(Momordica charantia), a vegetable and
medicinal plant in tropical and subtropical
regions. DNA Research, 24: 51-8.

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Exploring the Link: Diabetes Mellitus and Branched Chain Amino Acids
Introduction sources. They are plentifully present in protein-rich

Diabetes mellitus is a persistent metabolic foods such as meat, dairy products, and legumes.
disorder that is characterized by high levels of Branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) have a crucial
glucose in the blood. It is a condition that impacts function in the synthesis of muscle proteins, the
millions of people around the world. Given the generation of energy, and the regulation of overall
increasing prevalence, it has become essential to metabolism.
comprehend the complex interrelationships between Overview of Diabetes Mellitus
it and different metabolic components. Out of these, Diabetes mellitus primarily presents itself in
branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) leucine, two distinct forms: Type 1 and Type 2. Type 1
isoleucine and valine have received considerable diabetes is an autoimmune disorder characterized by
attention due to their potential impact on diabetes insufficient production of insulin by the pancreas. On
management and pathophysiology. This article the other hand, Type 2 diabetes is distinguished by
examines the complex connection between diabetes insulin resistance, which refers to the body's cells not
mellitus and BCAAs, providing insight into the adequately responding to insulin, resulting in
scientific basis of their interaction and the potential elevated levels of blood sugar (Yu et al., 2021). Both
consequences for individuals with diabetes. types necessitate meticulous regulation of blood
Branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) are a group of glucose levels to avert complications such as
essential amino acids that have a branched molecular cardiovascular diseases, neuropathy and renal issues.
structure. They include leucine, isoleucine, and The link between BCAA and diabetes
valine. These amino acids are not produced by the Recent research has elucidated an intricate
body and must be obtained through diet or correlation between Branched-Chain Amino Acids
supplementation (Kaiser, 2018). (BCAAs) and diabetes. Individuals with insulin
BCAAs are indispensable amino acids, resistance and Type 2 diabetes exhibit higher
indicating that the body is incapable of synthesizing concentrations of branched-chain amino acids
them and they must be acquired through dietary (BCAAs) in their bloodstream. This correlation pro-
Deepak Joshi
Research Scholar, Department of Food Science and Technology, National Institute of Food Technology Entrepreneurship
and Management, Sonipat, Kundli, Haryana
Mukesh Kumar and Rajat Singh
Research Scholar, Department of Food Engineering, National Institute of Food Technology Entrepreneurship and
Management, Sonipat, Kundli, Haryana

262
mpts the inquiry: Do BCAAs play a role in the in diabetes provides new opportunities for the control
development of diabetes, or are they a result of the and therapy of the disease.
disease?  Dietary Interventions: Customizing protein
 Research indicates that elevated levels of consumption, specifically focusing on foods rich
BCAAs can hinder the pathways that regulate in branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs), may
insulin, thereby contributing to insulin resistance. provide advantages for individuals with diabetes
BCAAs are essential for multiple physiological or those who are at risk. It is crucial to consult
processes, but their increased concentration can with healthcare professionals in order to find a
impede the absorption of glucose by cells, balance between protein consumption and blood
thereby worsening hyperglycemia (Newgard et sugar management.
al., 2009).  Ongoing research is being conducted to create
 BCAAs undergo metabolic pathways in the therapies that specifically target the metabolism
muscles instead of the liver, which is different of branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs).
from the majority of other amino acids. This Manipulating the concentrations of these amino
distinct pathway encompasses a multitude of acids may provide novel therapeutic possibilities
enzymes and intermediates that intersect with the for enhancing insulin sensitivity and overall
metabolism of glucose. Imbalances in these metabolic well-being.
pathways can contribute to the metabolic  Personalized Medicine: The correlation between
disruptions observed in diabetes (Newgard, BCAAs and diabetes highlights the significance
2012). of individualized medical treatment. Personal-
Predictive Biomarkers: Increased levels of ized treatment plans can be optimized for
branched-chain amino individuals with diabetes by utilizing their
acids (BCAAs) have unique metabolic profiles.
the potential to be used Conclusion
as early indicators for The correlation between diabetes mellitus
the onset of Type 2 diabetes. This could enable and branched-chain amino acids is a captivating and
earlier interventions and enhance management dynamic area of research. Although BCAAs are
strategies, potentially delaying or preventing the essential for our well-being, having high levels of
onset of diabetes in individuals who are at risk them can potentially lead to insulin resistance and
(Lynch and Adams, 2014). diabetes. As ongoing research reveals the underlying
Implications for management and treatment mechanisms of this correlation, it shows potential for
Gaining insight into the function of BCAAs the development of novel diagnostic tools and thera-

263
peutic approaches. Individuals with diabetes must

adhere to a well-balanced diet and maintain regular
communication with healthcare professionals in
order to effectively manage the disease. By
comprehending the intricacies of BCAAs and their
influence on diabetes, we advance towards more
holistic and personalized approaches to health.
References
Lynch, C. J. and Adams, S. H. (2014). Branched-
chain amino acids in metabolic signalling and
insulin resistance. Nature Reviews
Endocrinology, 10: 723-736.
Newgard, C. B. (2012). Interplay between lipids and
branched-chain amino acids in development
of insulin resistance. Cell Metabolism, 15:
606-614.
Newgard, C. B., An, J., Bain, J. R., Muehlbauer, M.
J., Stevens, R. D., Lien, L. F., Haqq, A. M.,
Shah, S. H., Arlotto, M., Slentz, C. A. et al.
(2009). A branched-chain amino acid-related
metabolic signature that differentiates obese
and lean humans and contributes to insulin
resistance. Cell Metabolism, 9: 311-326.
Kaiser, J. C. and Heinrichs, D. E. (2018). Branching
Out: Alterations in Bacterial Physiology and
Virulence Due to Branched-Chain Amino
Acid Deprivation. MBio, 9: e01188-18.
Yu, D., Richardson, N. E., Green, C. L., Spicer, A.
B., Murphy, M. E., et al. (2021). The adverse
metabolic effects of branched-chain amino
acids are mediated by isoleucine and valine.
Cell Metabolism, 33: 905-922.e6.

264
Fermented Foods: A Tangy Tradition with Tangible Benefits

Introduction Mesopotamia and Asia fermented vegetables, milk,

Fermented foods have been a fundamental and fish to create unique and nutritious staples
component of human diets for thousands of years, (Prajapati and Nair, 2003).
with evidence of their consumption dating back to as The Science behind the Sour (1856): The scientific
early as 13,000 years ago. There is evidence to comprehension of the fermentation process only
suggest that early humans discovered fermentation arose in 1856, thanks to the work of French chemist
unintentionally. They observed that when certain Louis Pasteur, despite the practice being carried out
foods such as grains and milk were stored, they lasted for centuries. Pasteur elucidated the function of yeast
longer and developed more intricate flavors. The and bacteria in the process of fermentation, thereby
initial practical method of preserving food has laying the foundation for subsequent investigations
transformed into a culinary and health phenomenon. into its advantageous properties.
Exploring the Past: An Account of Fermentation An Updated Interpretation of a Time-Honored
throughout History Ancient Origins (13,000 BC - Practice: The Advantages of Fermentation for
6,000 BC): The earliest evidence of fermentation Health: Fermented foods offer more than just a
comes from residues of a fermented beverage found pleasing taste; they contain probiotics, live bacteria
in a cave near Haifa, Israel. Around the same time, that promote a healthy gut microbiome, and thus
people in China were fermenting rice, and fruit into provide potential health advantages. The varied
alcoholic beverages. Winemaking is believed to have community of microorganisms in this ecosystem
originated in Georgia around 6,000 BC (Prajapati plays a vital role in: Probiotics can mitigate bloating,
and Nair, 2003). diarrhea, and constipation by fostering a harmonious
Staple Foods around the Globe (6,000 BC - equilibrium of gut bacteria, thus aiding digestion.
Present): From Egyptian sourdough bread to Korean Common health benefits of fermented food
kimchi and Icelandic skyr, fermented foods became (Sanlier et al., 2019)
a cornerstone of various cultures' diets. Egyptians Immunity: A robust gut microbiome can enhance
used yeast to leaven bread, while civilizations in the immune system's ability to combat illness.
Deepak Joshi

265
Nutrient Assimilation: Fermentation facilitates the Gut Microbiota Balance: Good bacteria from
breakdown of intricate compounds in food, thereby fermented foods help maintain a diverse gut
enhancing the body's ability to absorb vital vitamins, microbiota. A less diverse gut microbiome is
minerals, and other nutrients. associated with chronic diseases like obesity and
Decreased Risk of Chronic Disease: Certain inflammatory conditions.
research indicates that fermented foods may reduce Vitamin Synthesis: These foods contribute to
the likelihood of developing heart disease, type 2 synthesizing essential vitamins such as B1, B2, B3,
diabetes, and specific types of cancer. This could be B5, B6, B12, and K.
attributed to the anti-inflammatory effects of certain Defense against Pathogens: The acidic ferment-
probiotics. ation byproducts created by good bacteria lower the
Weight Management: Some fermented foods, such intestine’s pH, making it less favorable for harmful
as yogurt, can enhance satiety and aid in maintaining bacteria to survive. Good bacteria also compete for
a healthy weight when consumed as part of a well- resources and secrete antimicrobial proteins.
balanced diet. Post-Antibiotic Recovery: After taking antibiotics,
Brain health: Studies indicate a correlation between fermented foods can help restore your gut bacteria to
the health of the gut and the functioning of the brain. normal. Be sure to consume a fiber-rich diet to
Several studies suggest that fermented foods may support gut microbe2.
have a beneficial impact on mood and cognitive Fermenting Your Way to Flavor and Health: A
function. Delicious Exploration
Are you prepared to incorporate tangy
fermented foods into your diet and reap the health
advantages they offer? Presented here are the
commonly used fermented foods (Ray and Joshi,
2014).
 Yogurt
 Kefir: Kefir is a fermented milk product (made
from cow, goat or sheep’s milk) that tastes like a
Fig. 1: Health benefits of fermented foods drinkable yogurt.
Improved Digestion: Fermented foods contain  Kombucha: It is a fermented drink made
beneficial bacteria (probiotics) that aid in breaking of black tea and sugar (from various sources
down complex carbohydrates. This process produces like cane sugar, fruit or honey).
substances beneficial to your body.  Sauerkraut: Made from fermented green or red

266
cabbage, sauerkraut is high in fiber, vitamin A, foods, it is best to choose options that have “live and
vitamin C, vitamin K and B vitamins. active cultures” indicated on the label in order to
 Pickles maximize the advantages of probiotics. Begin with a
 Miso: Miso is created by fermenting soybeans, gradual and deliberate incorporation of fermented
barley or brown rice with koji, a type of fungus. foods into your diet, allowing your gastrointestinal
 Tempeh: Another beneficial fermented food system to adapt. Fermented foods provide a
made with soybeans is tempeh, a product that is delectable and well-established method to improve
created by combining soybeans with a tempeh your health and delve into culinary customs from
starter (which is a mix of live mold). various regions across the globe. Therefore, fully
 Natto: Natto is a popular food in Japan accept the strong flavor, rejoice in the customary
consisting of fermented soybeans. practices, and experience a joyful sensation in your
 Kimchi: Kimchi is a traditional fermented stomach!
Korean dish that is made from vegetables, References
including cabbage, plus spices like ginger, garlic, Prajapati, J. B. and Nair, B. M. (2003). The history
pepper and other seasoning. of fermented foods. Handbook of Fermented
 Raw Cheese: Raw milk cheeses are made with Functional Foods, 1-25.
milk that hasn’t been pasteurized. Ray, R. C. and Joshi, V. K. (2014). Fermented foods:
 Apple Cider Vinegar: Apple cider vinegar that past, present and future. Microorganisms and
is raw and contains “the mother” is fermented Fermentation of Traditional Foods, 1-36.
and does contain some probiotics. Şanlier, N., Gökcen, B. B. and Sezgin, A. C. (2019).
 Kvass: Kvass is a traditional fermented beverage Health benefits of fermented foods. Critical
that has a similar taste to beer. Reviews in Food Science and Nutri-
 Sourdough Bread: Certain traditionally made tion, 59(3): 506-527.
breads, such as real sourdough bread, are
fermented, but they don’t contain probiotics.
 Cottage Cheese
 Coconut Kefir: This probiotic-rich drink is
made with creamy coconut milk and kefir grains,
but unlike regular kefir or yogurt it’s dairy-free
and vegan-friendly.
Conclusion
Keep in mind that when selecting fermented

267
Plant based Diets and Meat Alternatives; Exploring the Rise of a Healthier,
More Sustainable Choice
Introduction sustaining optimal health and averting nutrient

Plant-based diets have gained significant deficiencies (Van der Weele, 2019).
popularity in recent years Reduce chronic disease risk: By embracing a diet
due to a convergence of centered around plants, individuals can substantially
factors including a diminish their susceptibility to chronic ailments,
heightened focus on including heart disease, diabetes, and specific forms
Say no to animal meat for
health, increased enviro- building muscles of cancer. The primary reason for this is the decrease
nmental consciousness, and a growing interest in in saturated fats and cholesterol present in animal-
culinary exploration. At the core of this movement based products, coupled with the anti-inflammatory
are groundbreaking meat substitutes such as Beyond and antioxidant characteristics of plant-based foods
Meat and Impossible Foods, which have not only (Johnston, 2019).
made it easier to adopt a plant-based diet but also Weight management: Plant-based diets are
remarkably tasty. Now, let's explore the reasons generally low in calories and rich in fiber, promoting
behind the increasing popularity of plant-based diets satiety and reducing total calorie consumption, thus
and meat alternatives, as well as their potential aiding in weight management. This facilitates weight
benefits for both our well-being and the environ- management without the necessity of adhering to
ment. stringent dietary restrictions (Turner-McGrievy,
The Advantages of Good Health: A Formula for 2015).
Long Life Enhanced Digestive Health: The abundant fiber
Packed with nutrients: Plant-based diets are rich in present in plant-based foods aids in maintaining a
nutrients, making them highly nutritious. These diets well-functioning digestive system by facilitating
prioritize fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts, and regular bowel movements and cultivating a varied
seeds, which offer a plentiful supply of vitamins, gut microbiome, which is essential for digestion and
minerals, and fiber. These nutrients are crucial for overall well-being (Xie, 2022).
Deepak Joshi

268
Lower energy consumption: Plant foods generally

have a lower energy consumption compared to meat
production, as the energy required for growing,
harvesting, and processing them is typically less.
This leads to a smaller overall energy footprint
(Pimentel and Pimentel, 2023).
Figure: Advantages of plant based meat Uncovering the Diverse Range of Flavors in
Environmental Impact: Promoting Sustainable Culinary Exploration
Eating for a Better Future Cutting-edge Meat Substitutes: Enterprises such as
Lower Greenhouse gas emission: Plant-based food Beyond Meat and Impossible Foods have created
production yields substantially lower levels of plant-derived alternatives to meat that closely mimic
greenhouse gas emissions in comparison to meat the taste, texture, and appearance of actual meat.
production, thereby contributing to the reduction of These products are crafted using plant proteins
environmental impact. Livestock agriculture derived from peas, soy, and rice, with the intention
significantly contributes to the emission of methane of satiating even the most ardent meat enthusiasts
and other greenhouse gases, while plant agriculture (Alam et al., 2024).
has a considerably lower carbon footprint (Lusk, Broadening Culinary Perspectives: Plant-based
2022). diets promote the exploration of a wide range of
Decreased Water Consumption: The production of cuisines and ingredients. Food items such as tofu,
plant-based foods necessitates a lower amount of tempeh, jackfruit, and legumes provide a diverse
water compared to the rearing of livestock. As an range of flavors and textures, enhancing the
example, the production of one pound of beef enjoyment and diversity of meals (Tyndall, 2024).
necessitates approximately 1,800 gallons of water, Exploring innovative culinary methods: Adopting
whereas one pound of vegetables only requires about a plant-based diet can ignite ingenuity in the culinary
39 gallons (Van Vliet, 2020). realm. Utilizing methods such as fermentation,
Land and Resource conservation: Plant-based sprouting, and incorporating a diverse range of
agriculture requires less land and fewer resources in spices and herbs can elevate basic ingredients into
comparison to animal farming, thus promoting land exquisite gourmet meals (Krzywonos and Piwowar-
and resource conservation. This implies that Sulej, 2022)
additional land can be conserved for the purpose of The ability to be flexible and adaptable: Regard-
protecting natural habitats and promoting bio- less of whether you follow a vegan, vegetarian, or
diversity (Pimentel and Pimentel, 2023). simply a diet with less meat, plant-based diets can be

269
easily customized to align with your preferences. Johnston, B. C., Zeraatkar, D., Han, M. A., Vernooij,
There is a plethora of recipes and products readily R. W., Valli, C., El Dib, R., ... and Guyatt, G.
accessible to accommodate any dietary requirement H. (2019). Unprocessed red meat and
(McClements and Grossmann, 2021). processed meat consumption: dietary
Conclusion guideline recommendations from the
The emergence of plant-based diets and meat Nutritional Recommendations (NutriRECS)
substitutes such as Beyond Meat and Impossible Consortium. Annals of Internal Medicine,
Foods signifies a substantial transition towards more 171(10): 756-764.
nutritious and environmentally-friendly dietary Van der Weele, C., Feindt, P., van der Goot, A. J.,
practices. Plant-based diets are attractive to many van Mierlo, B. and van Boekel, M. (2019).
people due to their numerous health benefits, Meat alternatives: an integrative compar-
positive environmental impact, and exciting culinary ison. Trends in Food Science &
potential. With the increasing awareness and Technology, 88: 505-512.
availability, it is evident that adopting a plant-based Turner-McGrievy, G. M., Davidson, C. R., Wingard,
diet is not merely a passing fad, but rather a E. E., Wilcox, S. and Frongillo, E. A. (2015).
significant shift towards a more promising future for Comparative effectiveness of plant-based
our health and the environment. Therefore, it would diets for weight loss: a randomized controlled
be advantageous to proceed in this direction and trial of five different diets. Nutrition, 31(2):
investigate the delectable and nourishing realm of 350-358.
plant-based foods. Your physical well-being, as well Xie, Y., Cai, L., Huang, Z., Shan, K., Xu, X., Zhou,
as the health of the planet, will express gratitude G. and Li, C. (2022). Plant-based meat
towards you. analogues weaken gastrointestinal digestive
References function and show less digestibility than real
Lusk, J. L., Blaustein-Rejto, D., Shah, S. and Tonsor, meat in mice. Journal of Agricultural and
G. T. (2022). Impact of plant-based meat Food Chemistry, 70(39): 12442-12455.
alternatives on cattle inventories and Pimentel, D. and Pimentel, M. (2003). Sustainability
greenhouse gas emissions. Environmental of meat-based and plant-based diets and the
Research Letters. environment. The American Journal of
Van Vliet, S., Kronberg, S. L. and Provenza, F. D. Clinical nNutrition, 78(3): 660S-663S.
(2020). Plant-based meats, human health, and
climate change. Frontiers in Sustainable
Food Systems, 4: 555088.

270
Ornamental Melons: An Attempt to Make a New Inclusion in Ornamental

Plants
Satyendra Thakur, Nguyen Thuy Toung Vi and Tran Thi Ba
Abstract
Plants grown primarily for ornamental purposes as opposed to practical purposes are known as
ornamental plants. The term “ornamental plant” is often used to describe plants that serve no purpose
other than aesthetics, even though many people believe these plants have significant value. However,
some plants serve both ornamental and functional purposes. A wide range of climate, landscape, and
horticultural needs can be accommodated by the many shapes and colors of ornamental plants, which
are the cornerstone of ornamental gardening.
This article is written on one such method in gourd root grafting is used to help the melon plant
which the summer crop melon is prepared as an retain its green leaves during fruit ripening.
ornamental plant. This method was invented by Controlling the height of the melon plant so that large
Nguyen Thuy Tuong Vi, a research student of fruits can grow on it and creating an attractive
Professor Tran Thi Ba, under her guidance at the canopy to make the plant more harmonious and
School of Agriculture, Can Tho University, Vietnam. beautiful through the proper use of nutrients is a very
Since melon production is also seen in abundance in important part of growing in small pots.
India, this method can prove useful in India too. Methods of preparing ornamental melon plants
Melon is a plant of the Cucurbitaceae family whose Planting Ridge gourd plant to prepare strong root
fruits are sweet, edible, and fleshy. All melons are stock: To generate a strong root stock, we chose a
annual vines that require a long, warm season. They plant that either belon-
have hairy stems that are clinging and have round, gs to the melon family
lobed leaves. Due to which its vines look extremely (Cucurbitaceae) or has
beautiful. But the specialty of melon is that the leaves growth habits similar
dry up when the fruit ripens, so after plucking the to melon. This makes grafting easier, and we can get
fruit, its leaves have no special use. Because its a better combination that provides enough water or
leaves are attractive to look at, our purpose is to minerals for the melon to reach maturity. For this, we
display melon as an ornamental plant. For this, Ridge chose the ridge gourd plant.
Satyendra Thakur
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh
Nguyen Thuy Vi and Tran Thi Ba
School of Agriculture, Can Tho University, Vietnam

271
Preparation of plants for grafting: About 28-30

day-old muskmelon plants and 20-25 day-old ridge
gourd plants are suitable for grafting. To prepare the
plants for grafting, a 3-5 cm incision is made in the
melon plant from the eighth to the tenth leaf from the
stem part and in the ridge gourd plant from the fourth
leaf from the soil surface. The size of the incision is Joining the grafted parts of the plants
determined in such a way that the grafted parts of Growth and development of grafted plants: In 8-
both plants are well fixed to each other. The top part 10 days, the grafted parts of both plants get well
of the ridge gourd is removed so that the flow of connected. By growing the two plants together for
water and nutrients from the root of the ridge gourd another 10-15 days, it is ensured that the roots of the
can happen for the growth of the melon. ridge gourd are able to transport water and nutrients
from the soil of the pot to the top and branches of the
melon, which bear the fruits.
Growth of grafted ridge gourd and muskmelon

Making incisions in plants for grafting Ornamental Melon: The process of fruit formation
Joining the grafted parts of the plants: The grafted in melon starts 40 days after sowing. After grafting,
parts of both plants are joined to each other so firmly when it is ensured that the melon has started
that there is no air space between them, and the receiving water and nutrients from the root of the
grafted parts are firmly fixed to each other. To join ridge gourd, about 60-65 days after sowing, the root
the two parts, they are made airtight with the help of part of the melon is cut and separated from below the
tape or thread, so that air cannot enter them. After grafted part. In this situation, the fruit ripens through
grafting, it should be kept in mind that the plants the water and nutrients provided by the ridge gourd.
should be protected from strong sunlight and the During this time, it is seen that even after the fruit
grafted part should not remain waterlogged. ripens, the leaves of the melon do not dry up, and

272
through the water and nutrition provided by the

Ridge gourd, the melon is able to maintain the
greenness of its leaves. Due to this, we can use the
melon plant as a decorative plant in homes even after
plucking the fruit. To use the melon plant as an
ornamental plant, its length is kept between 1.5 and
2 meters so that it looks attractive.
Ornamental Melon

273
Aeroponics as a Futurisitic Farming System

Komal Bhatt, Swati Priya, Deeksha Gupta and Mukul Anand Ray
Introduction rates and higher yields since the roots have more
Numerous modifications to agricultural access to oxygen (Sbhnam et al., 2018). With this
systems have been created over time to better farming approach, the farmer has total access to the
accommodate a variety of plant types and evolving roots during the crop's life and can precisely regulate
operations. Aeroponics was first employed in the the nutrients, watering schedule, and environmental
1920s for scholarly research on root growth, but it factors that affect the root zone. Compared to
wasn't until the National Aeronautics and Space traditional techniques of propagation, aeroponic
Administration (NASA) started considering it as a farming offers superior qualities such as good
possibility for food production in soilless environ- aeration, water use efficiency, reduced time and
ments like space that it started to gain traction. space requirements, seasonal independence, disease-
Aeroponics is still relatively new, but it's gaining free plant propagation, large-scale plant production,
traction fast in areas where conventional farming etc (Kumar et al., 2023). For propagation, seed
isn't an option. Aeroponics is a relatively new germination, seed potato production, tomato
method of producing plants that is becoming more production, leaf crops, and microgreens, aeroponic
and more popular with many people because to its techniques have shown to be commercially viable.
speed, cost, and novelty. It is a promising soilless Potatoes, yams, tomatoes, lettuce, and some green
farming approach for solving future food crises. One vegetables are among the vegetable crops that are
kind of vertical farming is aeroponic farming. commercially grown using aeroponic systems.
Aeroponic comes from the Latin “aero,” which Aeroponics seems like a really practical way to
means “air,” and “ponic,” which means “labour” produce both roots and aerial components.
(labour). Aeroponics is a contemporary method of Aeroponics
plant cultivation that eliminates the need for soil, The Latin terms “aero” (air) and “ponic”
allowing for the cultivation of plants in constrained (labour) (work) are the origin of the word aeroponic.
areas (Al-Shrouf, 2017). Aeroponics produces This is an alternative method of cultivating without
healthier plants with much faster crop development soil under development-regulating conditions. Aero-
Komal Bhatt and Deeksha Gupta

Research Scholar, Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh
Swati Priya
Research Scholar, ICFRE-Eco-rehabilitation Centre, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh
Mukul Anand Ray
Research Scholar, ICFRE-Tropical Forest Research Institute, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh

274
ponics is the process of growing plants without the aeroponic system utilised by hydroponic hobbyists.
use of soil in an atmosphere of mist or air, or by Compared to a high-pressure aeroponic system, low
misting the roots with hydroponic solutions that float pressure produces droplet sizes that are significantly
in the air. Neither soil nor aggregate media are used different. A low pressure aeroponic system's
in it. In an aeroponic system, the plant roots are hung components include a pump powerful enough to
in a dark container and sprayed with a nutrient-dense transfer water onto sprinkler heads, which then spray
solution at predetermined intervals. This method water around the root zone of the plants.
allows for incredibly accurate delivery of nutrients High-Pressure Aeroponics (HPA): Because it
and allows roots to acquire enough oxygen to support would require specialised equipment to set up, this
faster growth. Because the spraying holes in this sort of aeroponics is more sophisticated and more
system are rather small, there may be clogging expensive. As a result, commercial production
issues. frequently uses them rather than home farmers. For
One technique for growing plants without the HPA to atomize water into tiny droplets that are
soil is aeroponics. Rather, a nutrient-rich mist is used 50 microns or smaller, it must operate at extremely
to irrigate roots that are suspended in midair. In high pressure. This system is the most efficient of all
contrast, plant roots in hydroponics are immersed in the aeroponic systems because it produces droplets
a nutrient-and water-rich solution. Aeroponics of such a tiny size that it provides the root zone with
produces healthier plants with far faster crop more oxygen than the LPA.
development rates and higher yields since the roots Ultrasonic Fogger Aeroponics: Fogger with
have more access to oxygen. ultrasonic technology is another intriguing kind of
Aeroponics System aeroponic system is fogponics, sometimes known as
The aeroponics system consists of two living Aeroponics. As the name suggests, growers would
components in general: atomize water into minuscule droplets using an
 Roots: The roots beneath it are neatly divided by ultrasonic fogger. You will notice the minuscule size
the architecture of the plant that supports it. of these as fog. Although the tiny size of plant roots
 Canopy: The leaves and crown that are usually makes it simpler for them to absorb water, the
higher than the structural supports of the plant are resulting fog has less moisture, and over time, it can
referred to as the canopy. more easily produce the salt that clogs these foggers
Types of Aeroponic Systems than other Aeroponic varieties.
Low-Pressure Aeroponics (LPA): Because it is Aeroponic Plants: Aeroponics can currently be used
inexpensive, easy to set up, and available at any to cultivate any kind of plant. Green leaves, herbs,
hydroponic store, this is the most popular type of marijuana, strawberries, tomatoes, and cucumbers

275
work best with this technique, though. But under this beginning to use aeroponics, a person must
arrangement, root and tuber crops are less popular. receive extensive training on maintaining the
Advantages of Aeroponics cleanliness of the system. Because this is a
Sustainable and Productive: This sustainable scientific system backed by ever-evolving
approach to food production requires 80-90% less technology, its custodians must constantly
water than soil-based farming. Height and air may be improve their skills.
used as growing spaces, and more food can be  It involves challenges in maintaining the material
produced more profitably if this field is to become components. This system consists of several
entirely commercial. parts, some of which could malfunction if not
Exposure to air encourages robust and quick properly maintained.
plant growth: Aeroponics is perfect for accelerating  In the closed or indoor aeroponics farming
the growth of almost any species of plant since it approach, maintaining the right light and air
grows plants in the air using microscopic water supply for the exposed section of the plant can
droplets. As a result, more plants may be produced occasionally be difficult, especially when
faster than with soil-based gardening. vertical farming in the air is the way to produce
Farming without land: It is possible to grow food more. This is the point at which artificial
in even the smallest spaces, such as gardens or roofs, illumination is crucial.
completely negating the requirement for a large area Aeroponics and Hydroponics
of land to be under cultivation. Even tiny aeroponics  The mechanics of aeroponics and hydroponics
systems can be built in a home's living room or differ greatly, despite the similarities in their
balcony to enjoy the beauty of aeroponics and meet ideas. Both methods are just as sustainable and
daily food needs. effective. Resources are needed for both systems,
Aeroponics is used to increase photosynthesis: It but in different kinds and amounts.
is also environmentally friendly because of this  System hydroponics require water. By nature,
characteristic. Aeroponics affects the rate at which they require more water than aeroponic systems.
plants create oxygen in their leaves by taking out a On the other hand, water used in a hydroponic
significant amount of carbon dioxide from the system can be recycled and used again.
surrounding air and controlling its concentration  The second incredibly important element is
within the system. system maintenance. For installation, maint-
Disadvantages of Aeroponics enance, cleaning and sanitization, both hydro-
 In addition to the related expenses, starting out ponic and aeroponic systems call for practical
requires the right knowledge and training. Before instruction and expertise. A hydroponic system is

276
less complicated than an aeroponic one, though. References

 Aeroponic systems are more difficult to construct Ali, Al-Shrouf. (2017). Hydroponics, aeroponic and
than hydroponic systems, which may be made at aquaponic as compared with conventional
home with PVC pipes and readily available basic farming. American Scientific Research
components. For the system to operate Journal for Engineering, Technology, and
completely and effectively, it must be of high Sciences, 27(1): 247-255.
quality. Aeroponics is less economically feasible Richa, S., Kumari, A., Bedanga, B. S. and Kumari,
for this very reason. U. (2018). Aeroponics- A step towards
Conclusion sustainable farming. International Journal of
Although soil cultures are said to be a Advance Research, Ideas and Innovations in
recently created tool for agriculture development, it Technology, 466-472.
is not an easy technique to use. However, growers Kumar, P., Sampath, B., Kumar, S., Babu, B. H. and
and horticulturists in many nations lack technical Ahalya, N. (2023). Hydroponics, Aeroponics
foundation in the new technique, thus skilled and Aquaponics Technologies in Modern
workers are required. Furthermore, the majority of Agricultural Cultivation. In Trends, Paradig-
substrates are sold worldwide, which makes them ms and Advances in Mechatronics Enginee-
pricey. It is therefore preferable to search locally for ring (pp. 223-241).
reasonably priced high-quality substrates. Growers Sharat, K. (2023). Aeroponic Farming Techno-
are able to customise soilless systems based on their logy (Doctoral dissertation, Visvesvaraya
requirements, system location, and financial Technological University).
capacity. In any event, the system must closely
monitor and carefully control the parameters such as
nutrient concentrations, light, oxygen in the plant's
root zone, water quality, pH, disinfection, solution
temperature, and more that are necessary for the
plants to grow healthily. The aeroponics technology
is the way of the future since it makes crop growing
easier and conserves water, land, and nutrients
(Sharat, 2023).

277
Revolutionizing Agriculture: The Rise of Precision Farming

Roji Chutia
Introduction tasks like planting, harvesting, and spraying.

In the heartland of innovation, a techno- Data Analytics: The collection and analysis of data
logical revolution is quietly transforming the age-old are pivotal in precision farming. Sensors, satellites,
practice of farming. Precision farming, also known and other monitoring devices gather information on
as precision agriculture, is changing the game by soil quality, moisture levels, and crop health.
integrating cutting-edge technologies to optimize Advanced analytics then process this data to provide
crop yields, minimize waste, and enhance overall insights into optimal planting times, irrigation
efficiency. This ground breaking approach is not just schedules and the customized application of
a buzzword but a promising solution to address the fertilizers and pesticides.
challenges faced by modern agriculture. In this Remote Sensing: Remote sensing technologies,
article, we'll explore the concept of precision such as satellite imagery and drones equipped with
farming, its key components, and the significant various sensors, provide farmers with a bird's eye
impact it's making on the future of agriculture. view of their fields. This real-time data aids in
Precision farming is a holistic farming mana- identifying areas that require immediate attention,
gement concept that utilizes advanced technologies allowing for targeted interventions and resource
to fine-tune every aspect of the farming process. This allocation.
method aims to optimize inputs such as water, Variable Rate Technology (VRT): VRT enables
fertilizers, pesticides, and energy, while maximizing farmers to apply inputs at variable rates across a
output in terms of crop yields. The key to precision field, rather than using a uniform application. By
farming lies in collecting, analyzing, and acting upon tailoring the use of resources to the specific needs of
real-time data to make informed decisions. different areas within a field, farmers can optimize
Key Components of Precision Farming crop production while minimizing waste.
GPS Technology: Global Positioning System (GPS) Benefits of Precision Farming
technology is at the core of precision farming. It Increased Productivity: Precision farming enables
enables farmers to accurately map and track their farmers to optimize their resources, resulting in
fields, allowing for precise application of resources increased crop yields. By using data-driven insights,
and efficient monitoring of crop health. GPS-guided farmers can make informed decisions on planting,
tractors and drones play a crucial role in automating irrigation, and crop protection, leading to healthier
Roji Chutia
Subject Matter Specialist (Agronomy), Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Baksa, Assam

278
and more abundant harvests.

Resource Efficiency: The precise application of
resources such as water, fertilizers, and pesticides
reduces waste and minimizes environmental impact.
This not only benefits the farmer's bottom line but
also promotes sustainable agriculture practices.
Cost Savings: While precision farming requires an
initial investment in technology, the long-term
benefits outweigh the costs. By minimizing input
waste and optimizing efficiency, farmers can
experience significant cost savings over time.
Environmental Stewardship: Precision farming
practices contribute to environmental sustainability
by reducing the environmental footprint of
agriculture. This includes the responsible use of
water resources, minimizing the use of chemicals,
and promoting overall ecosystem health.
Conclusion
Precision farming is more than just a
technological trend; it's a revolutionary approach that
has the potential to reshape the future of agriculture.
By leveraging cutting-edge technologies, farmers
can navigate the challenges of an ever-changing
climate and growing global food demand. As
precision farming continues to evolve, it offers a
glimpse into a more sustainable, efficient, and
productive future for agriculture, ensuring that our
food systems remain resilient in the face of
unprecedented challenges.

279
Economic Pillars on Four Legs: The Role of Camelids in Livelihood

Security
Gadde Sri Harsha and Ramya Koneru
Abstract
The United Nations has named 2024 the International Year of Camelids to honour the important
part these animals play in the lives of millions of people around the world. This paper looks at the many
ways that camels have helped the economy and society of places in India like Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Camels, which are able to live in dry and semi-dry places, are important for transportation, farming,
and the traditional heritage of these areas. They help local economies through crafts and tourism, and
they also help keep the borders safe and promote ecotourism. Also, camel goods like milk, wool,
leather, and bones can be used to make a lot of different kinds of money. The paper stresses how
important camels are for protecting traditional heritage and keeping people's jobs in areas that are at
risk.
Introduction transportation and so draughty in deserts, the fabled

United Nations acknowledged 2024 as the Ship of Desert got its moniker. But its practical
International Year of Camelids. For millions of applications are always evolving in response to
people, these camelids provide a livelihood. The vast societal and economic shifts. Although mechanical
majority of these animals live as pastoralists in conveyance has taken over some of their job, it still
mountain rangeland and dryland environments significantly adds to the energy needs of the area they
across the globe. In the Rajasthani and Gujarati Thar occupy. From rural areas to neighbouring towns and
Deserts, camels play an essential role. Some cities, people utilise it to transport crop leftovers,
communities, including the Raika/ Rabari, Fakirani cash crops, and other comparable goods for sale.
Jats, and Hajiyani Jats, depend heavily on camels for When delivering small quantities to individual
their livelihood. service points with relatively extended halts, camels
The camel is a remarkable animal that has in carts can be a more inexpensive alternative to
adapted to the dry and semi-arid conditions of India's motorised vehicles for transporting urban commo-
desert ecosystem. Its distinctive bio-physiological dities. The camel is also well suited to the transport-
traits have allowed it to thrive in these extreme ation of water and other common home necessities.
environments. Because it is so useful as a means of Camels are commonly utilized as plough animals and
Gadde Sri Harsha
Research Scholar, Department of Extension and Communication Management, UAS, Dharwad, Karnataka
Ramya Koneru
Research Scholar, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, UAS, Dharwad, Karnataka

280
appear to be just as effective as the majority of other significant cultural importance in India, as evidenced
species when it comes to producing draught. by their mention in ancient scriptures such as the
(Anonymous, 2011). Rigveda and Mahabharata. The Bikaner Camel
The socioeconomic significance of camels: Since Festival and Pushkar Mela are festivals and activities
ancient times, the socio-cultural significance of that showcase the socio-cultural significance of
camels has been widely acknowledged. The camels, drawing tourists from all parts of the globe.
longstanding presence of camels in the cultural Camel-oriented tourism endeavours, like as safaris,
consciousness of India is evidenced by the references races, and cultural exhibitions, play a significant role
to camels in the ancient Rigveda, the famous in bolstering local economies and generating
narrative of the Camel and Jackal from Shanti Parva employment prospects for communities.
of Mahabharata (Rajadharmanusasana Parva, Border Security and Military Uses: In order to
Chapter-CXII), and the mention of camels in the monitor the Indo-Pak border that borders Rajasthan
Panchatantra. The transportation of goods along the and Gujarat, the Border Security Force (BSF) uses
historical Silk Route, which linked India to Central camels. The Indian Army employs Bactrian camels
Asia, was largely reliant on camels. The socio- for the transportation of supplies over short distances
cultural significance of camels in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and for conducting patrols on horseback in the region
and Ladakh is exemplified by the following of Ladakh, thereby demonstrating their versatility
international camel festivals: the Pushkar Mela in and usefulness in all types of landscapes.
Bikaner, the Desert Festival in Jaisalmer, the Marwar Camels in livelihood security and Eco- tourism:
Festival in Jodhpur, the Nagaur Pashu Mela, the For smallholder farmers and indigenous people all
Mallinath Pashu Mela, the Rann Utsav in Kutch, and throughout the world, camelids are a vital supply of
the annual Ladakh Festival. Bikaner's Usta Kala milk, fibre, fertiliser, and transportation. For many
Craft (Ustado ka kala: Usta Kala), which was Indian families, camels provide several ways of
introduced by Raja Rai Singh in the 15th century, income. Many people's livelihood depends on camel
was further developed in Bikaner and was awarded carts, camel leather goods, camel bone work, camel
the GI badge in 2023. Additionally, a variety of hair items, camel-based tourism, camel dairy and
conventional products are crafted from camel other camel-related economic operations.
leather, bone, and hair. Lok Devta Pabuji Maharaj, Camel ownership was a prerogative of the
Kuldevi of Pushkarna Brahmins, and Ushtravahini rich and powerful in past times, and it represented
Mata have all maintained profound connections to military might as well as riches. But right now, the
camels in the local culture for centuries. impoverished and the voiceless own camels and base
Cultural Heritage and Tourism: Camels have their living on them. There are two main groups

281
among camel owners: those who keep one or two benefit much from camel milk. Frequent drinking of
male camels for usage and those who maintain herds camel milk lowers blood sugar, lowers insulin
of female camels for breeding. There are roughly resistance, and enhances lipid profiles. Additionally
6,000-10,000 camel breeding families and up to helping children with autism, hepatitis C, and
200,000 families for whom working camels are a tuberculosis is camel milk. One special feature of
vital component of their way of life. These include camel milk is low fat content and abundance of
the camel cart owners in Jaipur and other places who minerals and vitamins. It increases personal human
make their living moving building supplies and other immunity generally. Tourists are increasingly
products, and for whom this business makes enough starting to like camel milk-made goods.
money to pay for their children's education. Camel wool: Camel breeders use camel wool to
At tourist locations are camel-based tourism make products for their own homes, such as rugs,
activities including camel safari, double-hump camel blankets, charpais, and saddle girth. Previously, the
riding, camel cart riding, camel dance, camel race, selling of wool was subject to cultural limitations
camel hair cutting, camel decoration, camel tattoo similar to those imposed on camel milk. Because of
show, camel museum, etc., available. Camel rearers poor wool yields and short fibre, camel wool looks
profit economically from camel-based ecotourism by to have limited commercial potential.
using camels for entertainment events, milk and Camel leather: Camels' skins are particularly good
camel-based bi-products. Because of its special for making lampshades, toys, drum covers, and
qualities and medicinal significance, tourists also certain types of containers. They are also used to
have a passion and interest regarding camel milk. make shoes; according to members of the
Among visitors, different byproducts derived from leatherworking community, there is no tanning plant
camel leather, camel bone, and camel hair are much in Rajasthan, thus skins must be sent to South India
sought for. In the desert of Rajasthan, Rann of Kutch for this reason. The kuppa or kuppi, painted jars for
in Gujarat, Ladakh's Nubra valley, and several sea oil, ghee and perfume with beautiful patterns, was a
beaches, camel-based eco-tourism is rather common. regional speciality. Because of a lack of demand, the
(Rakshit and Sahoo, 2024). artisan industry has ceased operations.
Camel milk: India is second in the world for adult Camel bones: Camel bones, like other animal bones,
diabetes cases; throughout the past three decades, the are turned into fertiliser (bone meal). They are also
country's diabetic population has grown 150%. used instead of ivory to make jewellery and
Based on predictions for 2019, 7.7 crore people in ornaments, as well as inlaid furniture. Logistics are
India have diabetes; by 2045, this number is compounded by the fact that the nearest bone
predicted to climb to nearly 13.4 crore. Diabetics washing facility is in Uttar Pradesh, which requires

282
transportation to and from. References

Camel dung: Camel dung is an excellent fertiliser Anonymous. (2011). Vision-2030 National Research
and has played a vital role in the relationship between Centre on Camel.
camel breeders and farmers. Although camel dung Ilse Köhler-Rollefson. (2004). The camel in
has a lower fertilising impact than goat or sheep Rajasthan: Agricultural biodiversity under
dung, it is nevertheless considered superior to cow threat. Saving the Camel and Peoples’
dung. Although the effect is delayed because camel Livelihoods (International Conference), 6-
dung decomposes more slowly, it lasts for three 17.
years. Sedentary camel ranchers sell camel Rakshit and Sahoo. (2024). International Year of
excrement in cartloads or trade it for food. Nomadic Camelids (IYC-2024): Significance and
camel pastoralists are compensated in kind by the Opportunities for India. Blog: 209: 1-10.
owners of the land where their herds remain
overnight. Camels' pee is thought to have an even
higher fertilising value. (Ilse Kohler-Rollefson,
2004).
Conclusion
Camels are integral to the socio-economic
and cultural landscape of many regions, particularly
in arid and semi-arid environments. They provide
critical support in transportation, agriculture, and
tourism, thereby bolstering local economies and
livelihoods. Camel-based products such as milk,
wool, leather, and bones further diversify economic
opportunities and contribute to the cultural heritage
of these regions. As the world recognizes the
significance of camelids in 2024, it is crucial to
continue supporting and promoting their role in
livelihood security and cultural preservation.
Sustainable practices and policies must be
implemented to ensure the continued prosperity of
communities that rely on these remarkable animals.

283
Nickel: An Essential Plant Nutrient and Its Role in Plant Growth and
Development
Introduction tons), followed by the Philippines.

Nickel (Ni) as an element is in group 10 of Most scientists talk about seven trace
the periodic table. It has an atomic weight of 28 and elements essential in plant nutrition, namely Fe, Mn,
belongs to the transition metal group between Co and Zn, Cu, B, Mo and Cl. Recently; however, Ni and
Zn. In soil solution it behaves like Zn. Swedish Vanadium (V) have been added to this list. This is an
chemist Akel Fredrik Corstedt was the first to isolate essential trace element for plants, although it is
it from the mineral nicolite (Iyaka, 2011). It is needed in very small amounts compared to
generally found in very small amounts in soil, plants macronutrients. Ni plays an important role in various
and the environment. The amounts of Ni in the soil physiological processes, growth and development of
and air in the vicinity of Ni mines are very high. The plants. It participates in several enzymatic reactions
average Ni concentration in soil is 30 mg kg-1, but in and affects the health and general functioning of
ultramatic soils it can be more than 10,000 mg kg-1 plants.
(Tsadilas et al., 2018). It is quite low in sedimentary Function of nickel in plant growth and
rocks, but quite high in basic igneous rocks. In the development
atmosphere, it is distributed through natural causes Enzyme cofactor and activation: Ni acts as a
such as forest fires and the burning of vegetation or cofactor for several enzymes involved in important
waste materials (Clayton and Clayton, 1993) and metabolic pathways in plants. It is crucial for enzyme
through anthropogenic sources such as the burning activation and catalysis and affects various
of coal for electricity generation and other plant and biochemical reactions.
mineral oil burning. A mixture of Fe and Ni forms Nitrogen metabolism and nitrogen activity: Ni is
the inner core of earth (Stixrude and Wasserman, an essential component of the enzyme nitrogenase
1997). It combines well with many metals. Its alloy involved in nitrogen metabolism, especially nitrogen
with gold is known as white gold. It is used to coat fixation in certain types of bacteria and plants. It
steel and iron cookware and cutlery. It is used to helps convert atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into
make coins in the United States and Canada. About ammonia (NH3) that plants can use for growth and
2.3 million tons of Ni are produced annually, with development.
Indonesia being the largest producer (9,560,000 Urease activity and urea hydrolysis: It is a cofactor

SCS College of Agriculture, AAU, Rangamati, Chapar, Dhubri, Assam

284
of urease, an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of of the world varies from 0.20 to 450 mg kg-1 soil, but
urea to NH3 and CO2. It affects the efficiency of urea higher values up to 1000 mg kg-1 soil have also been
utilization by plants and is a source of nitrogen. reported (Iyaka, 2011). DTPA extraction of Ni
Iron Metabolism and Iron Assimilation: It is (Lindsay and Norvell, 1978) is considered quite
involved in iron metabolism, which affects the suitable for available Ni. Rawat et al., 2019 reported
absorption and utilization of Fe in plants. It supports that DTPA-extractable Ni in Jharkhand soil ranged
the absorption of Fe, promotes its movement in plant from 0.06 to 4.46 mg kg-1 soil, while total Ni ranged
tissues and improves the use of Fe in various from 93 to 630 mg kg-1 soil. In the field, soil contains
metabolic processes. approximately 0.001% of total soil Ni (Chauhan et
Seed germination and plant development: Ni al., 2008). The mobility order of Ni compared to
affect seed germination and early plant growth and other cations in the sandy clay soil was Cu>Zn> Mo>
affect seedling development. It supports plant growth Cd>Ni>Pb=Cr, while in the calcareous clay soil it
in the early stages, ensuring healthy growth and was Cu>Mo>Cd=Cu=Pb>Cr=Ni=Zn. Ni availability
vigour. decreases as soil pH increases above 7.0 and
Photosynthesis and carbon metabolism: Ni excessive liming reduces Ni availability (Chesworth,
promotes photosynthesis by affecting the activity of 2008). Patterson (1971) reported in his study that
carbonic anhydrase, an enzyme involved in carbon when the soil pH increased from 5.1 to 7.5, the Ni
fixation and photosynthesis efficiency. It helps content of spring wheat decreased from 74 to 1.2 mg
convert CO2 into bicarbonate ions, an important step Ni kg-1 with the addition of 80 mg Ni kg-1 of plant
in plant carbon metabolism. material. The absorption of Ni from plant products is
Stress tolerance and defense mechanisms: It plays also affected by the pH of the solution. Panda et al.,
a role in stress tolerance by improving the plant's (2007) reported that Lathyrus sativus peels increased
ability to deal with various environmental stressors. Ni uptake at pH 5 and then decreased at pH 8.0.
It supports defense mechanisms and helps plants Other sources of Nickel
respond to biotic and abiotic stresses. Nickel as a plant nutrient has not received
Flower development and pollination: Ni have been much attention in India because it is required in very
shown to affect flower development, which affects small quantities and additives as impurities in
flower structure and fertility. It plays a role in the fertilizers and manures usually meet the require-
maturation of flowers and promotes successful ments. Benson et al. (2014) reported from Nigeria
pollination and reproduction. that in the fertilizer samples they studied, single
Nickel content in soils superphosphate contained an average of 5.26 mg Ni
The general range of total Ni content in soils kg-1 and urea 5.87 mg Ni kg-1. Organic manure also

285
contains fairly large amounts of nickel. Chauhan et and the yield obtained is much below the world
al. (2008) reported 9.6 mg Ni kg-1 in dairy manure average of ~2.3 t ha-1. Ni concentrations >10 mg kg-
and 7-9 mg Ni kg-1 in poultry manures. Sewage 1
in plant tissue of sensitive species (soybean, caper,
sludge can contain 15-815 mg Ni kg-1 and industrial pecan, etc.) are generally considered toxic, while
waste 5-80 mg Ni L-1 (Sengar et al., 2008). Even toxicity limits in less sensitive species (barley, wheat
natural bodies of water may contain Ni. The and spinach, etc.) can be >50 mg kg-1. Excessive Ni
concentration of Ni in river water and sediments in toxicity is illustrated by the inhibition of lateral root
the upper reaches of the Ganges (India) is estimated development, photosynthesis, mineral nutrition and
to be 35-211 mg Ni L-1 and 70,900-511,000 mg Ni enzymatic activity, and this makes Ni toxicity
kg-1, respectively (Israili, 1992). different from that of other heavy metals such as Zn,
Estimation of Nickel: In the laboratory Ni can be Cu and Co (Bhalerao et al., 2015)
easily determined in aqueous extracts using Deficiency Symptoms: Deficiency symptoms of Ni
Dimethylglyoxime (C4H8N2O2), generally abbrevia- in plants includes Leaf tip burning in legumes,
ted as dmgH2. It forms a bright red complex with Ni, Mouse-ear leaves, cupping of leaves and rosetting in
the colour intensity of which can be measured on a pecan (nuts) and Interveinal chlorosis and stunted
spectro-photometer. It can also be determined by growth in cereals.
Atomic Absorption Spectrometry. Toxicity symptoms: Toxicity symptoms of Ni in
Content in Plants: The presence of Cu+2, Zn+2 and plants includes Grey spots in the leaves in beans,
Fe+2 prevents the absorption of Ni+2 by the plant and which may coalesce and become necrotic. Marginal
its transfer from the root to the shoot. Competitive chlorosis in leaves of Brassicae is also a toxicity
kinetic studies showed that Cu+2 and Zn+2 symptom. Leaf chlorosis in barley and Pale yellow
competitively inhibit Ni+2 absorption, suggesting stripes running the length of leaves in oats are also
that these cations are absorbed by the same carrier. toxicity symptoms of Ni.
Plant leaves contain 0.05-5.0 mg Ni kg-1 (ppm) dry Nickel Fertilization: Most research on Ni
matter. The critical Ni concentration in plant tissues fertilization has been done in pots or in separate
required for normal shoot growth of tomato and cultures. In the USA, barley plants grown from low-
pumpkin is about 1 mg kg-1 (Liu et al., 2015). In Ni seed and without Ni had significantly (30%) lower
soybean tissues concentration of 0.02-0.04 mg kg-1 is root and shoot weights than +Ni plants and showed
considered insufficient. The concentration of 0.01- deficiency symptoms that could be reversed by Ni
0.14 mg Ni kg-1 in cowpea tissue is also considered supplementation. Siqueira et al. (2018) from Brazil
insufficient. Ni need attention in soybean cultivation reported that a soil Ni dose of 0.5 mg Ni kg-1
in India, as the crop is mostly grown on neutral soil increased soybean yield by up to 2.9 g plant-1 under

286
greenhouse conditions and up to 1502 kg ha-1 under Bhalerao, S. A., Sharma, A. S., Anukthi, C. and
field conditions and found that it was associated with Poojari, A. C. (2015). Toxicity of nickel in
encouraging N metabolism. The results of a pot trial plants. International Journal of Pure and
in Varanasi, India (Kumar et al., 2018) showed that Applied Bioscience, 3(2): 345-355.
the growth and yield characteristics e.g. plant height, Chauhan, S. S., Thakur, R. and Sharma, G. D.
leaf greenness index, number of grains, number of (2008). Nickel: its availability and reactions
straws pot-1, number of straws ear-1, straw, grain in soils. Journal of Industrial Pollution
yield and 1000 grain weight were highest in barley Control, 24(1): 1-8.
with 3 foliar spray of 0.2% NiSO4.7H2O at 20, 40 and Clayton, G. D. and Clayton, F. E. (1993). Pathology
60 days after sowing. and soil hygiene. Toxicology. 4th Edition,
Conclusion John Wiley & Sons, Sussex, UK.
Nickel in the environment and as an Israili, A. W. (1992). Occurrence of heavy metals in
important plant nutrient has not received much Ganga River and sediments. Indian Journal
attention in India. It can be deficient in some soils of Environment & Health, 34: 63-66.
and can affect legumes, especially soybeans. Iyaka, Y. A. (2011). Nickel in soils: A review of its
Initially, it is hoped that the country's soil scientists distribution and impact. Scientific Research
and agronomists will have to start a general survey and Essays, 6(33): 6774-6777.
of the Ni content of air, water, soil and plants. A Kumar, O., Singh. S. K., Maroararo, L. and Yadav,
balanced Ni content is crucial for optimal plant S. N. (2018). Foliar fertilization of nickel
growth, development and productivity. Proper affects growth, yield component and
management of Ni through proper fertilization and micronutrient status of barley (Hordeum
soil amendment is essential for sustainable agricul- vulgare L.) grown on low nickel soil.
ture, ensuring that plants have adequate access to this Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science,
essential trace element. 64(10): 1407-1418.
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Siqueira, F. D., Wurr, R. B., Rodrigues, D. R. A., de
Barros, R. F., Soares de Carvalho, T.,
Schulze, J., Carbone, C. M. A. and
Guimarães, G. L. R. (2018). Hidden Nickel
deficiency? Nickel fertilization via soil
improves nitrogen metabolism and grain
yield in soybean genotypes. Frontiers in
Plant Science, 9: 614.
Stixrude S. and Wasserman E. (1997). Composition
and temperature of earth’s inner core.
Journal of Geophysical Research, 102(B11):
24729-24739.

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Jackfruit: The Underutilized Fruit Crop

Abstract
The jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus), hailed as the largest tree-borne fruit in the world,
stands as a majestic emblem of tropical biodiversity. Revered across continents for its remarkable
versatility and nutritional richness. The jackfruit's nutritional profile presents a compelling case for its
integration into dietary regimens worldwide. Rich in essential nutrients such as vitamin C, potassium,
and dietary fiber, this tropical gem boasts a nutritional density that belies its humble origins. Regardless
of all the benefits and vast potential this crop gives, it still remains underutilized and unknown to world
to its full potential. This article will mainly focus on its nutrient benefits and its uses so that this crop
will be used to its full potential and use by the world.
Introduction  Genus: Artocarpus

The Jackfruit is the national fruit of  Species: A. heterophyllus
Bangladesh and Indonesia (Matin 2015). Character- Morphological description: Jackfruit trees are
ized by its formidable size, the fruit can attain large, evergreen trees with a dense canopy, reaching
weights of up to 80 pounds with individual heights of up to 20 meters or more. The tree's trunk
specimens often reaching dimensions that challenge is sturdy and often covered in rough, fissured bark,
conventional notions of fruit-bearing trees. The providing support for its expansive crown. The
jackfruit's exterior is adorned with a textured leaves of the jackfruit tree are large, glossy, and
greenish-yellow rind, concealing a treasure trove of elliptical in shape, with prominent veins running
golden-hued, fleshy bulbs ensconced within. through them. They are arranged alternately along
Scientific classification the branches and possess a leathery texture,
 Domain: Eukarya indicative of their ability to withstand varying
 Kingdom: Plantae environmental conditions. Jackfruit trees produce
 Subkingdom: Tracheobionta small, unisexual flowers that are either male or
 Division: Magnoliophyta female. The male flowers are borne in cylindrical
 Class: Magnoliopsida clusters, while the female flowers emerge from short,
 Subclass: Alismidae thick stems. Both types of flowers lack petals and are
 Order: Rosales inconspicuous in appearance. And this crop is
 Family: Moraceae renowned for its massive, oblong fruit, which can

Department of Horticulture, SHUATS, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh

289
weigh anywhere from a few kilograms to over 30 utilized for various purposes. The fruit can be
kilograms. The fruit's exterior is covered in a spiky, consumed raw when it is ripe or it is also consumed
greenish-yellow rind that encases the edible flesh and as vegetables in different parts of the world. The fruit
seeds within. Upon ripening, the rind may turn brown is also consumed as canned slice, chips, jelly, jam
and emit a sweet fragrance. and juice. The timber is also known to have anti-
Physiological description: Jackfruit trees exhibit termite properties and used for the preparation of
monoecious flowering, meaning they bear both male furniture.
and female flowers on the same tree. Pollination is Nutritive value: Jackfruit is a rich source of many
primarily achieved through wind and insect activity, minerals like N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Z, Cu, etc. The
facilitating the transfer of pollen between flowers. nutrient, water and sugar contents are briefly mention
The development of jackfruit follows a distinct in the Table 1.
pattern, starting with the formation of female flowers Table 1: Nutrient composition per 100 g of edible
that are subsequently pollinated. Following success- jackfruit portion (Goswami and Chacrabati)
Nutrients Young fruit Ripe fruit Seed
ful pollination, the fruit undergoes a period of rapid Water (g) 76.2.0-85.20 72.0-94.0 51.0-64.50
Protein (g) 2.0-2.60 1.20-1.90 0.40-0.43
growth, with the edible flesh and seeds maturing Fat (g) 0.10-0.60 0.10-0.40 0.40-0.43
Carbohydrate (g) 9.40-11.50 16.0-25.40 25.80-38.40
within the protective rind. Within the tree, nutrients Fiber (g) 2.60-3.60 1.0-1.50 1.0-1.50
and water are transported through specialized Sugar (g) - 20.60 -
Minerals (g) 0.90 0.87-0.90 0.90-1.20
vascular tissues known as xylem and phloem. Xylem Calcium (mg) 30.0-73.20 20.0-37.0 50.0
Magnesium (mg) - 27.0 54.0
facilitates the upward movement of water and Phosphorus (mg) 20.0-57.20 38.0-41.0 38.0-97.0
Potassium (mg) 287-323 191-407 246
minerals from the roots to the leaves, while phloem Sodium (mg) 3.0-35.0 2.0-41.0 63.20
Iron (mg) 0.40-1.90 0.05-0.40 1.50
transports sugars and other organic compounds Vitamin A (IU) 30 0.50-1.10 10-17
produced during photosynthesis to various parts of Thiamine (mg) 0.05-0.15 175-540 0.25
Riboflavin (mg) 0.05-0.20 0.03-0.40 0.11-0.30
the plant. Jackfruit trees are well-adapted to tropical Vitamin C (mg) 12.0-14.0 7.0-10.0 11.0
climates, thriving in regions with abundant sunlight, Medicinal properties: This fruit has vast medical
warmth, and moisture. They possess mechanisms for properties such as anti-oxidant action and fight
water conservation, such as deep root systems and against malaria, inflammation and various skin
thick cuticles on leaves, enabling them to withstand diseases. The seed contain lectin and jacalin which
periods of drought. show immune status of patients infected with
Uses of Jackfruit: Jackfruit is one of the major immunodeficiency virus. The roots are extracted and
sources of carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins. It use for treating skin diseases, asthma and diarrhoea
also known to have anti-cancer and anti-aging while the leaves and latex are used for the treatment
properties. All the plant parts are consumed and of asthma, ringworm and snakebites.

290
Table 2: Use of jackfruit in local medicines References

Parts Uses
Roots Root extracts is used in treating skin diseases, Goswani, C., Hossain, M. A., Mortuza, M. G. and
asthma and diarrhoea.
Islam, R. (2010). Physicochemical param-
Leaves Leaf extract is given to diabetics as a control
measure. An extract from leaves and latex cures eters of Jackfruit seeds in different growing
asthma, prevents ringworm infestation and heals
cracking of feet. A tea made with dried and Areas. International Journal of Bioresearch,
powdered leaves is taken to relieve asthma.
Flower Crushed inflorescences are used to stop bleeding 2(10): 01-05
in open wounds
Fruit Ripe fruits are used as laxatives
Haq, N. (2006). Fruits for the Future-Jackfruit
Pulp The jackfruit pulp and seeds are nutritious tonic (Artocarpus heterophyllus). Southampton
and useful in overcoming the influence of alcohol
on the system Centre for Underutilized Crops. Southam-
Seeds Increased consumption of ripe jackfruit kernels
alleviates vitamin A deficiency. Extract from fresh pton UK, p 20
seeds cures diarrhoea and dysentery. Extract from
seeds (or bark) helps digestion. Baliga, M. S., Shivashankara, A. R., Haniadka, R.,
Bark An extract from bark (nonedible portion) or roots Dsouza, J. and Bhat, H. P. (2011). Phyto-
helps cure dysentery. Ash produced by burning
bark can cure abscesses and ear problems. chemistry, nutritional and pharmacological
Latex Mixed with vinegar, the latex promotes healing of
abscesses, snakebites and glandular swellings properties of Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.
Wood The wood has a sedative property; its pith is said
to aid abortion. (jackfruit): A review. Food Research
(Source: Haq (2006) University of Southampton) International, 44(9): 1800-1811.
Conclusion
Nair, N., Palanivel, H. and Kumar, R. (2017).
In conclusion, the exploration of jackfruit as
Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus), a
an underutilized crop reveals a treasure trove of
Versatile but Underutilized food source. Fiji
potential waiting to be unlocked. From its towering
Agricultural Journal, 57(1): 05-18.
trees to its massive, nutrient-rich fruit, jackfruit
Ranasinghe, R. A. S. N., Maduwanthi, S. D. T. and
embodies resilience, adaptability, and nutritional
Marapana, R. A. U. J. (2019). Nutritional and
richness in the face of changing agricultural
Health Benefits of Jackfruit (Artocarpus
landscapes and global food security challenges. In
heterophyllus Lam.): A Review. Internati-
essence, the underutilized status of jackfruit is not a
onal Journal of Food Science.
limitation but an opportunity waiting to be seized.
Tripathi, K., Kumar, P., Kumar, R., Saxena, R.,
Through collaborative research, policy support, and
Kumar, A., Badoni, H., Goyal, B. and Mirza,
community engagement, we can unlock the full
A. A. (2023). Efficacy of jackfruit
potential of jackfruit as a transformative force in
components in prevention and control of
sustainable agriculture and global food systems. As
human disease: A scoping review. Journal of
we embrace the jackfruit's journey from obscurity to
Education and Health Promoters.
prominence, we embark on a shared path towards a
more resilient, equitable, and nourished future for all.
291
Heat Stress and It’s Ameliorated Strategies in Farm Animals

Sharolin Rachel and K. Divya Reddy
Introduction behaviour to cope with heat, such as seeking

Heat stress is a critical issue affecting various shade and reducing activity levels.
sectors, particularly agriculture and Livestock sector.  Increased Mortality: In severe cases, prolonged
Heat stress in livestock occurs when animals are heat stress can lead to increased mortality rates,
unable to maintain a balance between the heat they particularly in poultry and pigs.
produce and the heat they lose to their environment. Specific Livestock Effects
This imbalance results from high ambient temper-  Dairy Cattle: Heat stress can reduce milk yield
atures, humidity and inadequate cooling mechani- and alter milk composition, decreasing fat and
sms, leading to physiological and behavioural protein content.
changes that can significantly impact their health,  Poultry: Birds are highly susceptible to heat
productivity, and overall well-being. Excessive heat stress, which can lead to decreased egg produ-
stress leads to reduced productivity, compromised ction and quality, along with higher mortality
health and economic losses. rates.
Impact of heat stress on Livestock  Pigs: Pigs suffer from reduced growth rates,
Health and Productivity lower reproductive performance and higher
 Reduced Feed Intake: Animals tend to eat less susceptibility to heat stroke.
when they are heat-stressed, leading to decreased Economic Impact
growth rates and lower milk production.  Revenue Loss: Reduced livestock productivity
 Reproductive Issues: Heat stress can affect directly impacts farmers' income.
reproductive hormones, leading to reduced  Increased Costs: Additional expenses for
fertility and conception rates. cooling systems, water and veterinary care for
 Metabolic Disorders: Increased body temper- heat-stressed animals.
ature can cause metabolic disturbances,  Market Prices: Fluctuations in supply due to
impacting overall animal health. heat stress can lead to higher market prices for
Behaviour and Welfare certain animal products.
 Altered Behaviour: Animals may change their Amelioration Strategies in livestock management
Sharolin Rachel
Research Scholar (Veterinary Anatomy), College of Veterinary Sciences, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, Telangana
K. Divya Reddy
Research Scholar (Animal Genetics and Breeding), College of Veterinary Sciences, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, Telangana

292
Managing heat stress in livestock is crucial to Nutritional Management

maintain their health, productivity and welfare. Water Provision
Effective strategies include environmental modifi-  Adequate Supply: Ensuring constant access to
cations, nutritional adjustments and monitoring clean, cool water to maintain hydration.
systems.  Multiple Water Sources: Providing several
Environmental Modifications watering points to reduce competition and ensure
Shade Structures all animals have access.
 Natural Shade: Planting trees or utilizing Dietary Adjustments
existing foliage to provide natural shade.  Electrolyte Supplements: Adding electrolytes
 Artificial Shade: Constructing shade structures to drinking water or feed to help maintain
such as sheds, barns, or shade cloths to protect electrolyte balance and hydration.
animals from direct sunlight.  High-Quality Forage: Offering high-quality
Ventilation forage and reducing fibre content to lower
 Natural Ventilation: Designing barns and metabolic heat production during digestion.
shelters to maximize airflow through strategic  Feed Timing: Feeding animals during cooler
placement of windows, vents and open sides. parts of the day, such as early morning or late
 Mechanical Ventilation: Using fans, exhaust evening, to encourage intake and reduce heat
systems and air conditioners to enhance airflow production.
and reduce heat buildup in enclosed spaces.  Nutrient-Dense Diets: Providing nutrient-dense
Cooling Systems diets to meet energy requirements without
 Misting and Sprinkler Systems: Installing increasing feed volume, thus reducing metabolic
misters or sprinklers to cool animals through heat.
evaporative cooling. Monitoring and Management Practices
 Cooling Pads and Wetting: Using cooling pads Temperature Monitoring
or wetting the skin of animals to facilitate heat  Environmental Monitoring: Using thermos-
loss through evaporation. meters and hygrometers to monitor temperature
Flooring and humidity levels in animal housing.
 Heat-Reflective Materials: Using flooring  Body Temperature Monitoring: Employing
materials that reflect rather than absorb heat to rectal thermometers or implantable sensors to
keep the environment cooler. monitor the body temperature of livestock.
 Comfortable Bedding: Providing bedding that Behavioral Observation
remains cool & comfortable, reducing heat stress  Monitoring Signs of Heat Stress: Observing

293
animals for signs such as panting, increased and infrastructure to withstand extreme heat
respiration rate, lethargy, decreased feed intake conditions.
and seeking shade.  Sustainable Practices: Implementing sustain-
 Adjusting Management Practices: Modifying able agricultural practices that enhance overall
practices based on observed stress levels, such as farm resilience to climate change.
increasing rest periods or altering work  Shade and Shelter: Providing shaded areas and
schedules. shelters to protect animals from direct sunlight.
Specific Livestock Management  Ventilation: Enhancing barn ventilation to
Dairy Cattle improve air flow and reduce heat.
 Cooling Systems: Installing fans and sprinklers  Hydration: Ensuring continuous access to clean
in milking parlours and feeding areas. and cool water.
 Shade and Water: Providing shaded resting Conclusion
areas with easy access to water. Heat stress is a significant challenge in
Poultry livestock management, requiring comprehensive
 Ventilation and Cooling: Using tunnel strategies to mitigate its effects. By understanding
ventilation and evaporative cooling systems in the causes, physiological and behavioural responses,
poultry houses. and impacts of heat stress, and implementing
 Feed Management: Adjusting feed formulat- effective management practices, farmers can protect
ions to lower heat increment feeds. their animals and sustain productivity even in high-
Swine temperature conditions.
 Coolers and Fans: Implementing cooling pads,
fans and sprinklers in pig housing.
 Space Management: Ensuring adequate space
to allow pigs to spread out and dissipate heat.
Long-Term Strategies
Breeding for Heat Tolerance
 Selective Breeding: Breeding programs focused
on developing heat-tolerant livestock breeds.
 Genetic Research: Utilizing genetic research to
identify and propagate heat-tolerant traits.
Climate-Resilient Infrastructure
 Design Innovations: Designing animal housing

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Green Manuring is a Boon in Agriculture

Lokesh Kumar, Usha Kumar and B. S. Poonia
Introduction Green manuring involves the incorporation

India has transitioned from a region of fresh green plant residues into the soil using tools
grappling with food scarcity to achieving food like an offset-disc plough. The primary goals are to
sufficiency largely due to increased use of subsidized suppress weeds, prevent seed formation, and
inorganic fertilizers. However, this shift has led to a enhance soil organic matter and nitrogen levels.
significant decline in the use of organic manures, Achieving effective weed suppression often requires
including green manure. With the costs of inorganic multiple tillage passes, which can potentially lead to
fertilizers on the rise, concerns about the long-term losses in soil organic matter and damage to soil
sustainability of soil productivity have emerged. structure.
Therefore, there is a growing recognition of the need It can be of two types: green manure in situ,
for alternative sources to supplement these fertili- when it comes to short-term crops, which are grown
zers. Green manuring emerges as a cost-effective and and integrated into the soil in the same place; or ex
efficient technology to reduce fertilizer expenses situ, when plant remains are collected nearby and
while safeguarding agricultural productivity. incorporated into the soil a few days (~15-30) before
Green manure can be defined as the practice sowing the main crop.
of enriching the soil by adding fresh/dried plant Why use green manures?
residues without rotting in the soil. Green manure is Green manures are crops grown within a
a type of organic fertilizer where an entire fresh plant rotation for the purposes of:
or plant part (e.g., Leaf) is directly used as manure in  Building soil organic matter and soil structure.
agriculture lands, without any prior decomposition or  Supplying nitrogen and other nutrients for a
composting. Green manures are required to be added following crop.
in bulk quantity. This concept is fast gaining  Preventing leaching of soluble nutrients from the
popularity in organic farming where it plays a soil.
significant role in sustainable annual cropping  Providing ground cover to prevent damage to soil
system. structure.
Lokesh Kumar
Assistant Professor, Govt. Agriculture College, Didwana, Nagaur, Rajasthan
Usha Kumar
Assistant Professor, S. S. G. C. Govt. College, Suratgarh, Rajasthan
B. S. Poonia
Associate Professor, Govt. Agriculture College, Bhadra, Hanumangarh, Rajasthan

295
 Bringing crop nutrients up from lower soil shment and rapid accumulation of nutrients.
profiles.  High nutrient accumulation ability: Efficient
 Smothering weeds and preventing weed seedling uptake and storage of nitrogen and other essential
growth. nutrients.
Objectives of green manuring  Tolerance to environmental stress: Ability to
To add N to the companion or succeeding withstand shade, flooding, drought, and extreme
crop and add or sustain organic matter in the soil. temperatures.
Subsidiary objective  Wide ecological adaptability: Suitability for
 Catch Crops: Legumes are inter-sown in diverse soil types and climates.
standing crop before or after harvest, to utilize  Efficient water use: Ability to thrive with
nitrates or the left-over moisture minimal water resources.
 Shade crops: Sown in young orchards with the  Early onset of biological nitrogen fixation:
objective of shading the soil surface and, Prompt initiation of symbiotic nitrogen-fixing
preventing the rise of temperature. Otherwise, processes.
tender roots of fruit plants may be affected by the  High nitrogen accumulation rates: Significant
high soil temperature. In plantation like tea and nitrogen storage in plant tissues.
coffee, Glyricidia is used as shade crop first and  Timely nutrient release: Effective breakdown
incorporated as green manure. and release of stored nutrients upon incorpor-
 Cover crops: Green manure crops grown with ation into the soil.
the objective of clothing the surface with a  Photoperiod insensitivity: Minimal dependence
vegetative cover, especially in hill slopes during on day length for growth and development.
the rainy season to avoid soil erosion and run off.  High seed production and viability: Produces
 Forage crops: Legume are grown for taking abundant seeds with good germination potential.
cutting of green fodder for cattle in early stages  Ease of incorporation: Facilitates integration
and later as GM. Pillipesara seeds can be into the soil after cultivation.
broadcasted in the standing rice crop (3-5 days  Ability to cross-inoculate or respond to
before harvest). inoculation: Compatibility with nitrogen-fixing
Characteristics of green manure crops bacteria or ability to benefit from inoculation.
 Multipurpose use: Capable of serving as a green  Pest and disease resistance: Natural resistance
manure crop while also fulfilling other agricult- to common pests and diseases.
ural roles.  High nitrogen storage in underground parts:
 Short duration and fast growth: Quick establi- Efficient storage of nitrogen in roots and nodules,

296
enhancing soil fertility. and macro nutrients. This organic material

Types of Green Manuring significantly enhances soil quality by boosting its
Leguminous green manure: It is plays a crucial role humus and biomass content. Moreover, it strength-
in providing essential nitrogen for plants. Organic ens the soil's ability to retain water. Additionally,
fertilizers frequently lack sufficient nitrogen, making green manures promote the proliferation of
green manures indispensable. Leguminous plants, beneficial microorganisms in the soil, thereby
capable of nitrogen fixation, accumulate nitrogen in improving overall soil.
their leaves, stems, and roots. These crops are Conclusion
cultivated in farmlands and are incorporated into the Green manuring offers numerous benefits
soil through plowing just before flowering, enriching that contribute to sustainable agriculture. By
it significantly. Examples of leguminous green replacing chemical nitrogenous fertilizers, it enriches
manure crops: Sunn hemp, Mung beans, black gram, the soil with a variety of nutrients while increasing
Cluster Beans, Pigeon peas, chickpeas, Fenugreek, humus and biomass content. This practice enhances
Green Peas, Soybean, cowpeas. soil structure and water retention capabilities,
Green leaf manure: Only leaves of some ultimately fostering a healthier environment for
leguminous trees are used as green manures instead beneficial microorganisms. Embracing green
of all plant parts. Leaves are collected from trees & manures not only improves soil fertility but also
are mixed in soil while they are still fresh. Green leaf supports long-term agricultural productivity and
manures steadily release nitrogen into the soil. ecological balance.
Examples of green leaf manures: Gliricidia,
Leucaena, Sesbania, Pongamia.
Cover crops: Mostly non leguminous plants are
grown to cover the whole farmland to control weeds
& prevent soil erosion. Green manure cover crops act
‘a living mulch.’ Click here to read more about the
importance of mulching. Examples of cover crops:
Brassica, Millets, Oats, Rye, Radish.
Advantages of Green manure
Green manure serves as an excellent
alternative to chemical nitrogen fertilizers. Once
incorporated into the soil, green manures decompose
gradually, releasing a wide array of beneficial micro

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Integrated Pest Management (IPM) for Guava Fruit Fly

Adsul Akshay Ambadas, Adama Thanuja and Pramod Kumar
Introduction affecting a variety of fruits and vegetables that are

Guava (Psidium guajava) belonging to the high in meat and found in tropical and subtropical
family Myrtaceae, it’s native to the American regions. They result in losses that are both
tropics, and probably originally grew from Peru quantitative and qualitative. Furthermore, many
north to Mexico and the Caribbean. Guava is fruit-producing nations have placed quarantine
frequently referred to as the apple of a poor man in restrictions on the import of goods from nations
the tropics and is known all over the globe for its infested with specific fruit fly species, and/or
delicious, enjoyable aroma and excellent dietary mandate that fruits and vegetables undergo
values (Joseph and Priya, 2011). The guava fruit has quarantine treatment prior to their importation, due
a medicinal property and excellent antioxidant to their susceptibility to invasive tephritid species.
source, as well as an anticarcinogenic property (Ryu Fruit flies are regarded as a highly favourable pest of
et al., 2012). Major guava producing states are Uttar guava fruit production inflicting yield losses and
Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujrat, Punjab, pleasant degradation of the produce. Mishra et al.
Haryana, Himanchal Pradesh, and Maharashtra. (2012) reported a crop loss of up to Rs. 2945 crores
Among guava growing states, Uttar Pradesh is the per annum in mango, guava, sapota, and citrus in
major in guava production. One of the most India. Since the damage done in fruit and vegetables
significant pests in terms of economic impact that is internal, and therefore difficult to control by the
attacks fruits worldwide are fruit flies (Diptera: use of a single control measure. The practice of
Tephritidae). Bactrophera is the most economically integrated pest management (IPM) is important
significant genus of fruit flies, has 651 identified because of its effectiveness and gains for the
species, at least 50 of which are regarded as serious environment and health; otherwise the use of
pests, many of which are very polyphagous. pesticides will keep increasing. According to
Approximately 325 species of fruit flies have been Verghese et al. the practice of IPM to control B.
reported from India, which are occurring on different dorsalis can give very high reductions of infestation.
hosts. These create significant hazards to production, The array of control methods ranged from insecticide
Adsul Akshay Ambadas
Department of Botany, Shri Mulikadevi Mahavidyalya, Nighoj, Ahmednagar, Maharashtra
Adama Thanuja
Department of Entomology, ICAR-IARI, Mega University, Hyderabad Hub, Telangana
Pramod Kumar
Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, PJTSAU, Telangana

298
sprays to foliage and soil, bait-sprays, male occurs. In peninsular India the infestation level of B.
annihilation techniques, releases of sterilized flies dorsalis varies from 10 to 41% on different cultivars
and parasitoids, and cultural controls can be used. of guava (Reddy and Vasuki, 2002).
Therefore, this articles provides comprehensive Integrated Pest Management (IPM): The
information about to Integrated Pest Management problems of pest control and concern about the
(IPM) of fruit fly. indiscriminate use of pesticides in our environment
Biology of fruit fly: Female fruit flies lay eggs on have been the subject of intense debate and
the surface of host fruits. After that eggs hatch into discussion. There has been tremendous pressure to
maggots/larvae. First instar larvae are very small and devise other methods of pest control that reduce the
delicate. Second instar larvae are slight more robust dependency on synthetic pesticides and reduce
and third instar larvae are quite stout and tough. After residue levels in food commodities. An overarching
finishing feeding third instars leave the decaying host system that reduces the usage of pesticide is
fruits, fall on the ground, and crawl into the soil for integrated pest management (IPM) that implies to
pupation. After that larval skin gets hard, become grow high quality produce with minimal impact on
tanned brown and barrel-shaped which is called `as human health and environment while providing high
the puparium. Inside that puparium, true pupa will economic returns. An integrated strategy for crop
form, pupa turns into an adult fly. Adult fruit fly split pest management includes use of resistant varieties,
open the anterior end of the puparium and escapes modifying agronomic practices to reduce pest
from the puparium by squeezing out. They may have incidence, biological control and other novel
multiple generations in a year depending on the host approaches for pest suppression, and only need-
availability. based and judicious use of chemical pesticides.
Nature of Damage: When the female fruit fly Cultural control: Manipulation of farming practices
pierces fruit with her long, thorny ovipositor to lay for reducing or preventing pest damage to crops is
eggs, the infestation starts. Fruit sustains damage to known as cultural control. It is based on habitat
its skin, develops a secondary infection, and management and requires a thorough understanding
eventually begins to rot. After hatching from the egg, of different components of the Agro-ecosystem in
the maggot feeds on the decomposing fruit tissue, which the pests flourish. It is also known as
which is a breeding ground for bacteria and yeasts. ecological management or environmental manage-
During the process of egg laying, small depressions ment.
are seen on the fruits. The damaged part of the fruit Early harvesting: When fruits are harvested early,
becomes soft at the place of larval feeding and later they can help prevent infestations. For example, fruit
on leads to putrification, and subsequently fruit drop flies that target almost-ripe fruits may not assault

299
small, green, unharvestable fruits. Harvesting crops ‘sterility’ or sterile insect' refers to the transmission
at a mature stage when the fruit or vegetable is not of dominant lethal mutations that kill the progeny. It
vulnerable to fruit fly attack can help prevent fruit fly is one of the excellent tactics to suppress
infestation. reproduction. The control of fruit flies at the
Crop sanitation: Cleaning and maintenance of destructive larval stage is difficult because
hygiene are essential around fruit trees, significantly insecticides in the form of dust or sprays cannot
contribute to the reduction of fruit fly population in reach till target maggots.
the orchard. The collection and destruction of fallen, Biological control: Fruit flies' natural enemies
infested and overripe fruits are strongly should be preserved in farms and orchards because
recommended to reduce the resident population of they can aid in their management. Utilizing natural
fruit flies. Fruit fly eggs and maggots may not enemies is more affordable, sustainable, and safe.
develop in contaminated fruit if the area is kept clean. The most prevalent class of parasitoids that are
By destroying the fruit, you may be sure that the commonly employed against fruit flies is Opines spp.
maggots won't make it to the ground where they will The juvenile fruit fly larvae that are feeding beneath
pupate before becoming adult flies. the fruit's skin are being parasitized by these larval
Soil raking: Raking of soil around the guava trees parasitoids.
can be done for effective destruction of pupal Chemical control: The use of a single control
inoculation during the summer season. The residual measure such as
pupae are the major source of the infestation. insecticides can not
Mechanical control: Bagging of fruits during give a total reduction
development can reduce the chances of physical of fruit flies infestation
damage, improve color at harvest. The best method since the damage done
for controlling guava fruit flies was to wrap each fruit by larvae in fruit and
in a transparent polypropylene (20μ gauge) bag and vegetables is internal, and therefore difficult to
place a piece of paper inside the bag for partial control. Sunil et al. (2016) evaluated that Delta
sunlight coverage. It completely protects fruits from methrin 2.8EC in combination with Jaggery (0.0028
flies and prevents fruit flies from laying eggs. Sterile + 0.015 %) gave the best control against Melon Fly
males are released in a large number to mate with in Bitter Gourd. Khomane et al. (2023) revealed that
wild females (Knipling, 1959). Sterilization is the results showed that treatment with wrapping of
accomplished through irradiation, chemosterili- fruits with foam and bag followed by Spinosad 45%
zation, or by genetic manipulation in selected males SC @ 0.4 ml l-1 followed by Flubendamide 8.83% +
of fruit flies. In sterile insect programs, the terms Deltamethrin 5.56% SC @ 0.5 ml l-1 was found to be

300
most effective and recorded maximum reduction Khomane, K. B., Datkhile, R. V., Aghav, S. T.,
over control. Kadu, R. V. and Todkar, A. A. (2023).
Conclusion Seasonal incidence and management of
Given the significance of both crops and guava fruit fly. The Pharma Innovation
pests, growers prioritize management in order to Journal, 12(1): 1187-1191.
maximize the yield from their guava orchards. A Mishra, J., Singh, S., Tripathi, A. and Chaube, M. N.
variety of control techniques are used to raise the (2012). Population dynamics of oriental fruit
guava produce's quality and output. The fruit fly can fly, Bactocera dorsalis (Hendel) in relation to
travel great distances and has a broad host range, thus abiotic factor. Horticulture Flora Research
any control method that is implemented on an area- Spectrum, 1(2): 187189.
wide basis will be more successful. The community Reddy, P. V. R. and Vasuki, C. (2002). Evaluation of
should use the IPM module in conjunction with a guava accessions for resistance to the fruit
variety of control strategies, such as early harvesting, fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) in relation
fruit wrapping, field cleaning, raking, trapping. In to certain fruit morphological characters.
guava orchards, the fruit fly population can be Pest Management and Horticulture Eco-
effectively managed by the use of combinations system, 8: 27-32.
measures. Joseph, B. and Priya, M. (2011). Review on
nutritional, medicinal and pharmacological
properties of guava. International Journal of
Pharma and Biosciences, 2(1): 53-69.
Ryu, N. H., Park, K. R., Kim, S. M. ... and Ahn, K.
S. (2012). A hexane fraction of guava leaves
(Psidium guajava L.) induces anticancer
activity by suppressing AKT/ mammalian
target of rapamycin/ ribosomal p70 S6 kinase
in human prostate cancer cells. Journal of
References Medicinal Food, 15(3): 231-241.
Knipling, E. F. (1959). Sterile-Male Method of Thippaiah, M., Jagadish, K. S. and Chakravarthy, A.
Population Control: Successful with some K. (2016). Efficacy of insecticides against
insects, the method may also be effective melon fruit fly Bactrocera cucurbitae
when applied to other noxious animals. (Coquillett) in bitter gourd. Entomology,
Science, 130(3380): 902-904. 41(3): 233-238.

301
Role of Plant Breeder in Agriculture

Arun Kumar, Mainak Banerjee and Meena Wankhade
Introduction negate even the impact of most impressive

In the face of growing population and technology (Limao and Venables, 2001).
uncertain climatic conditions, significant additional Plant breeders are critical and important
food required by 2050 could be a big challenge people involved in agricultural research. They can
(FAO, 2009). It is needed to increase agriculture pick desired genes/plants from plant populations for
output through crop improvement and crop use in various crossing programs. Plant breeders are
management. Since, there is no straightforward experts in various aspects of agriculture, including
recipe of crop improvement for a particular crop in a agronomy, soil science, entomology, pathology, crop
specific country; only important thing to consider is physiology, seed science, and biotechnology, to
adoptability, uncertainty, vulnerability and resilience produce high-quality products. They understand how
while developing a variety. Over the past two to optimize plant quality and yield. Plant breeders
decades, extensive crop improvement research has lead all activities, including teaching, research, and
shown that technology is crucial for advancing plant extension. The roles and responsibilities of plant
breeding and developing environment-specific crop breeders are like all-rounders are expert of reducing
varieties to boost productivity. The application of the interval between crossbreeding of plants for
technology such as tissue culture. Crop enhancement development of viable and commercial plant
techniques such as micro-propagation, mutagenesis, varieties of agricultural and horticultural crops. Plant
interspecific hybridization, genetic alteration, breeders have contributed their major contribution
marker-assisted selection (MAS), disease diagnost- for the improvement of wheat, rice and other small
ics and bio-protection are becoming increasingly grain cereals during 20th century. This was possible
popular. Strengthening plant breeding status in as a result of first green revolution during 1960-1965
developing world can be possible when all basic by the famous plant breeder and father of green
measures work effectively. For example, if seed revolution Dr. Norman E. Borlaug. The grain yield
supply, bank loans, transport links, market regulation of crop tripled in that period due to presence of two
and their combined effect are not in place, it can novel dwarfing gene norin-10 and Dee-gee-woo-gen
Arun Kumar
M.Sc. (Agri.) Student, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, BUAT, Banda, Uttar Pradesh
Mainak Banerjee
Assistant Professor, Department of Zoology, RKDF University, Ranchi, Jharkhand
Meena Wankhade
Assistant Seed Research Officer, Seed Technology Research Unit, VNMKV, Parbhani, Maharashtra

302
of wheat and rice respectively. ssing basic and strategic research. Several biotechno-
What is Plant Breeding? logical tools of agronomical benefits are well
Plant breeding is an applied discipline of integrated with plant breeding programs for the
botany focused on creation of genetic variation, selection of favorable
improving agricultural variants and production and management of crops.
crops. This discipline of Micro-propagation and somatic embryogenesis is
agricultural research has widely common for mass clonal propagation of elite
significantly increased lines or disease-free planting material in a range of
global food production. subsistence crops including banana, sugarcane,
Plant breeding involves manipulating plant species cassava, sweet potato, ornamental crops, ginger,
to produce desired genotypes and phenotypes for coffee, grapes and many more for easy facilitation of
specific applications. The modification process healthy planting material at reasonable costs (Smale
involves controlled pollination, genetic engineering, and Tushemereirwe, 2007). Numerous serious plant
or both, followed by artificial selection of offspring. diseases for which the identification of the causative
Scope of Plant Breeding agent is challenging are diagnosed using DNA-based
 Development of varieties which are having techniques. In addition, many developing nations
desirable traits/characteristics. also use commercialized immunodiagnostic
 Use of transgenic plants as a medicine. E.g. procedures including monoclonal antibodies and the
Potato. enzyme-linked immunosorbent test (ELISA). Use of
 Quality Improvement in Oil seed and Vegetables. transgenic plants that express novel and useful trait
 Genetic manipulation of population by in agriculture is also popular in developing countries
increasing the frequency of desirable alleles in (e.g. Bt cotton). Tissue culture technique has been a
cross pollinated crops and introducing male great enabler for transgenesis. Limitation for wider
sterile in Self-Pollinated crops like wheat and adoption of transgenesis is complex regulatory
Rice. system for release of transgenic crop and uncertain
 Intensive breeding of pulses and oil seed crops as public response (Ramessar et al., 2009).
it was done in cereals and other crops. Responsibilities of plant breeders
 Proper breeding methods with improved crop Developing beneficial and desirable features
management practices. in various crops, such as pest, disease, and drought
Current Status of Plant Breeding resistance, is the primary duty of plant breeders. The
Plant breeding is considered as a backbone of agricultural and horticultural industries rely heavily
agriculture. It is continuous evolving area encompa- on plant breeders because they face constant proble-

303
ms in meeting their needs in light of the changing develop hybrid which gave higher yield as
climate. The use of both conventional and compare to normal seed.
contemporary plant breeding techniques is essential  To respond the every query from progressive
for crossing existing plants, producing variations formers, extension leaders/ scientists who are
amongst them, and choosing new strains to improve working at village level which helps to solve the
specific qualities. Plant breeders are skilled at problems of needy formers.
selecting plants with the desired genes in a timely  To write and represent the research work in
and accurate manner. conference/ workshop/ seminar at national or
Main activity of plant breeders international platform and publish research
 To determine the current state of research finding in scientific journals.
difficulties for goals and objectives, as well as to Eminent plant breeders of India
project research work costs. Plant breeding as a science was first practiced
 To identify the crop exhibiting most desirable in India in the early 1900s. British scientists like
characters based on its natural genetic variation. Barber and Howards conducted the initial study on
 To establish the experimental approach needed to sugarcane and wheat crops, respectively. In Bihar,
enhance the crop plant's morphological and the Imperial Agriculture Research Institute was
molecular characteristics. founded as the first research institute in 1905.
 Developing and multiplication of plant genetic Afterwards, the institute relocated to New Delhi, and
material which is develop through biotechno- in 1946, its name was changed to Indian Agriculture
logical work. Research Institute. The Imperial Council of
 To analyze the scientific data and find the critical Agriculture Research (ICAR), which was founded in
conclusion for selecting the best genotype/ 1929, subsequently adopted the name Indian Council
varieties/ cultivars which are screened/ evaluated of Agricultural Research. In 1960, Pant Nagar saw
in laboratory and field trials. the establishment of the first agricultural university
 To identify and develop new plant breeding for research purposes.
materials for future breeding programme. M. S. Swami Nathan (1925): He is known as father
 Evaluation and Maintenance of pedigree record, of green revolution of India. He is pioneer mutation
crop catalogue and data base for all the trails plant breeder and produced Sharbati Sonara, a wheat
which helps to take up need based research variety responsible for first green revolution. He was
activities to combat local/ region specific also the Director of Indian Council of Agriculture
problems. Research (ICAR). He is the founder of MS
 Making cross of various crop material and Swaminathan Foundation.

304
T. S. Venkataraman (1884-1963): He was pioneer breeders should be able to contribute similarly in the
Indian plant breeder for sugarcane improvement. He future. This is because we need to create high-
was also the first Director of sugarcane breeding yielding varieties that require less space to grow,
institute, Coimbatore. He developed many varieties ensuring food security.
through transferring thick and high sugar contents References
from tropical novel cane to north Indian canes. That Limao, N. and Venables, A. J. (2001). Infrastructure,
process is famous as nobilization of sugarcane. geographical disadvantage, transport costs,
B. P. Pal (1906-1989): He was the first Director of and trade. The World Bank Economic
Indian Council of Agriculture Research (ICAR) Review, 15(3): 451-479.
during which period the first green revolution was FAO. (2009). How to feed the world in 2050”.
launched with outstanding success. He was one of Smale, M. and Tushemereirwe, W. (Eds.).
the famous scientists in wheat crop and released NP (2007). An economic assessment of banana
809 variety of wheat, which was resistant to stem leaf genetic improvement and innovation in the
and strip rusts. Lake Victoria region of Uganda and
Conclusion Tanzania (Vol. 155). International Food
Because of their wide range of expertise and Policy Research Institute.
contribution to agricultural research, plant breeders Ramessar, K., Capell, T., Twyman, R. M., Quemada,
are the most significant contributors to this field. H. and Christou, P. (2009). Calling the tunes
They may develop plant varieties that can withstand on transgenic crops: the case for regulatory
the adverse conditions for the whole time. Plant harmony. Molecular Breeding, 23: 99-112.
breeders are involved in many aspects of the
industry, such as extension, research, and teaching.
Plant breeders always urge their other partners to
conduct study in a variety of agricultural fields,
therefore they are always regarded as contributors to
agricultural research. Plant breeding has been crucial
in increasing agricultural production. Some well
known achievements are development of 'semidwarf
wheat and rice varieties, noblisation of Indian canes,
and production of hybrid and composite varieties of
maize, sorghum and pearl millet. As the population
grows and the amount of land decreases daily, plant

305
Insect Architect: An Overview

Deovrat Singh, Pramod Kumar and Ajay Baldaniya
Introduction known to create enormous and complex structures.

Ecosystem engineers are organisms that Nature's genius has always been emulated by humans
significantly alter their surroundings, either by by following its lead. The term “biomimicry”
developing new habitats or changing existing ones to describes human endeavors to create structures and
better suit their requirements. By creating and systems that are modeled after those found in nature.
preserving microhabitats that would not otherwise Certain human constructions, such as the East Gate
exist, ecosystem engineers have a substantial impact Center in Harare, Zimbabwe, were inspired by the
on other species. Ecosystem engineers are very ventilation system found in termite mounds. These
frequently, though not always, referred to as works are examples of the amazing building
keystone species because of the important roles they behaviors of insects. Termites, honey bees, weaver
play in their surroundings and the broader effects ants, paper wasps, potter wasps, acrobat ants, leaf
they have on other species within the ecosystem. cutter bees, mason bees, stingless bees, caddis flies,
Arthropod builders employ these shelters in one or bag worms, and eastern tent caterpillars are a few of
more phases of their lives, and they take on various the significant insect constructors.
forms. When left undisturbed, these structures may Heaven-Instructed Mathematicians
cling to the plants and serve as a haven for herbivores Bees and wasps construct structures called
and predators in the future. Within a species, shelters honey combs. William Kirby was the first to refer to
differ not just across species but also during honey bees as the mathematicians' teachers in heaven
ontogenetic phases. Many larval insects construct in 1852 because of their amazing capacity to create
simple structures externally on host plants by combs. Honey bees use bee wax to construct combs.
covering, tying, folding, cut-and-folding, or rolling A number of glands on the bee's abdomen secrete bee
plant leaves with silk. Master engineers of Class wax. The hive is then constructed by molding the
Insecta include the orders Blattodea, Hymenoptera, wax. The lower part of the comb is used for raising
Lepidoptera, Trichoptera and so on (Downing, its offspring, while the upper half is utilized to store
2008). Among all these insects, the social insects are honey and pollen. The lower border of the comb
Deovrat Singh
Research Scholar (Agronomy), Department of Agriculture, IIAST, Integral University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Pramod Kumar
Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, PJTSAU, Telangana
Ajay Baldaniya
Department of Entomology, AAU, Anand, Gujarat

306
contains the irregularly shaped queen cells with Termites build termite mounds using a process
capping. At the top of the comb are the worker cells known as bio-cementation, in which they combine
and drone cells. These convex cells have a center dirt, saliva, and excreta. It has constructions such as
hole and a flat cap the foraging tunnels, fungus garden, and royal cell.
on top. Drones and The royal room is home to the monarch and queen.
workers are the Additionally, forage tunnels extending in various
next largest cells directions are seen, through which the laborers
after queen cells in venture to gather food.
size. Bees may Gall formers: The ability of gall-inducing insects to
move around their change host plant tissues and construct a physical
nest easily thanks to the space between combs that is structure in which their developing larva grows
left for them. Bee spaces should be between 4.5 and makes them one of the most astonishing, bizarre, and
9 mm in size. If there is additional room, the bees fill interesting living things. Additionally, gall-inducing
it with propolis or wax. An Indian honey bee may insects are species-specific, which means that, with
create up to 1.8 kg of wax in total, requiring 51,000 very few exceptions, each bug species only appears
kcal of energy (Southwick and Pimental, 1981). The in a single host plant species. Galls usually occur on
construction method is more cost-effective due to the leaves and stems, but they may also occur on any
hexagonal symmetry, which produces stronger vegetative and reproductive plant parts. Gallers are
structures with the least amount of material and the able to control gall morphology producing an
most possible capacity. enormous variety of structures of different types,
Architecture of Termite: Termites are formidable complexity, colors, hairiness, and tissue type.
architects that can create skyscrapers. Living place of Leaf Miners: Leaf miners are roving eaters that
the termite is known as Termitarium, which is as produce mines cavities or channels by internally
mounds, as subterranean (Coptotermes sp.) or feeding on the soft, living foliar tissue that lies
arboreal (Nasutitermes sp.) and can be even found between the upper and lower epidermal layers of
inside the woods of trees or buildings. The nest of a leaves without disturbing the leaf surfaces. The
termite is actually a small part of the massive construction of a mine represents a distinctive
complex structure they build. They use positioning, specialization of an endophagous lifestyle that
sun, wind and complex engineering to survive. If begins with the oviposition of an egg in the leaf
their mounds are damaged by some means, they tissue, followed by larval consumption, and usually
work on repairing it and the structure which took ends in an enlarged terminal chamber used for
them years to build will be repaired in months. pupation.

307
Weaver Ants (Oecophylla sp.): Weaver ant workers bees construct nests in tree cavities, cracks and
construct highly complex nests in the canopy of trees crevices of walls, termite mounds etc. Nests consists
using leaves (Devarajan, 2016). The ants assign tasks of external tube, internal tunnel, resin dumps, waste
to different teams within the colony. For example, dumps, food pots for storing pollen and honey, brood
one team may bend leaves while another uses larval pots and nest envelops like involucrum and batumen.
silk to sew the nest together. Live ant bridges are Entrance tube is made out of cerumen, which is bee
used to draw leaves closer to the nest. In contrast to wax mixed with various type of plant resin. Pollen
most other species, where adults perform social pots are built closer to the entrance and honey pots
roles, weaver ants collaborate and each member on the outer parts of the nests. Pollen and nectar are
contributes equally to the group's survival. placed in a cell, within which an egg is laid, and the
Bagworm Moth: The bagworm moth caterpillar cell is sealed until the adult bee emerges after
weaves a silk cocoon around itself, inside which it pupation.
will live. Silk cocoon is reinforced using twigs,
leaves and other plant materials. Log cabins are
constructed by bag worms by cutting the twigs at
equal size and stacking them up. The portable log
cabin is provided with openings at top and bottom.
Bottom opening of case is used by the caterpillar to
feed, expel waste and also for the emergence of adult.
These nests are naturally camouflaged.
Leaf Cutter Bees: These bees construct tiny nests in
dirt burrows and cavities found on wooded areas, as Conclusion
well as in soft, rotten wood, thick-stemmed, or pithy Insects belong to the most diverse group of
plants. They gather leaves once they've located a arthropods. There are more than a few million
good place to build a nest. Cut leaves are utilized to described insect species, and the total number of
line the cells in the shape of a cigar-shaped nest by living insect species is about 5.5 million. Little
cutting them into discs. They then give a mixture of wonders, insects can build intricate and fascinating
nectar and pollen to each leaf-lined cell. After that, structures even in the absence of opposable thumbs.
the female deposits an egg and uses leaves to close They make up a large number of the incredible
the cell. A succession of densely packed cells is master craftsmen of the animal kingdom. There are
generated. things made by humans that are inspired by the
Stingless Bees: Stingless bees also called dammer amazing structures that insects make.

308
References
Downing, H. (2008). Construction behavior of
Insects. In: Encyclopedia of Entomology.
(Eds.) Capinera, J.L. Springer, Dordrecht. pp.
1035-1045.
Southwick, E. E. and Pimentel, D. (1981). Energy
efficiency of honey production by bees.
BioScience, 31(10): 730-732.
Devarajan, K. (2016). The Antsy Social Network:
Determinants of nest structure and arrange-
ment in Asian Weaver Ants. PLoSONE,
11(6): e0156681.

309
Ganoderma lucidum: Fungi of Immortality

Mainak Banerjee, Thamarai Selvi and Shubhangee Ankushrao Waske
Introduction success, well-being, divine power, and longevity.

People's awareness of returning to the Among cultivated mushrooms, G. lucidum is unique
fundamentals, the natural, and the organic is among in that its pharmaceutical rather than nutritional
the most obvious effects of modern times. The body's value is paramount. A variety of commercial
immune system suffers from the stress and strain of Ganoderma products are available in various forms,
contemporary life, which is particularly crucial for such as powders, dietary supplements, and tea. These
sick individuals whose compromised immunity are produced from different parts of the mushroom,
makes them more vulnerable to illness and infection. including mycelia, spores, and fruit body. In fact,
Even though technological advancements have made during the ancient time, it is believed that the G.
people's lives easier, many are still searching for lucidum in medicine was considered so promising
better organic substitutes that have been shown to be that its medicinal value has been attested in a 2,000-
more effective in their most natural form, such as year old Chinese medical text (Shen Nong's Herbal
Ganoderma lucidum, a fungus that has been used for Classic) known as an
hundreds or even thousands of years as a powerful authentic textbook of
medicinal because of its qualities that are frequently Oriental medical science
linked to long life, health and healing, knowledge, (Shiao et al., 1994).
and happiness. Ganoderma lucidum is known by Some actions and properties of Ganoderma lucidum
many names, including “Reishi,” “Lingzhi,” and include; antiallergin, antioxidant, analgesic,
“Mannentake” in different countries (Wasson, 1968). antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, antiviral,
The Latin word lucidus means “shiny” or antiparasitic, cardiovascular, antidiabetic, immune-
“brilliant” and refers to the brown varnished modulating, hepatoprotective, hypotensive and
appearance of the surface of the mushroom. The hypertensive, kidney and nerve tonic, sexual
name lingzhi represents a combination of spiritual potentiator, bronchitis prevention and inhibits
potency and essence of immortality, and is regarded platelets aggregations, lowers: blood pressure,
as the “herb of spiritual potency,” symbolizing cholesterol and blood sugar (Gao et al., 2003).
Mainak Banerjee
Assistant Professor, Department of Zoology, RKDF University, Ranchi, Jharkhand
Thamarai Selvi
Assistant Professor, Department of Plant Pathology, Institute of Agriculture, Kumulur (TNAU), Trichirapalli, Tamil Nadu
Shubhangee Ankushrao Waske
I/C Principal, Department of Botany, Trimurti Women’s College Science, Shevgaon, Maharashtra

310
Morphology of G. lucidum: Fruiting bodies of G. have been isolated from the fruit body, spores, and
lucidum from India are kidney shaped or irregular, mycelia of Ganoderma. These polysaccharides are
mostly with thick margin along with long thick produced by fungal mycelia cultivated in fermenters.
corky, hard stipe of dark brown in color (fruiting Numerous pharmacological effects of G. lucidum
bodies also found without stipe, attached to the base have been documented, such as analgesic,
of the tree with a dark thick pileus G. applanatum). chemopreventive, anti-tumor, immunomodulating,
Basidiospores are double walled, ellipsoid with top anti-atherosclerotic, anti-inflammatory, hypogly-
cut flat/ovate with a rounded base and truncate to cemic, anti-aging, anti-viral (including anti-HIV),
narrowly rounded apex/globoid shape. Size of hypolipidemian, anti-fibrotic, hepatoprotective, anti-
Basidiospores varies between 6.24 µm - 9.08 µm × diabetic, antioxidative, radical-scavenging, anti-
9.11 µm - 12 µm (Singh et al., 2014). Pileus of G. aging, hypoglycemic, and antiulcer properties (Smith
lucidum is kidney shaped, elongated, red to reddish et al., 2019). The ethanol extract of G. lucidum
brown with or without bright yellow and white prevented ovariectomy-induced bone loss and
margins when mature. decreased the concentration of osteocalcin in the
Distribution and ecology: Ganoderma species blood serum, similar to the action of 17β-estra-diol.
generally prefer hot and humid climates and hence Numerous investigations revealed that the
they are found all over the world in tropical and antibacterial components of G. lucidum have the
subtropical zones. This facultative parasite can also capacity to inhibit both gram-positive and gram-
survive as a saprobe by decomposing tree roots and negative bacteria. The gram-positive and gram-
stumps. It is a pathogenic, wood-decomposing negative bacteria of fifteen different species were
fungus that, particularly in tropical regions, causes suppressed by the aqueous extract of G. lucidum's
butt root, root, and stem rot in economically carpophores. The studies also showed that
significant trees and perennial crops. Ecologically, combinations of G. lucidum extract with four
Ganoderma species play an important role in antibiotics (ampicillin, cefazolin, oxytetracycline,
breaking down the woody plants for nutrient and chloramphenicol) produced additive effects in
mobilization. It is effective in production of the majority of cases: two cases showed synergism
bioenergy and used in bioremediation as it contains when cefazolin was combined with G. lucidum
the mechanism of lignocellulose decomposing extract against Klebsiella oxytoca and Bacillus
enzyme. subtilis, and two cases showed antagonism (Yoon,
Bioactive compounds and pharmacological 1994). G. lucidum contains mainly protein, fat,
properties: Different polysaccharides with varying carbohydrate and fiber. Artificially cultivated variety
molecular weights and sugar and peptide contents has similar contents of nutritional components comp-

311
ared with wild types and the extraction significantly spore powders among consumers is China with the
increases the amounts of crude protein and capacity over 110,000 MT year-1. The market for
carbohydrates and deleted crude fiber. ganoderma-based nutritional supplements, which
Ganoderma products and its global market: The was valued at over $20 million USD in 2012, is
annual sale of G. lucidum based products was expanding quickly in India. With 34.6% of its people
estimated to be more than 2.5 billion USD in Asian using the internet, India has the second-highest
countries including China, Japan and South Korea. internet user population behind China. This has
Ganoderma lucidum has given prime importance in resulted in a sharp rise in the number of customers
Chinese Pharmacopeia for prevention and treatment utilizing online marketing platforms. Various
of many diseases. It has also been included in Ganoderma based genuine and certified products are
American Herbal Pharmacopoeia and Therapeutic easily available on online shopping platforms like
Compendium. G. lucidum products are being sold as Amazon, Flipkart etc which is a game changer for the
food and medication supplements to improve the herbal based products.
immune system and metabolic processes of the body.
Common forms of these items include coffee,
powder, tea, dietary supplements, beverages, syrups,
toothpaste, soaps, lotions, and spore products.
Because ganoderma extract inhibits the tyrosinase
enzyme, which in turn prevents melanin from
forming in the skin, it is a common ingredient in face
and cosmetic products.67,68 Because it reduces the
amounts of dihydrotestosterone or prostatic Conclusion
hyperplasia, it is also employed in male hair Ganoderma lucidum (Ling Zhi) is a
stimulators. The Chinese government has certified basidiomycete white rot macrofungus which has
over 1,000 Ganoderma health and food products in been used extensively as “the mushroom of
addition to about 200 medications using Ganoderma. immortality” in China, Japan, Korea and other Asian
According to The China Edible Fungi Association, countries for 2000 years. Well-known for its
China produced roughly 36700 MT and 49200 MT therapeutic qualities, Ganoderma lucidum is a
of ganoderma in 2002 and 2003, respectively mushroom that can be used as a component in many
(Banuelos and Lin, 2009). According to Li et al. different treatments across many medical systems. It
(2016) the largest producer and exporter of popular has been used as a medicine for many ailments for
products of Ganoderma fruiting bodies, slices and approximately two millennia, mostly in Chinese and

312
Japanese civilizations. Its history extends over a Singh, S., Harsh, N. S. K. and Gupta, P. K. (2014). A
thousand years. Various biological properties of this novel method of economical cultivation of
mushroom make it useful in cure of diseases and medicinally important mushroom,
improvement of overall health. These biological Ganoderma lucidum. International Journal
properties are due to the presence of bioactive of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research
constituents like polysaccharides, triterpenoid, (IJPSR), 5(5): 2033-2037.
nucleotides, steroids, fatty acids etc. in it. Mainly this Smith, J., Rowan, N. and Sullivan, R. (2002).
mushroom is comprised of protein, fat, carbohydrate, Medicinal mushrooms: their therapeutic
fiber, ash, minerals and other elements. Due to their properties and current medical usage with
great significance in various nutritional and special emphasis on cancer treatments.
pharmacological aspects its considered as ‘Fungal of Cancer Research UK.
immortality’. Wasson, R. G. (1968) Soma: Divine Mushroom of
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products. Boca Ratan, Florida, CRC Press. Han, S. S. (1994). Antimicrobial activity of
272-292. Ganoderma lucidum extract alone and in
Gao, Y., Zhou, S., Huang, M. and Xu, A. (2003). combination with some antibiotics. Archives
Antibacterial and antiviral value of the genus of Pharmacal Research, 17: 438-442.
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mycetideae): a review. International Journal
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emanated from the artificial cultivation in the
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Shiao, M. S., Lee, K. R., Lin, L. J. and Wang, C. T.
(1994). Natural products and biological
activities of the Chinese medicinal fungus
Ganoderma lucidum.

313
Millets for Healthy Life

Nisha Sapre, Gourav Sabharwal and Hari Shankar Singh
Introduction healthy food choice because millets are a storehouse

Millets also called small millets are of nutrient and, in particular, finger millet grains
cultivated for their small kernels which are the contain remarkably high calcium content (>350
products of small grassy plants belonging to the mg/100 g); foxtail millet, barnyard millet, and proso
Poaceae family. The other name minor millets may millet are prosperous in protein (>10%); little millet
indicate them to be minor crops yet are important for and foxtail millet are well-off in fat (>4.0%); foxtail
their nutritional values, medicinal benefits, feed for millet, barnyard millet, and little millet are superior
animals, and saviors during food crisis (Yenagi et al., in crude fiber (6.7-13.6%), barnyard millet and little
2010). The term “millet” comes from the French millet contain high amount of iron (9.3-18.6 mg/100
word “Mile” which means “thousand,” implying that g) in comparison to other major cereals like rice,
a handful of millets can contain thousands of grains. wheat, barley, maize, and sorghum (Dwivedi et al.,
Millets are typically farmed in semi-arid areas. 2012). Millets are in high demand in both national
Conditions such as little rainfall and degraded fields and international markets, prompting researchers to
with poor nutritional content. Millets provide a more collect and maintain germplasm for crop improve-
consistent harvest than other crops in low rainfall ment, genetic resource development, and value
areas, benefiting people in famine-prone areas addition. The important millets cultivated in African
(Tadele, 2016). Millets are C4 plants with high and Asian countries include Sorghum (Sorghum
photosynthetic efficiency, short duration, high dry bicolor), pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum), finger
matter production capability, and resistance to heat millet (Eleusine coracana), foxtail millet (Setaria
and drought. They can easily adapt to degraded italica), barnyard millet (Echinochloa frumentacea),
saline, acidic, and aluminum-contaminated soils. kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum), proso millet
The modern sedentary lifestyle associated with (Panicum miliaceum), and little millet (Panicum
several health issues has urged people to seek for miliare). Although millets have a high nutritional
healthy and nutritious diets. Small millets satiate content, their hard seed coat, presence of anti-
these requirements of modern society by being a nutritional agents, low digestibility, and limited bio-
Nisha Sapre
Agronomist and Incharge, AICRP on Sorghum, College of Agriculture, Indore, RVSKVV, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh
Gourav Sabharwal
Department of Agronomy, TNAU, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu
Hari Shankar Singh
Research Scholar, Department of Soil Science and Agril. Chemistry, CSAUAT, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh

314
availability of micronutrients pose significant BC (late Harappan levels) the cultivation began in
challenges in their processing and cooking. Punjab. The mention of millets foxtail millet
History of millets in India (priyangava), proso millet (aanava), and Barnyard
Millets are one of the world's oldest millet (shyaamaka) in Indian Sanskrit text
domesticated and farmed crops, having been Yajurveda’s verses, indicated that millet cultivation
produced for human use and animal feed since 8,700- and consumption was very common in India.
10,300 years ago. Different millet species were first Nutritional Values of Millets
domesticated in East Asia, South Asia, East Africa, Because of the overindulgence in processed
and West Africa, among other parts of the world. junk food over the past few decades, there has been
Still, they migrated well beyond their original an exponential rise in the incidence of obesity and
domesticated range. Although the first records of diabetes. There is a surge in the demand for foods
domestication and cultivation of millets date back to that are high in dietary fiber, complex carbs, and
China between 3000 and 2000 BC for Proso and advantageous phytochemicals in order to fight them
Foxtail millet, the Indian Valley of Kashmir is (Shobana et al., 2007). The high gluten content in
recognized as a center of integrated networks where wholegrain cereals like wheat and rice makes it
significant millets were traded between Asia, difficult to generate nutritious diets or nutraceuticals,
Europe, and Africa. The cultivation of millets in even if research is being done to biofortify these
India is as old as human civilization. The record of cereals with phenolic acids that impart anti-
cultivation of foxtail millet during Harappan mutagenic, antiglycemic, and antioxidative effects.
civilization, Pearl millet in the Neolithic period in Different food items made from millets flour
South India (2000-1200 BC), kodo millet and finger Flatbreads: These are staple foods in Africa. The
millet during early Iron age (1200-1000 BC), little millet flours undergo a specialized fermentation
millet, native small millet (Setaria spp.), and treatment with yeast and lactic acid bacteria that
browntop millet during the later Harappan period yields soft leavened textured bread with acidic
(2500-2000 BC), Browntop millet and bristly foxtail flavor.
millet (Setaria verticillata) during Neolithic- Rotis or chapatis: These are the most well-known
Chalcolithic period are some of the recorded proofs unfermented flatbreads made from millets and are
of Indian history. The foxtail millet spread from popular staple foods of India. Rotis or chapatis
China and its cultivation started during Harappan resemble a soft pancake with a flexible puffed
civilization in India. Around 2500-2200 BC texture. They are usually served with pickles,
(Harappan levels) the cultivation of foxtail millet vegetables, chutney, meat, or sauce.
started in Shikarpur (Kutch) and around 1900-1400 Dosa and Idli: These products are popular in south-

315
ern parts of India, the semi-fermented millet flour is It can be prepared and cooked in a variety of
used in making dosas and idlis that are served with ways. The grains can be cooked entirely, boiled, or
sambar or chutney. steamed to form salad. This is similar to rice. Proso
Couscous: It is pasta-like culinary prepared from millet is used to manufacture fermented drinks in
semolina of millets in North Africa. The semolina is Asia and Africa, and it can be utilized as a substratum
steamed and agglomerated stirred with yogurt and in distilled liquors and beers. The intake of proso
consumed. Usually, the couscous products are millet and other millets is associated with a decreased
categorized based on the size of the particle of risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus because whole grains
semolina used. are a rich source of magnesium. Like most millets,
Medicinal uses of different millets foxtail millet has a laxative effect that promotes a
The products derived from finger millet are balanced digestive tract. It is also an excellent source
useful for the growth of of crude fiber, aids in digestion, and encourages
bone mass in growing bowel movement. Glycemic load (GL), which
children, as well as for reflects both the quality and quantity of carbo-
the prevention of hydrates in food and allows comparison of the
osteoporosis and other potential glycemic impact of practical food portions
bone disorders in adults and aging populations. and low glycemic index foods like kodo, has been
Finger millet seed coat is rich in phytochemicals like shown to increase in both healthy and diabetic
polyphenols and nutritional fiber and is also very subjects (Riccardi et al., 2008). Kodo's water-soluble
excessive in minerals specially calcium. Due to fiber can be used to maintain or minimize blood
excessive polyphenolic content inside the seed coat glucose response in patients with diabetes and
of finger millet reduces the threat of most cancers cardiovascular disease.
and diabetes and excessive fiber that promotes Conclusion
sluggish digestion and blood sugar balance. Despite having an excellent nutritional
Barnyard millet sprouted seed is astringent, acidic, profile, only traditional consumers and those from
emollient, and stomachic. It is used for the treatment lower socioeconomic backgrounds eat millets as
of abdominal dyspepsia, impaired digestion, and food. It is essential to include less common millets in
nutritional stagnation. White seeds are refrigerant the diet in order to battle increasing climatic
and are used in cholera and fever care. Proso millet unpredictability, ensure nutritional security, and
has a higher protein content (11% dry basis) and a combat life-threatening diseases. Protein is a highly
higher concentration of important amino acids excellent alternative for the development of various
(methionine, leucine, and isoleucine) than wheat. functional and value-added food items due to its

316
gluten-free nature, high concentration of micro- Shobana, S., Usha Kumari, S. R., Malleshi, N. G. and
nutrients, and bioactive components with medicinal Ali, S. Z. (2007). Glycemic response of rice,
capabilities. Millets have a significant role in the wheat and finger millet based diabetic food
traditional diets of many regions throughout the formulations in normoglycemic subjects.
country. Millets have various advantageous International Journal of Food Sciences and
properties like drought resistant, good yielding in Nutrition, 58(5): 363-372.
areas where water is limited and they possess good Riccardi, G., Rivellese, A. A. and Giacco, R. (2008).
nutritive values. Given the nutritional profile and Role of glycemic index and glycemic load in
phytochemical contribution of millet, dietitians and the healthy state, in prediabetes, and in
nutritionists need to work to persuade people to eat diabetes. The American Journal of Clinical
more millet, both generally and specifically. Nutrition, 87(1): 269S-274S.
References
Tadele, Z. (2016). Drought adaptation in millets (pp.
639-662). InTech.
Yenagi, N. B., Handigol, J. A., Ravi, S. B., Mal, B.
and Padulosi, S. (2010). Nutritional and
technological advancements in the promotion
of ethnic and novel foods using the genetic
diversity of minor millets in India. Indian
Journal of Plant Genetic Resources, 23(01):
82-86.
Dwivedi, S. L., Upadhyaya, H. D., Senthilvel, S.,
Hash, C. T., Fukunaga, K., Diao, X., ... and
Prasad, M. (2012). Millets: Genetic and
Genomic Resources.

317
Importance of Birds in Ecotoxicological Experimental Studies: An

Overview
Parimala B., Krishna and Devika Rani H. K.
Introduction Bird Sanctuary. In the research region, a total of 48

Research on ornithology has always been species were discovered, representing 18 families
crucial to the advancement of some areas of our and 12 orders. It has been determined that 63 bird
study. To put it another way, birds have received far species from 19 families are responsible for causing
more attention from us than they deserve in the field damage to various crops. In agricultural and natural
of zoology. This is due to the following reasons: 1. environments, bird-plant interactions are important
The majority of species are observable and diurnal. and have an impact on seed dispersal and pollination.
2. Leg rings or other tags can be used to catch and A large number of wild birds are crucial to the
label them. 3. Because in most species individuals production of food because of their pollination
raise their young in discrete nests, their individual habits. Birds are potential bio-indicators for any
reproductive rates can be measured accurately in a ecosystem. Birds play an important role in assessing
way not possible for most other organisms which environmental impacts upstream and downstream.
lack parental care. 4. the huge popular interest that Birds are used to assess ecosystem quality. Long-
birds engender has given rise to an extensive network term monitoring of bird populations indicates
of skilled amateur observers The warm-blooded, changes in natural and man-made ecosystems.
egg-laying vertebrate animals known as birds are Ecotoxicology is the study of how pollutants
identified by their feathers, wings, beaks, and usually and toxic substances affect ecosystems and their
their ability to fly. Approximately 1400 of the 10,000 inhabitants. Ecotoxicological tests are experiments
bird species worldwide are located in Southern Asia, or assessments conducted to determine the potential
with 1295 of those species being found in India due harmful effects of substances or environmental
to the country's subtropical climate (Johnson et al., stressors on organisms and ecosystems. These tests
2011). Parimala and Asiya Nuzhat (2018) are vital in evaluating the toxicity of chemicals,
investigated the population situation and diversity of pollutants, or other stressors to various organisms,
avifaunal species at Tumkur district's Kaggaladu including plants, animals and microorganisms, as
Parimala B.
Associate Professor, Department of Zoology, University College of Science, Tumkur University, Tumakuru, Karnataka
Krishna
Asstt. Professor, Department of Biotechnology, University College of Science, Tumkur University, Tumakuru, Karnataka
Devika Rani H. K.
Research Scholar, University College of Science, DOSR in Zoology, Tumkur University, Tumakuru, Karnataka

318
well as their potential impacts on the environment. can build up in bird species and cause negative
Tests for environmental assessment are essential effects (Ahmed, 2023). Because birds thrive at
instruments for assessing and comprehending the different trophic levels in ecosystems, researchers
effects of human activity on the environment. These can investigate the mechanisms involved in
assessments yield useful information and insights biomagnification.
that support well-informed judgments in the areas of When contaminants reach the food chain,
sustainable development, policy creation and enviro- they can build up in species with higher trophic
nmental management. An explanation of the levels, such as scavengers and predatory birds. Birds’
importance of environmental assessment testing is as ability to migrate across vast distances makes them
follows: Tests for environmental assessment assist in valuable in studying the transport of pollutants over
determining the hazards and problems related to the large geographic scales. Researchers have used avian
environment that may be present in a certain project, species to track the movement of contaminants, such
activity, or location. It is possible to identify and as mercury and organochlorines, revealing their
properly address possible threats to the air, water, global distribution and long-range transport. One of
soil, biodiversity, and human health by carrying out the distinctive features that make birds valuable bio
assessments such as Environmental Impact Assess- indicators is their feathers. Feathers are composed of
ments (EIAs). The purpose of the article is to look keratin, a protein that can trap and store various
into the significance of birds in ecotoxicological environmental pollutants over time. Researchers can
research. analyze feather samples to assess the historical
Role of Birds in Ecotoxicological Studies exposure of birds to contaminants, providing a
Ecotoxicological studies play a crucial role in temporal perspective on environmental changes.
understanding the impact of pollutants on eco- Monitoring of Contaminants
systems and wildlife. Birds, as sentinel species, have Birds have been instrumental in monitoring
emerged as valuable subjects for such studies due to the presence and effects of various contaminants,
their sensitivity to environmental changes and their such as pesticides, heavy metals, and organic
position in the food chain. Birds, particularly avian pollutants. For example, the California condor
species such as raptors, waterfowl, and songbirds, (Gymnogyps californianus) has been used to detect
are highly sensitive to environmental contaminants. lead poisoning from spent ammunition in carrion
Their unique physiology and behaviors make them (Walters et al., 2010). Birds not only provide
excellent indicators of ecological health. Studies information about specific contaminants but also
have demonstrated that a range of pollutants, such as serve as indicators of overall biodiversity and
pesticides, heavy metals, and organic compounds, ecosystem health. Changes in avian populations,

319
diversity and behavior can signal broader environ- determine the lethal concentration (LC50) of a
mental problems. For example, declines in bird substance for a specific bird species. LC50 values are
species like the bald eagle (Haliaeetus essential for establishing safe exposure levels and
leucocephalus) due to DDT contamination in the setting regulatory limits for various contaminants.
mid-20th century prompted environmental action that Chronic toxicity tests involve exposing birds to
eventually led to the banning of the pesticide. lower concentrations of a toxic substance over an
Key Ecotoxicological Tests Involving Birds extended period, usually several weeks to months.
Birds are excellent indicators of environ- These tests provide insights into the long-term
mental health due to their wide distribution, varied effects of pollutants. Polluted food, water, or direct
diets, and ease of sampling. Studies can assess the contact with contaminated habitats are some of the
exposure of birds to contaminants and provide ways that birds might come into contact with toxins.
insights into the overall state of ecosystems. The These toxins can cause hormonal disruptions in
study of ecotoxicology sheds light on how pollutants birds, which lowers their chances of successfully
travel through food chains and impact not just birds reproducing. Ecotoxicological research enables us to
but also the species they come into contact with. comprehend the relationship between pollutants and
Through the identification of bird species that are at changes in community dynamics, including popul-
risk and the direction of mitigation strategies for the ation decreases.
effects of toxins, the results of ecotoxicological Biomarker and bioaccumulation studies
research support conservation efforts. Knowing how Biomarkers are measurable indicators that
poisons affect birds might help mitigate potential reflect an organism’s exposure to and effects from
exposure hazards and hence safeguard human health environmental contaminants. In birds, various bio-
in an indirect way. Knowing how poisons affect markers are used to assess the health of individuals
birds might help mitigate potential exposure hazards and populations Hematological parameters like red
and hence safeguard human health in an indirect blood cell count, hemoglobin concentration, and
way. hematocrit levels can reveal the impact of
Acute Toxicity and Chronic Toxicity Tests contaminants on bird health. Polluted food, water, or
In acute toxicity testing, birds are exposed to direct contact with contaminated habitats are some of
a high quantity of a poisonous material for a brief the ways that birds might come into contact with
period of time usually 96 hours and their rapid toxins. These toxins can cause hormonal disruptions
reaction is evaluated. Critical information for risk in birds, which lowers their chances of successfully
assessment and regulatory decision-making is reproducing. Ecotoxicological research enables us to
provided by these tests. Acute toxicity tests help comprehend the relationship between pollutants and

320
changes in community dynamics, including popul- dangers that industrial chemicals and pesticides pose
ation decreases. to wildlife on land, whether they are exposed directly
Pesticides, heavy metals, and pollutants or indirectly. The data and information gathered from
In agriculture, pesticides are frequently these experiments are used to evaluate pesticides'
employed to reduce insect populations and increase ecological risks, to estimate the possibility of off-
crop yields. Concerns have been made regarding target harm to rare and endangered wildlife species,
their potential effects on non-target creatures, such as and to address toxicity issues that may develop from
birds, due to their widespread use. Several studies events.
have demonstrated that pesticides can have serious
negative consequences on birds, such as immune
system modifications, death, reproductive impair-
ment, and behavioral abnormalities. Heavy metals
are naturally occurring substances that can become
pollutants when they are released into the environ-
ment by industrial and human activity. Examples of
these elements include lead, mercury, cadmium, and
arsenic. Birds can ingest or inhale pollutants, leading
to respiratory issues, developmental abnormalities,
and reproductive impairments. Many regulatory
agencies, such as the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) in the United States and the European
Chemicals Agency (ECHA) in Europe, require
ecotoxicological data on birds to assess the safety of
chemicals before approving their use. Both the US Conclusion
EPA, and the Organization for Economic Co- Ecotoxicology, as a discipline, aims to
operation and Development (OECD) have validated comprehend the impacts of pollutants on organisms
three test guidelines (TG) that use birds as and ecosystems. In the case of birds, this involves
experimental animals: Avian Acute Oral Toxicity understanding how various pollutants, such as
Test (EPA850.2100, OECD223), Avian Dietary pesticides, heavy metals, and industrial chemicals,
Toxicity Test (EPA850.2200, OECD205), and Avian affect their physiology, behavior, reproduction, and
Reproduction Test (EPA850.2300, OECD206). overall population dynamics. Furthermore, it is
These tests can be used to assess the risks and essential for ecotoxicologists, ornithologists, chemi-

321
sts and policymakers to collaborate and share

knowledge across disciplines. Through this
partnership, ecotoxicological challenges can be
better understood holistically, and laws and
regulations can be developed with more knowledge
to lessen the negative effects of pollutants on bird
species and their habitats.
References
Johnson, R. J., Jedlicka, J. A., Quinn, J. E. and
Brandle, J. R. (2011). Global perspectives on
birds in agricultural landscapes. Integrating
Agriculture, Conservation and Ecotourism:
Examples from the field, 55-140.
Ahmed, S. (2023). The Importance of Birds in
Ecotoxicological Tests: A Review.
International Journal of Agriculture,
Environment and Sustainability, 5(2): 18-19.
Walters, J. R., Derrickson, S. R., Michael Fry, D.,
Haig, S. M., Marzluff, J. M. and Wunderle Jr,
J. M. (2010). Status of the California Condor
(Gymnogyps californianus) and efforts to
achieve its recovery. The Auk, 127(4): 969-
1001.
Parimala, B. and Asiya Nuzhat, F. B. (2018).
Avifaunal Diversity and Status of Kaggaladu
Bird Sanctuary of Tumkur District, Karna-
taka. International Journal for Research in
Applied Science and Engineering Techno-
logy, 6(10): 1747-1750

322
Underutilized Vegetable Crops: An Overview

Ranjana Kumari, T. C. Suma and Shalini Naik
Introduction However, currently only one-fourth of these are

India, one of the world's most populous utilized as major vegetable crops, while the rest are
country accounts for roughly one-fifth of the global categorized as minor, underutilized, rare vegetables,
population with over 70 % of its households engaged wild edible vegetables and so on. The distinction
in farming. The nation's annual population growth between underutilized crops and life support species
rate is approximately 1.8 %, while the overall is important as the latter help sustain life in stress-
demand for food is anticipated to increase by 3 % or prone habitats under abiotic stresses such as
more annually in the near future. Consequently, food temperature, soil, and water conditions, as well as
production in the region must grow at an annual rate during emergencies. Underutilized crops are lesser-
of about 3.5 % and agricultural productivity must be known plant species in terms of marketing and
enhanced by more than 70 % by 2050 to meet the research but are well adapted to marginal and stress
rising demands and to satisfy the needs of the conditions.
growing population (Bruinsma, 2009). Global crop An underutilized crop must have scientific or
demand is projected to increase by 100-110 % ethnobotanical proof of its food value and have been
between 2005 and 2050 (Tilman et al., 2011). This cultivated either in the past or currently in a specific
growing demand can only be met if underutilized geographical area. It should be cultivated less
crops, fruits and vegetables are brought into frequently than conventional crops and have a weak
cultivation. To address most of the shortfall in food or non-existent formal seed supply system. These
and raw materials, efforts will need to focus on crops are recognized for their indigenous uses in
increasing crop intensity and introducing high- localized areas and have received little attention from
yielding, stress-tolerant agricultural crop varieties. research, extension services, farmers, policymakers,
The remaining gap can be filled by incorporating and technology providers. Additionally, the crop
underutilized, undervalued or neglected crops, also may be highly nutritious and/or possess medicinal or
known as minor crops which are often cultivated therapeutic properties, or have other multiple uses, to
regionally (Kahane et al., 2013). Around 600 species be qualifies them as underutilized. Although these
make up the global diversity of vegetable crops. crops were once more widely cultivated, they have
Ranjana Kumari and Shalini Naik

Department of Vegetable Science, Dr. YSPUHF, Nauni, Solan, Himachal Pradesh
T. C. Suma
Associate Professor, Department of Crop Physiology, CoA, UAS, Raichur, Karnataka

323
fallen into disuse due to various agronomic, genetic grown as a starchy edible tuber.
and cultural factors. Farmers and consumers are Luffa (Luffa cylindrica): The above-ground portion
using these crops less because they are not as of the Luffa plant, also known as Loofah or Lufah is
competitive as other crop species in the same utilized to make natural sponges commonly used as
environment. Many global activities together with body scrubs for exfoliation and skincare.
the one by international action plan on plant genetic Lupin (Lupinus mutabilis): Lupin or Tarwi seeds
resources for food and agriculture have incorporated are edible and highly nutritious, containing a
Activity 12 in its global plan of action (GPAFA). significant amount of protein, oil and carbohydrates.
This plan involves promoting development and They are valued for their nutritional content and
commercialization of underutilised crops. potential as a sustainable food source.
List of underutilized vegetables Horse Gram (Macrotyloma uniflorum): Horse
Chinese Spinach (Ipomoea aquatica): Chinese Gram also known as Kulthi Bean, Hurali or Madras
spinach, also known as Kangkong or Kangkung, is Gram, have seeds that are cooked and eaten like
primarily consumed for its leaves, which are cooked beans. They contain medicinal compounds such as
similarly to spinach. It is valued for its nutritional antihyperglycemic agents which may help reduce
content and versatility in various Asian cuisines. insulin resistance. Additionally, the seeds are used
Hyacinth Bean (Lablab purpureus): The seeds of for fodder.
the Hyacinth Bean, also known as Lab Bean or Momordica (Momordica charantia): The fruits of
Tonga Bean, are edible. The tender young seed pods Momordica species, widely used in Indian
and immature seeds can be eaten raw or cooked, subcontinental cuisine have medicinal properties.
similar to French beans. They are often used as a Species like Momordica charantia are known for
green vegetable in culinary dishes. their effectiveness in managing diabetes with doctors
Calabash (Lagenaria siceraria): Calabash produces often advising Asian diabetic patients to consume its
fruits that can be harvested young and used as a fruits for their health benefits.
vegetable or left to mature, dried and used as a bottle Amaranthus (Amaranthus spp.): Amaranthus
or utensil. It offers both culinary and non-culinary leaves are consumed as a leafy green vegetable,
uses, making it a versatile crop in various cultures. cooked similarly to spinach. They are highly
Peavines (Lathyrus spp.): Peavines including nutritious, providing significant amounts of vitamin
various species within the Lathyrus genus, provide A, vitamin C, calcium, manganese and folate.
edible parts such as pods, leaves and roots. They are Elephant-foot Yam (Amorphophallus campan-
used for food, including Indian pea and red pea ulatus): The rhizome of the Elephant-foot Yam is
varieties as well as for their tuberous roots which are carminative aiding in digestion and relieving flatule-

324
nce. It is utilized as a culinary ingredient and valued expansion of cultivation areas. Moreover, the
for its medicinal properties. application of advanced on-farm agro techniques and
Malabar Spinach (Basella rubra): All parts of innovative technologies such as biotechnology and
Malabar Spinach resemble spinach and are plasticulture is limited, further impacting product-
consumed as leafy greens. They are rich in vitamins ivity enhancement. Furthermore, inadequate know-
A and C making them a valuable addition to the diet. ledge about post-harvest management practices
Jack-beans (Canavalia spp.): Jack-bean seeds are poses a challenge affecting the quality and
similar to pea seeds and have similar properties. marketability of the produce. Limited marketing
They are consumed as a source of nutrition and can support and infrastructure facilities for transport-
be utilized in various culinary preparations. ation, storage and processing exacerbate the
White Goosefoot (Chenopodium album): The problem, hampering market access for farmers.
leaves and young shoots of White Goosefoot also These crops also receive poor recognition in
known as Pigweed are consumed as leafy greens. horticulture promotion programs, exacerbating their
They can be steamed or cooked like spinach and are underutilization (Sharma, 2003). Finally, improper
valued for their nutritional content. institutional arrangements and limited involvement
Taro, Coco Yam, Chinese Potato (Colocasia of financial institutions in setting up agro-industrial
esculenta): Both the underground tubers and leaves and horticulture-based industrial units further
of Taro are consumed after cooking. They are used impede the development of these crops.
in various culinary dishes and are also utilized as To foster the development of underutilized veget-
animal fodder. able crops, several strategies can be employed:
Challenges over development of underutilized Awareness and education programs can raise
vegetable crops awareness among farmers about the nutritional and
Development of underutilized vegetable medicinal value of these crops through workshops,
crops faces several constraints. Firstly, there is a lack training sessions, and educational campaigns.
of awareness among the farming community Investing in research and development enhances
regarding the nutritional and medicinal value of these understanding of their agronomy, breeding, and post-
crops, leading to limited cultivation. Additionally, harvest handling, leading to improved varieties and
insufficient research has been conducted on these cultivation practices. Establishing seed banks and
crops resulting in a scarcity of valuable information nurseries ensures the availability of high-quality
and techniques for their optimal growth and seeds and planting materials, promoting wider
productivity. Another challenge is the unavailability adoption. Encouraging the adoption of advanced
of desirable seeds and planting material hindering the agricultural technologies and innovative practices

325
like precision farming, biotechnology, and plasti- crop failures and diseases. However, realizing the
culture can improve productivity and sustainability. full potential of underutilized vegetable crops
Capacity building through training and extension requires concerted efforts from various stakeholders,
services on modern agricultural practices, including including policymakers, researchers, extension
crop management, pest and disease control, and soil services, farmers' organizations and the private
fertility management, is essential. Developing infra- sector. Investments in research and development,
structure and knowledge systems for effective post- capacity building, infrastructure and market linkages
harvest handling, storage, and processing can are essential to promote their cultivation, processing,
minimize losses and enhance market value. and marketing. In essence, embracing the utilization
Establishing market linkages, value chains, and of underutilized vegetable crops represents a
market information systems facilitates market sustainable pathway towards achieving food
access, incentivizing farmers to grow underutilized security, promoting biodiversity conservation, and
crops. Policy support through incentives, subsidies, fostering inclusive agricultural development.
and supportive frameworks can further encourage References
their cultivation, processing and marketing. Integra- Bruinsma, J. (2009). The resource outlook to 2050:
ting underutilized crops into existing horticulture by how much do land, water and crop yields
promotion programs and schemes ensures their need to increase by 2050? In: Proceedings of
inclusion in agricultural development agendas. the technical meeting of experts on how to
Lastly, fostering partnerships between government feed the world in 2050, Rome, Italy, 24-26
agencies, research institutions, NGOs, private sector June 2009. FAO, Rome, Italy, 1-33.
stakeholders, and farmers' organizations can jointly Kahane, R., Hodgkin, T., Jaenicke, H., Hoogen-
promote the development of these crops, contri- doorn, C., Hermann, M., Keatinge, J.,
buting to food security, biodiversity conservation, Hughes, Jd’A, Padulosi, S. and Looney, N.
and sustainable agricultural development. (2013). Agrobiodiversity for food security,
Conclusion health and income. Agronomy Sustainable
The cultivation and utilization of under- Development, 33: 671-693.
utilized vegetable crops contribute to biodiversity Sharma, D. V. (2003). Transfer of technology for
conservation, as they often possess unique genetic increasing the scope of underexploited
traits and adaptations. By promoting their cultiva- horticultural crops. Winter School on Exploi-
tion, we can safeguard agricultural biodiversity and tation of Underutilized Horticultural Crops,
reduce dependency on a limited range of staple 5-25th Nov., Department of Horticulture,
crops, thereby mitigating the risks associated with CoA, MPUAT, Rajasthan. 313-320.

326
Insect Pest Management in Muga Silkworm

Rubi Sut, Bidisha Kashyap and Toko Naan
Introduction pest management tactics requires a thorough

Muga silkworm, scientifically known as understanding of the pest complex within particular
Antheraea assamensis Helfer, is a holometabolous, agro-climatic conditions. Several authors have
multivoltine, and oligophagous lepidopteran insect reported that insect pest infestations in Muga crops
with significant economic importance. In poikilo- vary from place to place. Furthermore, Muga
thermic insects such as the Muga silkworm, growth silkworms face different insect pests in various
and development are influenced by abiotic factors regions of the country and abroad. The insect pests
such as temperature, humidity, rainfall, and light infesting muga silkworms belong to various families,
(Sarkar et al., 2023). Muga silkworm is one of the including Tachnidae, Braconidae, Formicidae,
most important bio-resources with high aesthetic as Pentatomidae, Vespidae, and Mantidae.
well as economic importance for the people of North Table 1: Major Insect Pests Infesting Muga
East India. Muga silk production generates Silkworm
Common Scientific
Order Family
employment in Assam. At present about 1,50,000 name name
Uzifly Exorista Diptera Tachinidae
families are occupied in muga silk production in sorbillans
Apanteles Apanteles Hymenoptera Braconidae
Assam. Unfortunately, the use of pesticides in tea glomeratus
gardens and other agricultural crops has presented Red ant Oecophylla Hymenoptera Formicidae
smangoline
the muga silk sector with significant difficulties Canthecona Eocanthecona Hemiptera Pentatomidae
furcellata
during the past ten years. Numerous claims have Reduvid Sycanus Hemiptera Vespidae
bug collaris
surfaced in regional and national media, including Wasp Vespa Hymenoptera Ichneumonidae
radio, television, and the internet, about the loss of orientalis
Praying Heirodula Mantoidea Mantoidae
muga harvests as a result of pesticide use in tea mantis westwoodi
gardens. Predators in the rearing fields pose a notable Singh and Das (1993) documented 39 insect
threat, causing crop losses of up to 20-25%. Kumar specimens from twentyfive families infesting
et al. (2002) revealed that muga silkworms primarily primary muga food plants and muga silkworms
feed on the leaves of Som (Persea bombycina) and (Antheraea assamensis) in RMRS, Boko, Assam. Uzi
Soalu (Litsea monopetela). Developing effective parasites cause the death of Muga silkworms in the
Rubi Sut and Bidisha Kashyap

Department of Sericulture, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, Assam
Toko Naan
Research Scholar, Division of Sericulture, SKUAST-J, Chatha, Jammu, UT of J&K

327
larval or pupal stages. Moreover, this parasitoid has  Uzi fly trap: It is a chemo-trap designed to draw
been found in 95 species of insects worldwide, in and eliminate adult Uzi flies.
spanning 20 families of Lepidoptera and one family  Uzi powder: It is an ovicidal dust that is applied
of Hymenoptera, even when silkworms are not to the silkworm larvae's body on the second,
present. fourth, and sixth days of their V instar as well as
Uzi fly (Diptera: Tachnidae): Uzi fly is an endo- the second, fourth, and fifth days of their 3rd
larval parasitoid of the silkworm. It causes loss to an instar. 4-5 kg per 100 dfl is the dose.
extent of 10-20% to the sericulture industry. It occurs Apanteles (Hymenoptera: Braconidae): The
throughout the year with maximum incidence during summer and winter months are when Apanteles
July-November. Parasitization resulted in 100% glomeratus is most prevalent, which is consistent
stained cocoons as against 3.3% stained cocoons with ideal environmental circumstances for its life
produced by unparasitized larvae. cycle. A. glomeratus adult flies lay their eggs within
Symptoms of damage silkworm larvae, starting the parasitic life cycle.
 Presence of eggs and / or black scar on the larval After hatching, maggots consume the tissues of
body. silkworms, causing harm to the tissue and
 Presence of maggot emergence hole in cocoons. compromising the health of the larvae. Raising losses
 Silkworms are generally attacked from 3rd instar are reported to be between 10% and 15% as a result
onwards by uzi flies. of fuzzy white cocoons that form externally when
 Silkworms parasitized in early instars are get maggots emerge through tubercles (Subharani et al.,
killed. While that parasitized in late fifth instar, 2015).
spin weak cocoons and uzi maggots pierce Management strategies
through the cocoon and emerges out (Uzi pierced  Employing a nylon mosquito net during silk-
cocoons are unfir for reeling). worm rearing stands out as an effective
Management strategies preventive measure against infestations.
 Collect and destroy the uzi infested silkworms.  Keeping the rearing area clean and applying
 Remove the uzi maggots and pupae in rearing bleaching powder are essential practices for
rooms and market centers. controlling infestations.
 Destroy the uzi infested cocoons. Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae): Ant species like
 All the windows and ventilators are to be fitted red, black, and carpenter ants pose a threat to muga
with Uzi Nets (Nylon mesh). Provide ‘Ante silkworm larvae, causing significant rearing losses of
room’ at the entrance of the rearing hall to 12-18%, especially during summer. Their predatory
exclude Uzi flies. behavior involves carrying larvae to nests and consu-

328
ming appendages through mandibular biting, leading difficulties include research endeavors centered
to larval immobilization. around the development of innovative biopesticides,
Management strategies boosting host plant resistance and genetically
 Ensuring the removal of ant nests from plants fortifying silkworms for pest resilience. Further-
before brushing silkworms is critical to prevent more, utilizing developments in digital technologies
disruptions during the rearing process. like remote sensing and precision agriculture-can
 An excellent way to protect trees from ants' transform pest monitoring and support well-
potential to become predators is to apply grease informed management choices. It is critical for
or yellow sticky traps to the trunks of the trees. scientists, farmers, and legislators to work together
 Rotating silkworm rearing sites periodically can to translate scientific discoveries into workable
disrupt ant colonies and gradually diminish their solutions.
population.
Reduvid bug (Hemiptera: Vespidae): Another
predator that is known to feed on the hemolymph of
silkworm larvae is Sycanus collaris, which prefers to
feed on larvae that are in their early instars. Rearing
silkworms under a nylon net and employing
mechanical control methods represent the sole
available options.
Praying mantis (Mantoidea: Mantoideae): The
enormous insects known as praying mantises have
raptorial forelegs. Early instar larvae are easily Conclusion
preyed upon by nymphs and adults carrying them The well-planned annual sericulture activity
away. They may also harm larvae in their late instar. and the systematic implementation of insect
Removing egg masses from the rearing field and preventive and curative methods are primarily
eliminating the adult mantises is recommended. responsible for the success of the sericulture sector
Future Prospects in Pest Management for Muga in India. The intricate range of insects that feed on
Silkworms silkworms and their host plants significantly restricts
Insect pest management for Muga silkworms the amount of silk that may be produced. The Muga
will need to change in the future to incorporate more silkworm, or Anatherea assamensis Helfer, is
environmentally friendly and sustainable methods. indigenous to Assam and the surrounding areas of
Prospective paths for effectively combating insect northeastern India. It is well-known for producing

329
fine golden silk naturally. However, Muga silk-

worms raised outside are subjected to seasonal
variations in the environment, which causes large
crop losses from insect infestations.
References
Kumar, V., Singh, A., Indirakumar, K., Majumdar,
M. and Guha, L. (2022). Effect of different
host plants on rearing and grainage activity
on muga silkworm (Antheraea assame-
nsis). International Journal of Agriculture
Sciences, 14(8): 11559-11562.
Sarkar, B. N., Singh, A., Guha, L., Majumdar, M.
and Hridya, H. (2023). Morphological
Variation of Antheraea assamensis Helfer
upon Semi-domestication: A Study on
Rearing, Disease Incidence and Seed Produ-
ction Performance. Journal of Experimental
Agriculture International, 45(5): 24-32.
Subharani, S. and Jayaprakash, P. (2015). Insect
pests of Muga silkworm Antheraea assam-
ensis. Global Journal of Biology, Agriculture
& Health Sciences, 4(2): 130-134.

330
Entrepreneurship Opportunity in Sericulture: An Overview

Rubi Sut, Bhaswati Saikia and Bidisha Kashyap
Introduction by the sericulture industry. Industry is a major source

The English term “culture” means “rearing,” of foreign exchange earnings for the nation. Over
and the Chinese word “Su (Si)”means “Silk.” These 52,360 villages in India are engaged in silkworm
two words have been merged to form the phrase farming operations (ISEPC, 2023). India's principal
sericulture. The adult silk moth's caterpillar is called states for raising sericulture include Tamil Nadu,
a silkworm. The art and science of raising silkworms Maharashtra, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh,
for the purpose of silk farming is known as Karnataka and Jammu and Kashmir. Given that it
sericulture. Manufacture of raw silk and silk as the produces the majority of India's silk, Mysore and
final product. Sericulture is the broad term for the North Bengaluru are referred to as “Silk City.” The
business procedures used to produce silk from agro-based cottage industry of sericulture, often
silkworms. Sericulture, often known as silkworm referred to as welfare-based employment-oriented
farming, is a globally significant agricultural sector cottage industry, is essential to the stabilization of the
whose influence on commerce and culture has made nation's national revenue (Baishya, 2005).
it an essential component of the human narrative. Sericulture has been practiced in Assam from the
Mulberry cultivation has its roots in ancient China, earliest times. Most people have the knowledge how
the birthplace of civilization, where it first appeared to rear silkworms by reeling, spinning, and weaving.
about 2600 BC (San, 2014). This industry has The glittering golden thread known as Muga silk is
contributed to numerous nations' economies thrive Assam's first GI-registered product. Muga silk is
and encouraged cross-cultural interaction over time. extremely popular in the global silk market. Assam
With decades of history, India has emerged as a is the third-largest producer of silk in the nation,
leader in the production of silkworms, building on a producing 94% Muga silk and 62% Eri silk. The
millennium-old tradition that is ingrained in its phrase “new entry” refers to entrepreneurship, which
cultural heritage. is typically accomplished by founding a company
The world's second-largest producer of silk is that allows an individual or group to study a unique
India. Approximately 9.76 million people are endeavor. To be an entrepreneur, one needs to
employed in rural and semi-urban areas of the nation possess a thorough understanding of the opportunit-
Rubi Sut and Bidisha Kashyap

Department of Sericulture, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, Assam
Bhaswati Saikia
Department of Entomology, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, Assam

331
ies that present themselves for doing amazing things. prosperous business venture.
When new products, raw materials, services, Mulberry as a Business and Industrial Entity:
organizational strategies, and procedures are used to Mulberries have great therapeutic benefit in addition
sell a product for more than its manufacturing cost, to their commercial worth as the only food source for
an entrepreneurial opportunity, often referred to as a silkworms, who use them to produce silk and
business opportunity, occurs (Davidsson, 2015). The cocoons. Fruit and leaves are abundant in essential
agricultural and industrial sectors offers a wealth of phytonutrients, such as minerals, vitamins,
entrepreneurial potential, particularly in growing phenolics, fatty acids, carbs, and amino acids, which
economies such as India, where agriculture and allied promote health. Thus, to capitalize on these
farm sectors account for 70% of GDP. advantages, mulberry-based products are being
Sector-specific Pathways for Indian Sericulture produced globally by numerous industries, including
Entrepreneurship food, beverage, herbal, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical
Kisan Nursery: Mulberry is mostly a perennial (Doi et al., 2001).
crop, and the vegetative part of the plant-ideally the Grainage for Silkworm Grains: A phrase states
stem-is the most popular means of replication. that “Grainages are the temple of Sericulture” and
However, the inability of cuttings to sprout, which “backbone of Sericulture industry” as large-scale
leaves gaps, limits mulberry plantations' ability to production of diseases free layings (silkworm grains
create homogeneous gardens. The growth of or eggs) to meet the needs of all seri-farmers for
mulberry plants will not be uniform even if the gaps production of cocoons. India being the second largest
are filled with fresh cuttings or plants. Growing sericulture occupation country has an importunate
mulberry seedlings has become a popular idea in demand for silkworm grains around the year. The
recent years as a way to close this gap and create demand for BV hybrids seeds was 89.08% and MV
consistent mulberry plantations. Realizing the x BV hybrids was 62.26%. Therefore, this venture
significance and value of saplings, most of the has great demand allowing an investor to make one
farmers look forward for healthy saplings to kick off rupee in net profit for every rupee invested.
the mulberry plantation. In conclusion, new studies Cocoon Production as an Enterprise: Sericulture,
confirmed that the costs and returns for producing an industry that generates revenue, is vital to the
nursery saplings in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh socioeconomic transfer and redistribution of wealth
were, respectively, Rs. 1.94 and Rs. 2.02 per among the communities. Especially the wealthy to
seedling. This implies that starting a mulberry the impoverished. All social classes, whether
nursery to provide healthy saplings for serious landowners or not, educated or not, can engage in
farmers in need will be an extremely lucrative and this industry, resulting in a C:B ratio of 1:1.52 to 1.59

332
(Munikrishnappa et al., 2009). Growing silkworms arch in Tropical Sericulture (ICTRETS) in

to produce cocoons and silk has unquestionably been Mysore provides three international tropical
a profitable and sustainable industry. Because it can sericulture courses. Sericulture is a UGC-
yield a guaranteed income in as little as 30 to 40 days, approved vocational subject. Sericulture
it can be carried out even in drought-prone areas. As provides different professional opportunities for
such, it is a widely recognized and extremely individuals from all backgrounds.
promising business venture for jobless youth.  Regional Extension Centers and Technical
Cocoon Banks/Warehouses: Reelers in the Service Centers of State and Central Sericulture
northern states of India have a high demand for Boards provide rearers with advanced-staged
cocoons during the off-season due to the fact that larvae and equipment, including mulberry
there are only two cocoon crops annually and a samplings, for a modest cost. Bivoltine rearers
significant gap between the two crops (raising). On qualify for an incentive bonus.
the other hand, because so many cocoons are Table 1: Current mulberry plant-based products
in the market and companies in India
generated in the southern states throughout the year, Companies Locations Products
there is a fall in market demand for them, which leads Healthline Pvt. Bengaluru, Mulberry leaf drink,
Ltd. Karnataka Sericha
to regular drops in cocoon prices. It is imperative that Tropicana herbals Dindigul Tropixx mulberry green
tea, Mulberry Leaves
farmers have storage facilities in light of this dire Tea cut
Phytotech Extracts Bangalore Multea
scenario, but not all farmers are able to do so. If Pvt. Ltd.
Riddhi Traders Vadodara, Herbal care soothing
cocoon banks are built, it will let reeler’s access raw Gujarat skin face wash with tea
tree oil and mulberry
materials year-round and provide farmers with Rhythm Winery Pune, Mulberry Premium
Maharashtra wines
cocoon storage facilities during this time, which will Fresh India Mumbai Organic Mulberry fruits
assist them overcome the current circumstances and Organics
Tamek New Delhi Black Mulberry Juice
price fall. Botanic Hyderabad Mulberry leaf extract
Healthcare
Milestones taken to boost up the sericulture Mehwer Groups Srinagar, Organic mulberry dried
Jammu & Whole/ Cut/ Sliece
economy Kashmir leaves
Arishtam Bangalore, Mulberry Shahtoot
 The Central Silk Board (CSB) organizes three Probiotics Karnataka Wine
Frutteto-Paradise Maharashtra Frozen Mulberry
types of programmes by providing short term Juice Pvt. Ltd.
Moringa India Tirupur, Tamil Organic Mulberry tea
classes at the national level. The first is available Health Care Nadu
to everyone, the second to service personnel, and Vrishti Bioscience Bengaluru, Mulberry green tea
Karnataka
the third to farmers. CSB also organizes intensive AmmaNutritions Bengaluru, Amma Mulberry Tea
Karnataka
training programmes from time to time. Vinayak Mumbai Mulberry leaf powder
Ingredients Pvt.
 The International Centre for Training and Rese- Ltd.

333
Conclusion Davidsson, P. (2015). Entrepreneurial opportunities

The current global scenario certainly presents and the entrepreneurship nexus: A re-
enormous opportunities for the Indian silk industry. conceptualization. Journal of Business
Agriculture and agro-based industries are crucial to Venture, 30(5): 674-695.
the growth of rural economies in developing nations Doi, K., Kojima, T., Makino, M., Kimura, Y. and
such as India. Sericulture is a traditional agro-based Fujimoto, Y. (2001). Studies on the
economic activity that has historically been constituents of the leaves of Morus alba L.
important in terms of job creation and income Chem. Pharm. Bulletin, 49(2): 151-153
generation. Given the industry's off-farm and on- Munikrishnappa, H. M., Lakshmanan S.,
farm employment possibilities, it has the potential to Geethadevi, R. G. and Mallikarjuna, B. A
offset the seasonality impact on the rural economy. (2009). Study on Economics of Sericulture in
As an agro-based industry, sericulture has a Drought Prone region of Andhra Pradesh.
significant influence on rural residents' economic Indian Journal of Sericulture, 48(2): 201-
future. It has potential to be an industry that creates 203.
jobs, particularly in rural and semi-urban areas. India
has long been a leader in the agro-based sector of
sericulture. India's labor-intensive industry continues
to be one of its greatest assets, captivating with its
unparalleled beauty and fine workmanship that no
other nation has ever been able to match.
References
San, T. K. (2014). Dynastic China: an elementary
history. The Other Press.
Indian Silk Export Promotion Council (ISEPC),
India Brand Equity Foundation, 2023.
Baishya P, (2005). ‘The silk industry of Assam- A
case Study of the Sualkuchi cluster, Spectram
publication’, Guwahati, Assam.

334
Role of Omics Technology in Plant Pathology

Suhasini Sheelavant, Roshan Sanjay Chandurkar and Shravani N.
Introduction an organism. The genomic studies of crop plants

To fulfill the expanding global population's have provided the insights into total number of
need for food, there is an urgent need to improve the genes, gene organization, genetic mapping and role
nutritional characteristics and production of crop of genes in various metabolic processes. Genomic
plants. As high throughput omics technologies have technologies study the genomes by gene mapping
developed, it is now feasible to enhance the and DNA sequencing. Omics technologies had a
agricultural plants' quantitative and qualitative marvelous influence on the investigation of the
characteristics. Omics technologies refer to the interaction of biocontrol agents with plants and their
comprehensive methods of genomics, transcript- diseases, which enabled researchers to unveil the
omics, proteomics, and metabolomics, which are biological control mechanism in a more precise way.
used to quantify and characterize a biological The multidimensional strategies of omics tools make
organism's genes, transcripts, proteins and meta- it authoritative that they involve various biological
bolites, respectively (Varshney et al., 2013). The sciences. The integrated multi-omics involves
crop traits are generally complex quantitative traits, computational integration of genomics, proteomics,
which are controlled by multiple genes (Core et al., transcriptomics, metabolomics, ionomics, lipido-
2008). The omics technologies have been success- mics, glycomics, and culturomics for interactive
fully implied for studying and manipulating the analysis, expression studies, molecular phylogenetic,
economic traits of crop plants for enhancing yield microarray informatics, and systems biology.
and nutritional qualities. The development of next Strategies for controlling plant viruses have also
generation sequencing (NGS) technologies and evolved as a result of the genomics revolution and
accessibility to genomic information of model crop related technologies. Using transgenes derived from
plants has helped to discover new genes and to study viral and non-viral sequences, significant progress
gene expression profiles. has been made in engineering resistance to plant
Genomics involves collective and holistic viruses over the past three decades.
approaches for studying the complete set of genes of Genomics applications for pathogen population
Suhasini Sheelavant
Department of Plant Pathology, UAS, Raichur, Karnataka
Roshan Sanjay Chandurkar
Department of Plant Pathology, Dr. PDKV, Akola, Maharashtra
Shravani N.
Department of Plant Pathology, UAS, Dharwad, Karnataka

335
analysis and diagnostics wheat in the Pacific Northwest. Identification of

Draft sequencing of pathogen genomes can markers for loci conferring increased levels of
offer a quick and affordable way to comprehend tolerance provides a foundation for cultivar improve-
characteristics of the life and disease cycles, as well ment, marker development, and a new genetic
as the resources needed to develop the tools needed resource for the management of root rot.
for further in-depth analysis. The genetic diversity
and population structure of the gray leaf spot
pathogen that affects maize in South Africa were
characterized using this method (Muller et al., 2016).
Finding polymorphic short sequence repeat (SSR)
markers was made easier by comparing the draft
genomes of South Africa and the United States.
Grapevine red blotch-associated virus (GRBaV) was
recently identified as an emerging pathogen, which
has impacted both the nurseries and premium wine
grape production in the United States. In particular, Secret omics in Plant-Pathogen Interaction
the virus has impacted the wine industry in the state Molecules secreted by the pathogens are the
of California. Transmission under vineyard major attributes that are involved in pathogenesis,
conditions. Bahder et al. (2016) carried out a leading to successful colonization inside the host
phylogenetic study on the amino acid sequence of the (Gupta et al., 2015). Pathogen-derived molecules
coat protein sequences of Gemini viruses and such as proteins, sugars, and lipopolysaccharides are
showed that the coat protein of GRBaV was closely recognized by plant-derived molecules, leading to a
related to that of Tomato pseudo-curly top virus, a defense response in the host. The recognition of the
Gemini virus transmitted by treehoppers of the pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs)
family Membracidae. With the wheat genome and with the pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) occurs
advanced breeding genotype resources as a in the apoplast, which in turn triggers the defense
backdrop, Mahoney et al. (2016) describe taking response in the host. In this context, analyzing the
advantage of next generation sequencing technol- changes of apoplastic proteins through a proteomics
ogies to establish a genotyping-by-sequencing approach is highly essential, since the primary
(GBS) strategy to map quantitative traits loci for interface between plants and phytopathogens occurs
tolerance to Rhizoctonia root rot. This soil borne in the apoplast. Many studies have commenced to
disease is of economic concern in spring-planted understand the role of apoplast proteins in plant path-

336
ogen interactions. expression among several cell populations and helps

in identifying the differentially expressed cDNAs
from two or more samples.
Transcriptomics in Plant-Pathogen Interaction

Within their surroundings, plants engage in Conclusion
continuous interactions with a diverse range of Omics technologies involving the study of
possible pathogens and beneficial bacteria. In the genome sequences, gene expression profiles,
compatible interactions, the pathogen and/or bio- protein content and metabolites of an organism, are
control agents modify the plant's immune system, known as genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics and
making it more susceptible; in incompatible metabolomics, respectively. The analytical
interactions, the plant mounts defenses against the procedures involved in omics studies have been
pathogen's invasion. Northern blots, RNase protect- made easier, faster, precise and cost effective by
ion assays, qPCR, differential display RT-PCR, and revolutionary technological advancement in last few
serial/cap analysis of gene expression were used to decades. Implementation of omics studies in crop
evaluate the expression changes of a substantial biotechnology has resulted in identification of
number of gene transcripts. The late microarray and genomic sequences governing the crucial agronomic
next-generation RNA sequencing have been used to traits such as, grain yield, resistance to biotic and
analyze gene expression under specific conditions. abiotic stresses etc. Fungi and oomycetes are the
New methods, viz. ESTs and DDRT-PCR, provide a crucial agents of many of the world’s most serious
beneficial response of microbes to experimental plant diseases. They are able to get into the intact
plants and conditions (Moustafa et al., 2016). surfaces of host plants, rapidly establishes the
Differential-display reverse transcription PCR infections leading to significant yield loss in large
(DDRT-PCR) is another powerful fingerprinting scale. Proteomics is a practical tool for dissecting
technique that allows extensive analysis of gene molecular mechanisms underlying the plant patho-

337
gen interaction. Understanding pathogenesis related Core, L. J., Waterfall, J. J. and Lis, J. T. (2008).
proteins (PR) proteins would help to both select for Nascent RNA sequencing reveals widespread
and develop new plant traits that evade the pathogen, pausing and divergent initiation at human
as well as investigate the mechanisms behind plant- promoters. Science, 322(5909): 1845-1848.
pathogen interaction. Better knowledge of the Gupta, R., Lee, S. E., Agrawal, G. K., Rakwal, R.,
intricate processes involved is being made possible Park, S., Wang, Y. and Kim, S. T. (2015).
by the fields of effectronomics, phosphoproteomics, Understanding the plant-pathogen interact-
and other related sciences. Plant disease control can ions in the context of proteomics-generated
be improved by applying the science of proteomics. apoplastic proteins inventory. Frontiers in
References Plant Science, 6: 132864.
Varshney, R. K., Song, C., Saxena, R. K., Azam, S., Moustafa, M. F., Taha, T. H., Helal, M. and
Yu, S., Sharpe, A. G., ... and Cook, D. R. Alrumman, S. A. (2016). Differential-display
(2013). Draft genome sequence of chickpea reverse transcription-PCR (DDRT-PCR): a
(Cicer arietinum) provides a resource for trait new technology for molecular detection and
improvement. Nature Biotechnology, 31(3): studying one of the antagonistic factors of
240-246. Bacillus endophyticus strain SA against
Muller, M. F., Barnes, I., Kunene, N. T., Crampton, Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). 3 Biotech,
B. G., Bluhm, B. H., Phillips, S. M., ... and 6: 1-7.
Berger, D. K. (2016). Cercospora zeina from Mahoney, A. K., Babiker, E. M., Paulitz, T. C., See,
maize in South Africa exhibits high genetic D., Okubara, P. A. and Hulbert, S. H. (2016).
diversity and lack of regional population Characterizing and mapping resistance in
differentiation. Phytopathology, 106(10):119 synthetic-derived wheat to Rhizoctonia root
4-1205. rot in a green bridge environment.
Bahder, B. W., Zalom, F. G., Jayanth, M. and Phytopathology, 106(10): 1170-1176.
Sudarshana, M. R. (2016). Phylogeny of
geminivirus coat protein sequences and
digital PCR aid in identifying Spissistilus
festinus as a vector of grapevine red blotch-
associated virus. Phytopathology, 106(10):
1223-1230.

338
Hyperspectral Imaging: A Tool for Plant Disease Detection

Suresh Patil, Kripalini Ningombam and Suhasini Sheelavant
Introduction plant against adverse impacts of the pathogens. The

An increasing concern to the world's food majority of pathogens carry out essential activities in
security is plant disease. The Food and Agriculture nature, obtain nourishment from the host, and
Organization (FAO) predicts that by 2050, there will associate with plants via symbiotic or non-symbiotic
be 9.1 billion people on the planet. Consequently, relationships. Suspected plants are required to be
agriculture output must be raised by up to 70% in identified by their external fruit and foliar symptoms
order to meet the food needs of a population that is on fruits and leaves prior to investigation in the
expanding constantly. Pathogens have brought great laboratory. In most cases, these visible symptoms
challenges to crop production in the last two decades. typically manifest in the middle to later stages of the
Several reasons may contribute to the increase in infection (Strange and Scott, 2005).
incidence around the world. Firstly, the globalization Morphological disease identification is
of human activities is promoting a more rapid spread unreliable, though. Finding the causative agent
and wider distribution of plant pathogens. However, requires the use of an appropriate technique. Many
the overuse of pesticides like fungicides, bactericides non-invasive methods that are fast, sensitive,
and nematicides to manage plant diseases has been reliable, standard, large throughput, and economical
negatively impacting the agro-ecosystem. Effective have been developed in the past ten years. The use of
early disease detection methods are currently non-invasive methods has been rising over time. The
required to control plant diseases for the most widely used non-invasive methods include
sustainability of the agro-ecosystem and food hyperspectral imaging, fluorescence imaging,
security. Plant disease affects the quality of fruits, visible/ near-infrared (VNIR) spectroscopy, and
vegetables, grains, legumes and causes heavy losses fluorescence spectroscopy.
in production (Sharma and Sharma, 2016). Hyperspectral imaging technology
Pathogenic microorganisms are ubiquitous in nature. The concept of hyperspectral imaging came
Pathogens characterize the symptoms in the plants into existence in the 1970s as a supporting field
and produce diseases due to the susceptibility of the spectral measurement for Landsat-1. In 1983, Airbo-
Suresh Patil
Assistant Professor-Cum Junior Scientist, Department of Plant Pathology, BAU, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar
Kripalini Ningom
Assistant Professor, Department of Plant Pathology, Pandit Deendayal Upadhyay Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Manipur
Suhasini Sheelavant
Research Scholar, Department of Plant Pathology, UAS, Raichur, Karnataka

339
rne Imaging Spectrometer (AIS) was designed by Hyperspectral imaging proves to be a powerful tool
National Aeronautics and Space Administration Jet for detecting plant diseases across different scales
Propulsion Laboratory (NASA/JPL) as an alternative and pathosystems. The benefits of hyperspectral
to satellite. The Airborne Visible/infrared Imaging imaging have increased the possibility of precision
Spectrometer (AVIRIS) followed in 1987, which is plant protection. Numerous recent investigations
the most important hyperspectral data provider have endeavored to elucidate the function of
(Goetz, 2009). Currently, development of hyper- hyperspectral bands in differentiating between plants
spectral imaging has reached in its blooming stage. with good health and those in unhealthy condition.
The hyperspectral sensors are not only orbiting
around Earth, but also around Mars.
Hyperspectral imaging is an important
technique in remote sensing. Hyperspectral sensors
capture the data from the visible through the Near
Fig. 1: General-workflow of hyperspectral imaging
Infra-Red (NIR) range of the electromagnetic disease detection
spectrum, and acquire the spectral information from Detection and Classification of Healthy and
hundreds of narrow spectral bands. Researchers and Diseased Plants
breeders can evaluate time series on sample plants Classification methods, which categorize
using hyperspectral imaging, a non-invasive data into healthy and
substitute for invasive molecular studies. As a result, diseased classes, can be
fewer samples are required, increasing the long-term dichotomized based on
experiment's efficiency. By eliminating subjectivity their spectral approach.
from manual rating systems and offering an They are broadly divided into two types: those
objective, automatable methodology, the non- focusing on specific key wavelengths and those
invasive approach reduces labor-intensive jobs. This utilizing the entire spectrum response. Furthermore,
reduces expenses associated with agricultural discussions on disease classification include
production, which benefits the environment in considerations for identifying multiple diseases and
addition to increasing economic efficiency. Diseases detecting specific diseases.
induce diverse alterations in plant physiology, Existing Vegetation and Disease Indices
affecting factors like tissue color, leaf shape, Prior to the general availability of hyper-
transpiration rate, crop canopy morphology, and spectral imaging equipment, color data collecting
density. The intricate interplay of these factors was accomplished by researchers using multispectral
results in variations in the optical properties of plants imaging or hyperspectral point-source equipment,

340
such as spectroradiometers. A user-defined capture old indicate that the spectra do not match the
technique is necessary reference spectra (Du et al., 2004). In hyperspectral
for hyperspectral sensors imaging studies, this method improves illness
and careful analysis is discrimination precision.
necessary for the large Quantifying severity of disease
numerical datasets that Pixel classification using spectral angle
are produced. Many indices, generally referred to as mapper (SAM) approaches compares pixel spectra to
“vegetation indices” when analyzing plant material, reference spectra. In spatial analysis, this is
are used to help understand data and are motivated accomplished by computing the angle between the
by biological reasons or technology limitations. spectra, which are then treated as n-dimensional
These indices include both general traits and vectors. Mahlein et al. (2012) used SAM with a 400-
particular growth-related indicators, covering a wide 1000 nm spectral range, 2.8 nm spectral resolution,
variety of plant attributes. and 0.19 mm spatial resolution to examine sugar beet
A commonly used metric for assessing diseases, notably Cerospora leaf spot, powdery
overall crop health is the normalized difference mildew, and leaf rust. In order to monitor various
vegetation index (NDVI), which is derived from disease phases and categorize leaves as healthy or
near-IR and visible light ratios. NDVI offers a wide diseased, an analysis was conducted over the course
range of uses, including the detection of stress in of 20 days. The classification accuracy varied for
wheat crops caused by the Sunn pest (Genc et al., each disease: Cerospora leaf spot (89.01-98.90%),
2008). An alternative technique entails observing powdery mildew (90.18-97.23%), and sugar beet rust
variations in reflectance at the “red edge,” a brief (61.70%, with no classification before day 20 using
range of 690-740 nm that denotes the shift from SAM).
visible to near-infrared light. Detection of early-stage stress symptoms
Disease identification The primary objective of detection systems is
Researchers investigate spectral information to detect abiotic abnormalities or diseases of plants
divergence classification, a technique that assesses with the least amount of observable disturbance. It is
the discrepancy between observed spectra and important to detect stress symptoms as soon as
reference spectra, to identify certain infections. possible, and combining hyperspectral technology
Reference spectra are obtained from average spectra with rigorous analysis techniques may help discover
of interest in the data or from a spectrum library. A stress signs before they are noticed by humans.
lower divergence value indicates that the spectra are Drought is a major problem for crops since it
more similar, whereas values above a certain thresh- typically takes time for symptoms to appear, which

341
affects both output and quality. According to recent imaging systems for online detection and real-time
studies, it is possible to determine when drought agricultural monitoring.
conditions first started before there were any visible References
symptoms or vegetation indicators. Data clustering Sharma, P. and Sharma, S. (2016). Paradigm shift in
methods such as Simplex Volume Maximization plant disease diagnostics: a journey from
(SiVM) are becoming more popular for early drought conventional diagnostics to nano-
stress detection. diagnostics. Current trends in plant disease
Table 1: Different techniques used to detect diagnostics and management practices, 237-
drought and diseases in plants
Techniques Plant (Stress) References
264.
Quadratic Avacado (laurel wilt) Sankaran et al. Strange, R. N. and Scott, P. R. (2005). Plant disease:
discriminant (2012)
analysis (QDA) a threat to global food security. Annual
Decision tree Avacado (laurel wilt) Sankaran et al.
(DT) (2012) Reviews in Phytopathology, 43: 83-116.
Spectral angle Sugarbeet (cerospora Mahlein et al.
mapper (SAM) leaf spot) (2012) Goetz, A. F. (2009). Three decades of hyperspectral
Artifcial neural Sugarbeet (powdery Rumpf et al., remote sensing of the Earth: A personal
network (ANN) mildew) 2010
Support vector Sugarbeet (powdery Rumpf et al., view. Remote Sensing of Environment, 113:
machine (SVM) mildew) 2010
Conclusion S5-S16.
The body of research on the use of hyper- Genc, H., Genc, L., Turhan, H., Smith, S. E. and
spectral image analysis to identify plant stress has Nation, J. L. (2008). Vegetation indices as
grown significantly. For agricultural and indicators of damage by the sunn pest
horticultural practices to be effective, it is necessary (Hemiptera: Scutelleridae) to field grown
to identify plant diseases. Significant advantages wheat. African Journal of Biotechnology,
come from early stress and disease identification, 7(2).
which allow for proactive measures to keep crop Du, Y., Chang, C. I., Ren, H., Chang, C. C., Jensen,
quality and reduce crop loss. The application of J. O. and D’Amico, F. M. (2004). New
hyperspectral imaging technology in agriculture hyperspectral discrimination measure for
makes full use of the advantages of hyperspectral spectral characterization. Optical Enginee-
mapping unity, which can precisely monitor crop ring, 43(8): 1777-1786.
growth and diseases. Environmental conditions Mahlein, A. K., Oerke, E. C., Steiner, U. and Dehne,
might readily impact the spectral gathering H. W. (2012). Recent advances in sensing
procedure. Additionally, the acquisition, processing, plant diseases for precision crop protect-
and analysis of hyperspectral image data are time- ion. European Journal of Plant Pathology,
consuming, which restricts the use of hyperspectral 133: 197-209.

342
Fish Preservation and Processing: An Overview

Swarnadyuti Nath, Hafeef Roshan K. T. and Shivani Dhruwa
Introduction with or anticipated to have a novel mode of action

The world population is growing drastically and distinctive chemical structure have been
and thus, the demand for food has been increasing produced continuously in the fields of insecticides,
likewise. In the modern era, the awareness on the acaricidides, nematicides, and fungicides. This is
benefits of consuming nutritious food has made the crucial for preventing the emergence of pesticide
demand for certain nutritious food stuffs, such as resistance and promoting sustainable production
fish, to rank at the top of the highly demanded food from agriculture. In Nigeria, between 30 and 50
stuffs. The biochemical composition of live fish percent of fish collected are lost due to improper
differs from species to species. Within the same handling. The implementation of appropriate hand-
species also their chemical composition differs ling, processing, and preservation methods could
depending on different factors such as, feed intake, reduce these losses (Bate and Bendall, 2010). The
migratory swimming and sexual changes in goal of fish processing and preservation is to deliver
connection with spawning. Despite these variations, fish to the final consumer in a usable and good state.
fish has proved to be one of the most nutritious food The actions required to achieve this start before to the
stuffs providing 20% of the protein intake of one fishing trip and continue until the fish is consumed
third of the world’s population2 and is also the or transformed into a meal, feed, or oil (Karube et al.,
source of health friendly oils, omega-3 (ω-3) 2001). Fish starts to go bad as soon as it's caught,
polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). Moreover, they possibly even before it's removed from the water.
are a rich source of a number of micronutrients like, Fish begins to spoil as soon as it is caught, perhaps
vitamin D and different minerals, which can be found even before it is taken out of the water. Therefore,
in higher quantities in aquatic animals than in the key to delivering a high quality product is close
mammalian meats and plants (Mohanty et al., 2017). attention to small details throughout the entire
Over the last ten years, numerous effective chemical process of preparation, catching, landing, handling,
pesticides that are both safe for humans and the storage, and transport. Fish that becomes spoiled or
environment have been developed. New compounds putrid is obviously unusable (Gopakumar, 2000).
Swarnadyuti Nath
Department of Fish Processing Technology, West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences, Kolkata, West Bengal
Hafeef Roshan K. T.
Marine Product Export Development Authority, Kochi, Kerala
Shivani Dhruwa
Department of Zoology, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya, Koni, Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh

343
red according to its size, it must be cleaned and

put in the brine.
 Dry salting: In this method the fish is salted but
the juices, slime and brine are allowed to flow
away. Dry salting can be done in an old canoe, or
on mats, leaves, boxes, etc. In any case, the brine
formed by the fish juices and the salt must be
allowed to run away.
Preservation methods
Salting: There are numerous varieties of salt, and
some are superior to others when it comes to curing
fish. However, there is frequently no choice in
islands or remote locations, so whatever salt is
available must be used-it can be purchased from a
store, made immediately, or mined from salt- Smoking and Roasting: This is a simple method of
containing earth. A distinction must be made preservation, for consumption either directly after
between the two chief techniques of salting: wet curing or within twelve hours. Re-smoking and
salting and dry salting (FAO, 2005). roasting can keep the product in good condition for a
 Wet Salting: The principle is to keep the fish for further twelve hours. Fish can be preserved in this
a long time in brine. The equipment needed way even in open fishing boats, but the smoking has
consists of a watertight container, which can be a to be done in a tin or a half-drum. Salted fish can also
tin, drum, canoe, barrel, etc. To make the brine, be smoked by this method, but this is used mostly for
one takes four parts of clean water (sea or fresh immediate consumption or in order to bring the
water) and one part of salt. If the salt is coarse, it produce in smoked form to a nearby market.
has to be ground or pounded first (Tys and Peters, Sun-drying: Sun-drying is the most common type of
2009). It is then dissolved into the water by traditional processing found in the region. It is a
stirring with a piece of wood. To be good, the simple method in which fishes are dried under the
brine must float a fish. The next step depends on sunlight until the body moisture of the fishes
what kind of fish one wants to salt. It is best first evaporate due to the sun temperature. Fishes are
to cut off the head, and gut and clean the fish, exposed under direct sunlight for several days
though small fish can also be salted whole. Large continuously until the fishes are completely dry.
fish must be cut open, and it is preferable to take Hurdle technology: Almost all preservation
out the backbone. After the fish has been prepa- methods reveal poor effect when used individually.
344
It might also require their use at the highest  Transferring the catch from the fishing gear (such
concentration or intensity, which in turn can result in as a trawl, net or fishing line) to the fishing vessel
sensorial and nutritional deterioration of the product.  Holding the catch before further handling.
Leistner (2000) has suggested the use of more than  Sorting and grading.
one preservative factor (hurdle) to keep undesirable  Bleeding, gutting and washing
microbes in a hostile environment, which inhibits  Chilling
their growth and leads them to death. The principle  Storing the chilled fish
of the technology involves the use of more than one  Unloading, or landing the fish when the fishing
hurdle at mild levels and subjects the micro- vessel returns to port
organisms to multi–stress reactions by disturbing Handling live fish: An alternative, and obvious way
their homeostasis. of keeping fish fresh is to keep them alive until they
Processing of fish are delivered to the buyer or ready to be eaten. This
is a common practice worldwide. Typically, the fish
are placed in a container with clean water, and dead,
damaged or sick fish are removed. The water
temperature is then lowered and the fish are starved
to reduce their metabolic rate. Fish can be kept alive
in floating cages, wells and fish ponds. In aqua-
culture, holding basins are used where the water is
Handling the catch: Fish must undergo some continuously filtered and its temperature and oxygen
preprocessing after they are caught or harvested for level are controlled. Fish can be kept alive in floating
commercial use in order to be sent fresh and cages, wells and fish ponds. In aquaculture, holding
undamaged to the following link in the marketing basins are used where the water is continuously
chain. This implies, for instance, that fish taken by a filtered and its temperature and oxygen level are
fishing boat must be handled in order to be held controlled.
securely until the boat lands the fish on land. Removal of the Scales: Remove the head and wash
Conventional methods of treatment are (FAO, 2011). the entire flat fish. With a sharp knife, scale the fish
The number and order in which these operations are by scraping toward the head while holding it by the
undertaken varies with the fish species and the type tail. Continue scraping until all of the scales are gone.
of fishing gear used to catch it, as well as how large After turning the fish, scale the opposite side.
the fishing vessel is and how long it is at sea, and the Filleting of fish: When prawns aren't readily
nature of the market it is supplying. accessible, the processing business has also started

345
freezing fish fillets. Simply said, fillets are the meat ly made from fish that are not generally used for
strips that are cut perpendicular to the fish's human consumption; a small portion is made from
backbone. Fish that work well for filleting and the bones and offal left over from processing fish
freezing include milk fish, cat fish, perches, mullets, used for human consumption, while the larger
carps, eels, etc. (Bekker-Nielsen, 2005). Filleting can percentage is manufactured from sustainable, mana-
be done by hand which is economical or by using a ged and monitored fish stocks of wild-caught, small
filleting machine. Fillets may be with or without skin marine fish.
and it fetches a much higher price in the luxury Advanced Technology for Improving Ingredients
market. Quality
Processed Fish Products In recent years, the use of modern ferment-
Fish mince: This can be defined as flesh separated ation techniques in meat and fish has piqued the
in a communited form, from the frames, scale, bones interest of an increasing number of researchers. Food
and fins of fish. Fish mince can be prepared either safety has been improved, processing time has been
mechanically by the use of flesh bone separator or reduced, and product sensory properties have been
non-mechanically. Minced fish is obtained from altered by inoculating starter cultures into meat and
filleting leftovers to headed and gutted fish using a fish. A comparative UHPLC-Q/TOF-MS-based
bone/flesh (meat-bone) separator to remove bones metabolomics approach combining equivalent-
from the edible flesh. Fish mince is very versatile and quantification was used to evaluate the taste qualities
can be used to make a variety of products such as fish and characterise metabolite profiles in fish product
portions, fish fingers, fish cakes, fish sausage and such as tilapia fillets and Chinese fish sauce during
fish cheese. fermentation. This approach identified chemical
Surimi: This is a wet concentrate made from components and sheds new light on the taste,
mechanically deboned, water-washed fish meat that nutrition, texture, and flavour quality of fish
contains proteins from the muscle. It is made with products. Advanced fermentation process optimiza-
fish from the sea. To get rid of fat and water-soluble tion such as utilising dominant bacterial taxa in
ingredients, minced fish is water-washed in a chilled starter cultures, may enhance the fermentation of
environment (Garcia et al., 2015). The final product food, manage food quality, and provide helpful
is frozen and used to make a variety of fish dishes, guidance for industrial applications.
including fish sausage, fish ham, fish sticks, fish Conclusion
balls, hamburgers, and Japanese surimi-based items Fish is one of the most perishable and high in
like kamaboko, tempura, and chikwa. nutritional value foods. If fish is stored incorrectly
Fish meal: Fishmeal, is a commercial product most- and isn't processed right away, its delicate quality

346
will quickly deteriorate after harvest, making it easy Tys, D., Pieters, M., Sicking, L. and Abreu-Ferreira,
to spot. Fish farms and other sites used for collecting D. (2009). Walraversijde 12th or 13th century
fish are typically situated at a considerable distance 1630: Understanding a medieval fishing
from the market, which increases the risk of fish settlement along the southern North Sea
deterioration and the uncertainty surrounding their (Belgium, Province of West Flanders,
sale. When the quantity of fish collected exceeds the municipality of Ostend). In The North
amount consumed, preservation of the fish is Atlantic Fisheries in the Middle Ages and
required for future usage. Early Modern Period: Interdisciplinary
References Approaches in History, Archaeology and
Bate, E. C. and Bendall, J. R. (2010). Changes in fish Biology (pp. 91-121). Brill.
muscle after death. British Medical Bulletin, Mohanty, B. P., Mahanty, A., Ganguly, S., Mitra, T.,
12: 2305. Karunakaran, D. and Anandan, R. (2019).
Karube, I., Marouka, H., Suzuki, S., Watanabe, E. Nutritional composition of food fishes and
and Toyana, K. (2001). Journal of their importance in providing food and
Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 32: 314- nutritional security. Food Chemistry, 293:
319. 561-570.
Gopakumar, K. (2000). Enzymes and enzyme Leistner, L. (2000). Basic aspects of food
products as quality indices. Food Science and preservation by hurdle technology. Inter-
Technology, New York, Marcel Dekker, 337- national Journal of Food Microbiology,
364. 55(1-3): 181-186.
FAO. (2005). Post-harvest changes in fish. In: FAO FAO. (2011). Handling of fish and fish products
Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, Food Fisheries and aquaculture department, Rome.
and Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy. Retrieved February 2017.
http://www.fao.org/fishery/topic/12320/en
García, M. R., Vilas, C., Herrera, J. R., Bernárdez,
M., Balsa-Canto, E. and Alonso, A. A.
(2015). Quality and shelf-life prediction for
retail fresh hake (Merluccius merluccius
). International Journal of Food Micro-
biology, 208: 65-74.

347
Nanotechnology in Pest Management

Manasij Das, Toko Naan and Snigdha Samanta
Introduction may argue that nanotechnology is the fifth truly

Agriculture is one of the primary sectors of significant technological advancement in the
livelihood and around 19% people of the world are previous 100 years. The agriculture industry has
directly involved in agriculture. But the production been using the information that has been gathered in
of crop is hindered by various abiotic and biotic these fields over the past 20 years to develop plant-
stresses. Pests are biotic factors including weeds, protecting agrochemicals. Using of nanotechnology
insects, pathogens, nematodes which cause about 20- for the insect pest management is one of the
40% crop loss (FAO, 2021). Worldwide, insect pests alternatives to overcome the problems related to the
are thought to harm 18-20% of the crop that is use of conventional pesticide and it is an emerging
produced (Arora and Sandhu, 2017). People have tool in agriculture for controlling insect pests. Nano-
used a variety of management tactics, including insecticides are plant protection chemicals, in which
cultural, mechanical, biological, and chemical either the active ingredient or the carrier molecule is
methods, to control insect pests from the beginning developed through nanotechnology. The absolute
of time. Farmers are increasingly using synthetic small size of nanomaterials is the blessings. Having
pesticides as part of the chemical management smaller size, nanoparticles have larger surface area
approach. In contemporary agriculture, it is currently and thus more volume of pesticides gets contact with
regarded as a crucial input for raising crop the insect pests (Rajna et al., 2019). According to
productivity and crop protection. Because Chipa (2017), nanotechnology is regarded as the fifth
conventional pesticides lack selectivity in their profoundly significant technological advancement in
formulation, their indiscriminate usage can also the past 100 years. The agricultural industry has been
result in the eradication of insect pests' natural using the knowledge that has been gathered in these
adversaries (Khan et al., 2015). Therefore, they must sectors over the past 20 years by adapting and
be replaced with an alternate method of insect pest transferring it for the creation of agrochemicals that
control that can solve the aforementioned issue. One protect plants. Nanotechnology is the control of obje-
Manasij Das
Assistant Professor, Department of Agril. Entomology, Seacom Skills University, Bolpur, Birbhum, West Bengal
Toko Naan
Research Scholar, Division of Sericulture, SKUAST-J, Chatha, Jammu, UT of J&K
Snigdha Samanta
Assistant Professor, Department of Agril. Entomology, School of Agriculture and Allied Sciences, The Neotia University, 24
Parganas South, West Bengal

348
ct at dimensions between 1 to 100 nanometers (nm) hods, it is consistent with the concepts of sustainable
where unique phenomena involved novel applicat- agriculture. It can assist organic farming methods,
ions. One way to secure over the issues with using encourage integrated pest management (IPM) and
conventional pesticides is to employ nano- decrease the need for synthetic chemicals. The
technology for insect pest management. This is a new formation of nanoparticles has been done by using
tool in agriculture that helps control insect pests. plant extracts that are safe, easy to access and cost-
Plant protection compounds known as “Nano- effective. There is broad range of phyto-chemicals
insecticides” have either an active ingredient or a present in different parts of plants. The nanoporus
carrier molecule that was created using nano- zeolites were used for the slow release of herbicides,
technology. fertilizer, irrigation and pest management.
Why nanotechnology holds promise in this field? Reduced Environmental Impact: Conventional
Precision Targeting: Nano pesticides, which are pesticides often result in the contamination of soil
nanoscale formulations of pesticides, enable precise and water, harming beneficial organisms and eco-
targeting of pests. These nanoparticles can be systems. Nanotechnology allows for the design of
engineered to release their payload gradually, pesticide delivery systems that minimize environ-
ensuring that the pesticide reaches the target mental impact by controlling the release and
organism while minimizing exposure to non-target persistence of active ingredients.
species.
Enhanced Efficacy: Nanoscale formulations can
improve the efficacy of pesticides. They can
penetrate the cuticle of insects more effectively,
overcome pesticide resistance, and provide longer-
lasting protection. This can lead to reduced pesticide
usage and enhanced crop yields.
Minimized Health Risks: It is possible to create
Nano pesticides to lower health risks to humans.
Reduced application rates and controlled release can Nano based pest management: Modern approach
minimize the risk of pesticide-related health Many fields, including biomass, food,
problems by lowering exposure levels for farmers nutrition, paint, sensing technology, paper, fertilizer
and agricultural workers. industry, plant protection and agrochemical
Sustainable Agriculture: Because nanotechnology industries, have proposed using nanotechnology to
provides ecologically friendly pest management met- develop various formulations and applications in

349
meadows (Sadowski, 2010). In comparison to Goswami et al. (2010) studied the applications of
conventional insecticides, the formulations of nano- different kind of nanoparticles viz. silver
based pesticides, such as ZnO, Cu, Ag, and SiO2 nanoparticles (SNP), aluminium oxide (ANP), zinc
nanoparticles, exhibit broad spectrum, reduce water, oxide and titanium dioxide in the control of rice
and address environmental contamination. The zinc weevil and grasserie disease in silkworm (Bombyx
which is an essential nutrient element helps in plant mori) caused by Sitophilus oryzae and baculovirus
growth and development and has toxic effect on BmNPV (B. mori nuclear polyhedrosis virus),
insect pests. The silver has great potential that is used respectively.
in the field of medicine, living organisms, pest Current Applications of Nanotechnology in Pest
control and plant management with better efficiency Management
and activity by the green method to use as microbial, Nanoencapsulation: Active pesticide ingredients
fungal, larvicidal, pesticidal, antibacterial and anti- can be encapsulated in nanoscale carriers, such as
viral activity. The stability, smaller particles size and lipid-based nanoparticles or polymeric nanoparticles.
ecofriendly byproducts are the characteristics of These carriers protect the pesticide from degradation
metal nanoparticles (Iravani, 2011). The best and control its release, resulting in improved efficacy
possible alternative management techniques for the and reduced environmental impact.
insect pests control are nanoformulations. Porous Nano pesticide sprays: Conventional sprayers can
hollow silica nanoparticles (PHSNs) loaded with be equipped with nano pesticide formulations,
validamycin (pesticide) can be used as efficient enabling accurate and effective spraying. Because
delivery system of water-soluble pesticide for its these formulations stick to plant surfaces more
controlled release. Such controlled release behaviour readily, the pesticide will stay where it is even when
of PHSNs makes it a promising carrier in agriculture, it rains or is irrigated.
especially for pesticide controlled delivery whose Nanomaterial-Based Pest Traps: Nanomaterials,
immediate as well as prolonged release is needed for such as carbon nanotubes or nanoparticles, can be
plants. Yang et al. (2009) demonstrated the used to develop innovative pest traps. These traps
insecticidal activity of polyethylene glycol-coated can attract and capture specific pests, providing an
nanoparticles loaded with garlic essential oil against alternative to chemical pesticides.
adult Tribolium castaneum insect found in stored Nano sensors: Nanoscale sensors can detect pest
products. It has been observed that the control infestations early by monitoring changes in plant
efficacy against adult T. castaneum was about 80 %, physiology or the presence of pests. This enables
presumably due to the slow and persistent release of timely intervention and targeted pest management
the active components from the nanoparticles. strategies.

350
Biological Control: Nanotechnology can enhance and insect pests. Au, Ag and Cu nanoparticles are
the delivery of beneficial microorganisms, such as being used as bio-nanosensors and electrical-
predatory nematodes or parasitoids, for biological nanosensor to detect the pest. Nanoparticles are one
pest control. Nanoscale carriers protect these of the effective organic insecticides to solve the
organism and ensure their effective release. current issue of environmental pollution.
References
Arora, R. (2017). Breeding Insect Resistant Crops
for Sustainable Agriculture. Springer Nature
Singapore Pte Ltd.
Chhipa, H. (2017). Nanofertilizers and nano-
pesticides for agriculture. Environmental
Chemistry Letters, 15: 15-22.
Table 1: Some nanoparticles and their active
ingredients used against insect pests FAO. (2021). News Article: New standards to curb
Target the global spread of plant pests and diseases.
Nano particle Active ingredient
Organism
Nanoencapsu- Essential oil (EO) Diamondback Goswami, A., Roy, I., Sengupta, S. and Debnath, N.
lation of Carum copticum moth
(2010). Novel applications of solid and liquid
Nanogel Methyl eugenol Fruit fly
Nanocapsules Pyridalyl Cotton bollworm formulations of nanoparticles against insect
Nano dust Nano-Al₂O₃ dust Rice weevil
Nano-DEPA DEPA Mosquito pests and pathogens. Thin Solid Films, 519
Chitosan Nomuraea rileyi Tobacco cutworm (3): 1252-1257.
nanocarrier
Conclusion Iravani, S. (2011). Green synthesis of metal
The nanotechnology has great potential in nanoparticles using plants. Green Chemistry,
various areas of science. In near future the pest 13(10): 2638-2650.
control to be done by the application of nano- Khan, A., Shah, M. and Majid, S. (2015). Arthropod
technology that is an ecofriendly way and is to be Natural Enemy: Pesticide Interaction. Daya
need of the research of the day. Nanotechnology, a Publishing House
promising field of research opens up in the present Rajna, S., Paschapur, A. U. and Raghavendra, K. V.
decade a wide array of opportunities in the present (2019). Nanopesticides: Its scope and utility
decade and is expected to give major impulses to in pest management. Indian Farmer, 6: 17.
technical innovations in a variety of industrial sectors Sadowski, Z. (2010). Biosynthesis and application of
in the future. Nanomaterials like Sio2, Tio2 and ZnO silver and gold nanoparticles. Silver Nano-
are increasing their presence in fungicides and particles, 22: 257-277.
pesticides to protect the plants from fungal, bacterial,

351
Seed Ageing and Its Mechanisms

Shubham Thapa, Ezhilarasan K. and Ajay Baldaniya
Introduction rise to billions of dollars of economic losses. It is

Most of the plant species were evolved possible to characterize the process of seed ageing as
through several strategies by means of multiplying permanent, cumulative, and unstoppable.
their own seeds under wide range of climatic In the process of germination and early
conditions. Since, quality seeds are crux of life and seedling growth, this procedure may cause delayed
also the important commodity for successful seedling emergence and lower resistance to
agricultural production. Seeds have been utilized to environmental stress. Certain repairs can be made by
create rootstocks and to breed different improved seeds during the early imbibition stage; this is
cultivars even in crops where vegetatively connected to the delayed germination of relatively
propagated, such as Citrus reticulate, Ficus carica, aged seed. During storage, a number of physiological
and Garcinia mangostana (Copeland and McDonald, and physico-chemical changes occur, termed seed
2012). Furthermore, seeds can be the main stay of ageing (Shibata et al., 2012). Seed ageing can be
initiatives for environmental restoration and helps to affected by various factor such as germination
ensure the long-term maintenance of genetic potential, vigour and viability. Seed longevity is
diversity. However, even the seeds stored under determined by how long they remain viable, and this
required optimal conditions, all seeds will eventually is determined in large part by the environmental
lose their viability at certain stage as they getting aged factors that occur during storage, such as
and death, a process called seed deterioration or temperature, equilibrium relative humidity (RH), and
ageing (Ebone et al., 2019). Physiologically, seed oxygen pressure. Based on how they behave while
ageing is characterized by a gradual decline in seed being stored, seeds can be divided into three main
quality, which manifests as a reduction in categories: orthodox, intermediate, and recalcitrant.
germination percent, seedling vigour, and overall Recalcitrant and intermediate seeds are extremely
plant performance. It has been estimated that ca. 25% sensitive to desiccation and chilling, conditions
of seeds lose their viability annually, which can give routinely used for ex situ conservation of germplasm,
Shubham Thapa
Department of Seed Science and Technology, V. C. S. G. Uttarakhand University of Horticulture and Forestry, Bharsar,
Uttarakhand
Ezhilarasan K.
Assistant Professor, Department of Seed Science and Technology, MIT CAT, Musiri, Trichy, Tamil Nadu
Ajay Baldaniya
Department of Entomology, AAU, Anand, Gujarat

352
thus making their storage problematic. Recalcitrant as people age, their protein's carbonyl content
seeds have reduced longevity and are typically found increases. The term “Amadori and Millard reaction”
in woody species from tropical or subtropical describes a sequence of intricate reactions that follow
habitats. Intermediate seeds, comprising around 10- the initial carboyl-amine reaction. Typically, these
15% of angiosperms worldwide, can tolerate higher responses take the following four forms:
levels of dehydration than recalcitrant seeds, but are  Non-enzymatic condensation of a reducing
not as resistant as orthodox seeds. Dry orthodox sugar, aldehyde or ketose with free amino group
mature seeds reach a state characterized by extreme of proteins. A group of protein or nucleic acids to
cellular viscocity, called a glassy or vitrified state, form a glycosylamine (a reversible step).
during which their cellular activities and metabolism  The re-arrangement of the glycosylamine to
are greatly slowed down, including oxidation. This Amadori product, 1-amino-α-deoxyketose.
mechanism represents an important protection  The degradation and dehydration of Amadori
against ageing, allowing orthodox seeds to survive products into amino or carbonyl intermediates.
for long periods with a vitrified cytoplasm.  The reaction of carbonyl intermediates with other
Mechanism of seed ageing amino group as well as the subsequent
Pre-formed mRNA can connect and cause rearrangement to form advanced glycosylation
protein synthesis in seedlings that are germinating, end-products (AGE- product).
polyribosomes must dissociate. In non-viable seeds, Physiological changes during seed ageing
protein synthesis is slowed down as ribosomes fail to Loss of membrane integrity: Loss of membrane
separate (Bray and Chow, 1976). Such reductions in integrity is a common physiological change, which
the production of proteins are a quantifiable sign of occurs during seed ageing. Membranes play a crucial
ageing. Such declines in protein synthesis are measu- role in maintaining the structural and functional
rable symptom of ageing. Age-related chemical integrity of cells and any damage or disruption to the
reactions that can occurs on proteins include: membrane can affect cellular processes and leads to
oxidation of amino acids, formation of adducts reduction in seed viability. During seed ageing, the
involving reactive nitrogen and chlorine species, integrity of the cell membrane can be compromised
chemical modification of proteins by products of due to the production of reactive oxygen species
lipid peroxidation reactions (lipoxidation) and (ROS) and oxidative damage. During seed ageing,
Maillard reaction products. Ageing is influenced by oxidative damage is not the only cause that can lead
reactive oxygen species (ROS) and / or reactive to the loss of membrane integrity. The fluidity and
nitrogen species (RNS) produced in vivo, as stability of membranes, for instance, can be impacted
previously suggested in 1956. It has been noted that by temperature and moisture, which can result in

353
membrane degradation and decreased seed viability changes that occur in the starvation of meristematic
(Sharma and Kumar, 2018). cells. This is due to various factors, including
Decrease in protein content: A decrease in protein oxidative stress, decreased nutrient availability and
content is frequently linked to seed deterioration and altered hormonal regulation. Oxidative stress can
this might have an impact on the vigour and cause damage to cellular membranes, proteins and
germination of seeds. The breakdown of proteins and DNA, leading to decreased cellular function and
other metabolic alterations that take place during viability. The starvation of meristematic cells can
seed ageing are the causes of the drop in protein have several deleterious effects on seed quality and
content. Proteins are necessary for many cellular and viability. For example, it can lead to a decrease in
metabolic functions as well as being crucial for the plant growth and development, affecting seedling
growth of seeds. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and emergence and vigour.
other oxidative damage are two of the many causes
that can cause protein degradation in seeds as they
age. Protein oxidation and fragmentation brought on
by ROS can lower the quantity and quality of
proteins.
Accumulation of free radicals: One of the
physiological alterations that happen to seeds as they Fig.1: Factors affecting seed longevity and processes
associated with seed development and ageing
age is the build-up of free radicals. Free radicals are (Source: Pirredda et al., 2023)
very reactive molecules with unpaired electrons that Biochemical changes during seed ageing
can harm proteins, lipids, and DNA among other Lipid peroxidation: Lipid peroxidation is a process
biological constituents. The imbalance between that occurs when free radicals attack the unsaturated
reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and fatty acids in cell membranes, resulting in the
elimination is the cause of the buildup of free oxidation and degradation of these lipids. This
radicals. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are process can cause damage to the cell membrane,
generated during regular metabolic activities leading to decreased membrane integrity and
including respiration and photosynthesis. They are increased permeability. Lipid peroxidation is one of
essential for many physiological functions like the major biochemical changes that occur during
signaling and pathogen defense. seed ageing, as it leads to membrane leakage and loss
Starvation of meristematic Cell: The meristematic of integrity, affecting seed viability (Bailly et al.,
cells are responsible for the growth and development 2008). The products of lipid peroxidation can also
of plants. During seed ageing, crucial physiological have toxic effects on cells, as they can react with

354
other cellular components, such as proteins and ing seed viability and germination. Changes in gene
DNA, leading to further damage. Antioxidant expression can occur during seed ageing, resulting in
systems within cells can help to prevent lipid altered metabolism and reduced seed viability.
peroxidation by neutralizing free radicals and other Studies have shown that ageing-induced changes in
reactive oxygen species. gene expression can be related to changes in DNA
Changes in reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels: methylation, histone modifications and small RNA-
The accumulation of ROS during seed ageing can mediated gene regulation.
cause oxidative damage to the cell membrane and Conclusion
other cellular components, leading to the loss of seed The process of seed ageing is inexorable and
viability and vigour. Studies have shown that the irreversible. Since seeds are living things, they will
levels of ROS, such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), always be susceptible to ageing. Furthermore, seed
superoxide anion (O2-), and hydroxyl radicals (OH-), degeneration can take several forms, including seed
increase during seed ageing. ageing and is not limited to a single biological
Changes in sugar metabolism: Changes in sugar function. The complicated process of seed ageing
metabolism are among the biochemical changes that includes several physiological, biochemical and
occur during seed ageing. The levels of sugars, such molecular alterations. These modifications may
as glucose, fructose, sucrose and raffinose, can ultimately result in a decline in the viability and
change during seed ageing. The metabolism of vigour of the seeds, which may have an effect on seed
sugars plays a critical role in seed germination and germination and seedling establishment.
growth, as they provide the energy and carbon References
skeletons needed for the development of the embryo Bailly, C., El-Maarouf-Bouteau, H., Corbineau, F.
and the establishment of the seedling. During seed and Come, D. (2008). Reactive oxygen
ageing, the balance between sugar synthesis and species and seed quality. Seed Science
degradation can be disrupted, leading to changes in Research, 18(2): 73-85.
sugar metabolism. Bray, C. M. and Chow, T. Y. (1976). Lesions in the
Molecular changes during seed ageing: Seed ribosomes of non-viable pea (Pisum arvense)
ageing can cause DNA damage from factors like embryonic axis tissue. Biochimica et
oxidative stress, radiation and exposure toxins. Biophysica Acta (BBA)-Nucleic Acids and
Oxidative stress causes DNA damage in ageing seeds Protein Synthesis, 442(1): 14-23.
by accumulating reactive oxygen species (ROS) in Copeland, L. O. and McDonald, M. F. (2012).
the cells. DNA damage can cause mutations, Principles of Seed Science and Technology.
deletions, or variations in the DNA sequence, affect- Springer Science & Business Media.

355
Ebone, L. A., Caverzan, A. and Chavarria, G. (2019).

Physiologic alterations in orthodox seeds due
to deterioration processes. Plant Physiology
and Biochemistry, 145: 34-42.
Shibata, M., Coelho, C. M. M., Oliveira, L. M. D.
and Garcia, C. (2012). Accelerated ageing of
ipe seeds under controlled conditions of
storage. Revista Brasileira de Sementes, 34:
247-254.
Kumar, A., Sharma, S. and Mishra, D. (2018). Epi-
genetic regulation of seed ageing tolerance in
plants. Plant Cell Reports, 37(6): 829-847.
Pirredda, M., Fananas-Pueyo, I., Onate-Sanchez, L.
and Mira, S. (2023). Seed Longevity and
Ageing: A Review on Physiological and
Genetic Factors with an Emphasis on
Hormonal Regulation. Plants, 13(1): 41.

356
Effects of Shifting Cultivation on Soil Fertility

Introduction , in Brazil “Roca” and some other names in other

Shifting cultivation is also called as places.
“Jhumming”, it is one the most primitive form of In India it is mostly practiced in the northern
agricultural system followed by tribes. An regions like Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh,
exponential increase in human population leads to Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram, Madhya
increase in shifting cultivation. As shifting Pradesh, Orissa, in recent years Andhra Pradesh. The
cultivation has both positive and the negative effects fallow period that was meant for regaining soil
in it. This will leads to increase in inversion of weeds fertility has reduced from 20-30 years to less than 2-
and leads to decrease in the soil fertility, at the same 3 years thereby leading to degradation and creating
time consequently raised the concern of the food ecological imbalance (Bhuyan, 2019).
security for the local farming communities (Temjen Soil Fertility
et al., 2022). The availability of a soil to sustain plant
Shifting Cultivation growth by providing essential plant nutrients and
Shifting cultivation system can be defined as favourable chemical, physical and biological
the primitive agricul- characteristics as a habitat for plant growth. Soil
tural system in which fertility is an important source for cultivation. In
the small local farm- shifting cultivation the soil fertility is high in few
ing communities do years and then they decrease and that leads to
agriculture in small decrease in crop yield, fertility of soil and increase
lots of a forest or savanna land is cleared for all kind the soil erosion (Osman et al., 2013).
of plants, the waste burned and used as the mulching Effects of Shifting Cultivation in Soil Fetility
material. Shifting is one of the most ancient farming In shifting cultivation, the small forests are
system which is to be believed that originated from cleared by the ox and machete during the low rainfall
the Neolithic period around 7000BC-8000BC. As or dry period. Then the residues of the plants are used
this method is practiced all over the world mostly by as mulching materials or organic residues or burn
the tribal peoples. Shifting cultivating also known as (their ash are used). Before cleaning the forest the
“slash and burn” and “bush fallow” all over the world soil has remarkably closed nutrient cycle in which
and in Indonesia “Ladcmg”, in Philippines “Caingin” most of the nutrients are stored in the biomass and
J. K. K. Munirajah College of Agricultural Science, T. N. Palayam, Gobi, Erode, Tamil Nadu

357
topsoil and they are transferred from one to other via degrading the soil and reducing its fertility.
rain wash, root decomposition and by the plant Decreased Soil organic matter: In addition to
uptake (Mukul et al., 2022). When that forest is releasing nutrients, burning vegetation lowers the
cleaned the nutrient cycle is broken by cleaning and amount of organic matter in the soil. Because organic
burning of vegetation leads to change the soil matter improves soil structure, water retention, and
properties. nutrient availability, it is essential for soil fertility.
The temperature of the soil will increases due Insufficient organic matter makes soils less
to the burning. The chemical composition of the soil productive and unable to sustain the growth of
change by the ash content from different source of healthy plants.
vegetation. The soil moisture regimes are also altered Loss of biodiversity: Clearing a variety of natural
leads to less moisture content in the soil surface. ecosystems to make room for monoculture crops is a
While burning the residues from the vegetation the common practice in shifting farming. The natural
organic matter and the soil nitrogen contents nutrient cycles may be disturbed by this loss of
increases gradually and then decrease gradually with biodiversity, which would lower soil fertility overall.
cultivation of crops. Soil pH value increases after Furthermore, monoculture agricultural methods are
burning because of the incorporation of basic cations more susceptible to diseases and pests, which
and gradually degrease with cultivation (Neergard et increases the need for chemical inputs that
al., 2008). Some of the major significant impacts are deteriorate soil health even more.
as follows; Land degradation: Repeated clearing and cultiva-
Nutrient depletion: Clearing land for shifting tion cycles over time can cause land degradation,
cultivation frequently entails burning vegetation, which is the reduction of soil fertility to the point that
which releases nutrients that are contained in plants it is unusable for agricultural purposes. This can lead
and trees into the soil. But crops quickly consume to farmers moving to new places and abandoning
these nutrients, and the soil gets depleted since there their land, which would continue the cycle of
isn't enough time for the ground to recover. deforestation and soil deterioration.
Prolonged agriculture without appropriate fallow Conclusion
times can result in substantial loss of nutrients, In shifting cultivation, the soil fertility
especially potassium, phosphate, and nitrogen. decreases due to Loss of organic matter through
Soil erosion: The elimination of vegetation leaves oxidation, Leaching, Deterioration of soil physical
the soil vulnerable to water and wind erosion. The properties, Change soil chemical properties, Erosion,
absence of stabilizing plant roots can cause topsoil to Continuous cultivation. The soil fertility can be
be swept or blown away by wind or heavy rain, maintained in shifting cultivation by undertaking

358
some cultural management measures. Osman, K. S., Jashimuddin, M. and Haque, S. M. S.

References (2013). Effect of shifting cultivation on soil
Bhuyan, R. (2019). A review note on shifting physical and chemical properties in
cultivation in northeast India amidst Bandarban hill district, Bangladesh. Journal
changing perceptions. Dhaulagiri Journal of of Forest Research, 24: 791-795.
Sociol Anthropology, 13: 90-95. Temjen, W., Singh, M. R. and Ajungla, T. (2022).
de Neergaard, A., Magid, J. and Mertz, O (2008). Effect of shifting cultivation and fallow on
Soil erosion from shifting cultivation and soil quality index in Mokokchung district,
other smallholder land use in Sarawak, Nagaland, India. Ecological Process, 11: 42.
Malaysia. Agriculture Ecosystems and.
Environment, 125: 182-190.
Kendawang, J. J., Tanaka, S. and Shibata, K. (2005).
Effects of shifting cultivation on soil
ecosystems in Sarawak, Malaysia. III.
Results of burning practice and changes in
soil organic matter at Niah and Bakam
experimental sites. Soil Science and Plant
Nutrition, 51(4): 515-523.
Mishra, G., Giri, K., Jangir, A., Vasu, D. and
Rodrigo-Comino, J. (2021). Understanding
the effect of shifting cultivation practice
(slash-burn-cultivation-abandonment) on soil
physicochemical properties in the North-
eastern Himalayan region. Investigaciones
Geográficas, 76: 243-261.
Mukul, S. A., Herbohn, J., Ferraren, A. and
Congdon, R. (2022). Limited role of shifting
cultivation in soil carbon and nutrients
recovery in regenerating tropical secondary
forests. Frontiers in Environment Science,
10: 1076506.

359
Intracellular Symbiotes in Insects with their Transmission and Functions

B. L. Naga and Akshay Kumar Singh Pratihar
Intracellular Symbiotes in Insects Wolbachia supplies bedbugs with vitamins B.

 As multicellular organisms, insects as a group  The symbionts of many insect species
seem to be most tolerant of foreign organisms (Wolbachia, Spiroplasma, etc.) kill male hosts
and live together with many different micro- and change the sex ratio in the host population.
organisms, both inside and outside their bodies, Horizontal Transmission of Intracellular Insect
in a variety of ways, and symbiotic relationships Symbionts via Plants
range from mutually beneficial (mutualism) to  There has been increasing interest in the role of
neutral (commensalism) or parasitic (parasitism). symbiont transmission through plants. In the case
 The microorganisms inside insects include gut of herbivores, indirect evidence for horizontal
microbe, endoparasites, extracellular symbiosis, transmission via plant diet comes from the
and intracellular symbiosis (also called endo- observations that insects that feed upon common
symbionts). plants possess similar symbionts.
 The endosymbionts are the most intimate
association between two different organisms, and
it is generally reasoned that the association is
maintained through the host’s generations
because the host and symbiont equally benefit
from the association.
Fig. 1: Schematic overview of the plant-mediated
Intracellular symbionts as a factor of insect symbiont transfer. The process requires insect-to-
plant symbiont transfer, symbiont’s survival, and
evolution
persistence in a plant (where the symbiont may or
 Intracellular bacterial symbionts are widespread may not disseminate), plant-to-insect transfer and
among insects. successful establishment in the new insect. A
subsequent vertical transmission of an acquired
 Thus, the symbiotic bacterium Wolbachia infects symbiont can increase its prevalence, however, even
at least 40% of insect species. Some symbionts the transient infections could impact host
populations. Small black arrows indicate symbiont
supply their host with nutrients lacking in food, moving between organisms. P stands for the parent,
Buchnera supplies aphids with amino acids and F1 is the progeny of the parent, and F2 is the progeny
of the F1.
B. L. Naga
Department of Entomology, SKN College of Agriculture, SKNAU, Jobner, Jaipur, Rajasthan
Akshay Kumar Singh Pratihar
Department of Entomology, Rajasthan College of Agriculture, MPUAT, Udaipur, Rajasthan

360
 The mechanistic process involved in symbiont including pathogens, parasites, predators, and
transmission through the plant, first detailing the parasitoid wasps. Variation in resistance toward
experimental systems studied to date, before parasites and pathogens has been shown to be
examining four phases of transfer; from insect to regulated by the secondary symbionts in a number of
plant; establishment or residence in the plant; insects and an understanding of such mechanism is
uptake of a symbiont by an insect feeding upon steadily increasing.
that plant and then transmission of the symbiont Influence on Insect-Plant Interaction: Insects have
by the insect to its progeny. evolved many strategies to feed on plants including
Symbiont Passage from Insect to Plant associations with mutualistic symbionts, which can
 Plant-mediated horizontal transmission initially be important mediators of direct and indirect
requires for a symbiont to be passed from an interactions between herbivorous insects and their
insect to a plant. host plants. The most striking ecological character
 The route of symbiont transmission to a plant conferred to insects by endosymbionts is their role in
may differ depending on the transmitting insect’s supplying essential nutrients to their hosts. Several
anatomy, physiology, and the mechanism of recent studies suggested that food plant use of
feeding. herbivorous insects can be directly enhanced by
 Symbiont factors are likely equally important, facultative endosymbionts.
including symbiont density and tissue distri- Adaptation to Environment: The range and
bution. variability of temperatures that an organism can
 It has been noted that symbionts exhibiting a tolerate is an important factor in determining its
scattered infection pattern, whereby bacteria geographic range. Although the aphid host itself may
reside in the bacteriome, hemolymph, and other not be adapted to higher temperatures, again the
organs, are more likely to be horizontally number of bacteriocytes of the primary endo-
transmitted than the ones restricted to bacteriome symbionts Buchnera that supplies essential nutrients
and ovaries. to the host, has been shown to decrease dramatically
Symbiont functions in insect hosts at higher temperatures or heat shock however, the
 Defense toward pathogens and parasites secondary endosymbiont Streptomyces symbiotica
 Adaption to environment and Hamiltonella defensa, which can confer
 Influences on insect-plant interactions tolerance and a trend toward higher fitness when
 Impact of population dynamics subjected to high temperatures, presumably by
Defense toward Pathogens and Parasites: Most enhancing retention of secondary bacteriocytes, as
insects suffer attacks from various natural enemies, negative effects on the primary bacteriocytes under

361
heat stress.  However, symbiont-mediated alteration of the

Impact of Population Dynamics: Endosymbionts host behavior that enhances their probability of
can sharply influence population dynamics via transmission has been to our knowledge, scarcely
various ways, such as cytoplasmic incompatibility attention.
(CI), parthenogenesis induction (PI), feminization,  However, alterations in behavior characteristic
and male-killing. The endosymbiotic bacteria such as by such mutualistic endosymbionts may be
Wolbachia, Arsenophonus, Spiroplasma and common as the examples on super-parasitism
Cardinium manipulated host reproduction are behavior and reproductive behavior of parasitoid
widespread among arthropods by vertical trans- wasp, dispersal behavior of money spider or
mission. Cytoplasmic incompatibility, in which enhanced wandering behavior of stinkbug
uninfected female mated with infected males result nymphs.
in sterile crosses produce few or no offspring, and Intracellular Symbiosis in Termites
can be either unidirectional or bidirectional, thus  In termites, mycetocyte endosymbionts have
gene flow between these strains is decreased due to a been observed only in Mastotermes darwiniensis
reduction in efficient migration rates. (Mastotermitidae), while guest micro-organisms
Role of Endosymbionts in Pesticide Detoxification have been observed up to now in representatives
in insects: Chemical insecticides are widely used for of the families Kalotermitidae, Rhinotermitidae,
controlling agricultural pest insects and other and Termitidae.
organisms worldwide. Meanwhile insecticide abuse  The mycetocyte bacteria of M. darwiniensis have
has often gave rise to the development of insecticide been assigned to the Flavobacteria-Bacteroides
resistance in various pest insects, whose mechanisms and have been shown to be the sister group to the
have referred to evolutionary changes in pest mycetocyte endosymbionts of cockroaches
genomes such as alteration of pesticide target locus, (genus Blattabacterium).
up regulation of degrading esterase and improvement  The guest micro-organisms have been assigned
of pesticide secretion. to the proteobacteria as members of the
Role of Endosymbionts in Behavioral Manipul- Wolbachia group.
ation in Insects  The mycetocyte endosymbionts of M.
 In mutualistic associations, the evolutionary darwiniensis resemble those of cockroaches in
interest of the symbiont modifies host behavior, various respects: both inhabit mycetocytes in the
which is adaptive to the parasites or predators and fat body, and both are transovarial transmitted to
such phenomena called “manipulation by offspring.
parasite”. Intercellular symbionts of cockroache & termites

362
 All the known species of cockroach harbor Conclusions

bacterial symbionts in the bacteriocytes  The increasing awareness of the significant
embedded in the fat body. Unlike many other functions that endosymbionts play in host has
symbionts housed in the bacteriocyte, which are brought to a rapid increase in the identification of
members of the Gama -subdivision of the important characteristic attributed to endo-
proteobacteria, those of cockroaches, together symbionts.
with those of primitive termites, from a clade  The revolution in our understanding of the roles
within the Bacteroides-Flavobacteria group and of symbionts has been made possible by the
are, thus distantly related to other known many advances in molecular biology and
bacteriocyte associates. functional genome research.
 Despite the difference in their phylogenetic  Due to these advanced techniques, it is now
origin, the role of these symbionts in the host’s becoming viable to unravelling the mechanistic
physiology do not appear to be much different basis of the molecular and biochemical
from those of the others. mechanisms that underpinning insect-symbionts
Yeast-like symbionts interaction, and host ecology influenced by these
 Planthoppers differ from aphids in that they symbionts. Understanding these factors may give
harbor eukaryotic yeast-like symbionts (YLSs) us insights into ecological significances of
instead of Buchnera in the mycetocyte. endosymbiont infection, the short and long-term
 YLSs are transmitted directly from mothers to evolutionary tracks they mediate, the ecological
their offspring by transovarial infection and are differentiation and adaptation to host, the
found in the host at every development stage. responses to environmental alteration, and
 Nutritional roles played by YLSs were studied species extinction risk.
extensively using the Asian rice brown
planthopper Nilaparvata lugens.
 It turned out that, unlike aphids, planthoppers did
produce uric acid as a nitrogenous waste product
but unlike many other insects, did not extract it.
It has been shown that uric acid is converted into
compounds of nutritional value with the aid of
uricase of YLSs.

363
Exploring Phytochemicals as Sustainable Alternatives for Plant Disease

Management
Phytochemicals refer to naturally occurring raised concerns about potential chronic human health
chemical compounds synthesized by plants. These issues through ingestion or exposure, as well as
compounds serve various roles in plants, including contributing to ozone layer depletion. Here’s an
defense against pathogens, pests, and environmental overview of their role, effectiveness, challenges, and
stresses. When applied in agriculture, phyto- prospects in this context:
chemicals can exhibit antifungal, antibacterial, Role of Phytochemicals
antiviral, and pesticidal properties, making them Antifungal Properties
valuable tools for controlling plant diseases. Their  Many phytochemicals possess inherent anti-
diverse chemical structures enable them to target fungal properties that can inhibit the growth and
pathogens through multiple mechanisms, potentially development of fungal pathogens.
reducing the development of resistance compared to  The cuticle and cell walls form the outermost
synthetic chemicals. protective layers of plant cells, serving as crucial
Synthetic fungicides have historically been barriers against pathogen invasion. Within the
employed to combat plant diseases caused by cuticle, both the primary cuticle and inner cuticle
phytopathogenic fungi, but their widespread use has layer are enriched with cutin, with waxes either
sparked criticism on several fronts. Persistent embedded within the cutin (intracuticular waxes)
application fosters resistance, while improper or covering the surface (epicuticular waxes).
handling and excessive use can pose significant risks Accumulation of cutin or waxes can enhance
to human health, the environment, and non-target resistance to diseases, as waxes themselves can
organisms, thereby impacting biodiversity negative- have chemical properties that deter fungal
ly. Moreover, their low biodegradability and pathogens.
propensity to accumulate in the environment have  Plants also produce diverse antimicrobial phyto-
Archana A. M.
Assistant Professor, SKCAS, Anantapur, Karnataka
Eramma
Bhavya V. P.

364
chemicals in response to pathogen attacks or as a microbial compounds, and reinforcement of cell

result of induction. These phytochemicals play a walls.
significant role in boosting disease resistance.
They are primarily categorized based on their
chemical structures into phenolics, flavonoids,
coumarins, lignins, alkaloids, glucosinolates,
terpenoids and stilbenes. Each category
represents different chemical structures, where
variations in side chains are denoted by R (Fig.
1). Fig. 2: Phytochemicals as antimicrobialsmode of
action and their effectiveness against microbes
Biofilm Disruption: Bacterial biofilms are commu-
nities of bacteria enclosed in a matrix that enhances
their resistance to antibiotics and plant defenses.
Certain phytochemicals have been found to disrupt
biofilm formation and enhance the susceptibility of
bacteria to other antimicrobial agents.
Cross-kingdom Signaling: Some phytochemicals
can interfere with bacterial communication systems,
such as quorum sensing, which regulates virulence
Fig. 1: Physical barriers and phytochemicals factors and biofilm formation. This disruption can
involved in resistance of horticultural crops to fungal
pathogens attenuate bacterial pathogenicity and reduce disease
Antibacterial Properties: Many phytochemicals severity.
possess direct antibacterial activity against plant Environmental Sustainability: Phytochemicals are
pathogenic bacteria. They can inhibit bacterial often perceived as environmentally friendly
growth by disrupting cell membranes, interfering alternatives to synthetic fungicides due to their
with cellular processes, or inhibiting essential natural origin and potential biodegradability.
enzymes required for bacterial survival (Fig. 2). Mechanism of action
Induced Systemic Resistance (ISR): Phyto- Cell Membrane Disruption: Phytochemicals may
chemicals can trigger the plant’s innate immune disrupt Fungai and bacterial cell membranes, causing
response, leading to enhanced resistance against leakage of cellular contents and ultimately leading to
bacterial pathogens. This systemic response involves microbial death. Ex: Terpenoids, Alkaloids, Flavon-
the activation of defense genes, production of anti- oids, Phenols, and Essential oils (Table 1).
365
Enzyme Inhibition: Certain phytochemicals inhibit depending on the specific compound and disease
key enzyme activity crucial for fungal and bacterial context.
metabolism and growth, compromising their Field Trials and Research: Numerous studies have
viability and replication (Fig. 2). demonstrated the efficacy of phytochemicals under
Oxidative Stress Induction: Some phytochemicals controlled and field conditions, validating their
generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) within potential as practical alternatives.
bacterial cells, leading to oxidative damage and cell Challenges
death and it interferes with spore germination, or Formulation and Stability: Maintaining stability
induce oxidative stress within fungal cells. and bioactivity of phytochemicals in formulations
Efflux Pump Inhibition: Bacterial efflux pumps are can be challenging, affecting their shelf life and
mechanisms that bacteria use to expel toxic efficacy under field conditions.
substances, including antibiotics. Phytochemicals Regulatory Approval: Regulatory approval
can inhibit these pumps, increasing bacterial suscept- processes for phytochemicals as crop protectants can
ibility to antimicrobial agents (Fig. 2). be complex and vary by region, requiring compreh-
Table 1: Mode of action of phytochemicals ensive safety and efficacy data.
(Cown, 1999)
Name of compound Mode of action
Consistency and Standardization: Variability in
Alkaloids Intercalate into cell wall phytochemical composition due to genetic,
Coumarins Interaction with eucaryotic DNA
Essential oils Membrane disruption environmental, and processing factors necessitates
Flavonoids Bind to adhesins, complex with cell
wall, Inactivate enzymes standardized extraction and formulation methods.
Lectins Form disulfide bridges
Prospects
Simple Phenols Membrane disruption, substrate
deprivation Growing Demand for Organic Products: With
Phenolic acids Bind to adhesins, complex with cell
wall, inactivate enzymes increasing consumer demand for organic produce,
Polypeptides Form disulfide bridges
Terpenoids Membrane disruption there is a growing market for botanical-based pest
Tannins Bind to proteins, enzyme inhibition,
substrate deprivation
and disease control products.
Effectiveness Advancements in Formulation and Application:
Broad Spectrum Activity: Some phytochemicals Ongoing research is focused on improving
exhibit broad-spectrum activity against various formulation stability, efficacy, and delivery methods
fungal pathogens, making them versatile for to enhance the practicality and reliability of botanical
controlling multiple diseases in diverse crops (Table products.
2) (Rahman and Borah, 2021). Biological Activity Understanding: Advances in
Specific Applications: Phytochemicals have shown understanding the mechanisms of action of botani-
efficacy in both preventive and curative applications, cals are helping to optimize their use and develop

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Table 2: Effectiveness of plant-derived compounds against plant diseases caused by Bacteria and Fungi
Plant Name Scientific name Phytochemical category Against Plant Pathogens
Oil cake tree Albizia amara, Budmunchiamine-A (Alkaloids) Xanthomonas spp
Rain tree Albizia saman Pithecolobine (Alkaloids) Xanthomonas spp
DL-3-aminobutyric acid (BABA)
Tomato Solanum lycopersicum Ralstonia solanacearum
(Polyphenolsa)
Rice Oryza sativa Salicylic acid (Polyphenols) Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae
Gluconapin and its isothiocyanate
Mustard Brassica rapa Xanthomonas campestris
(Glucosinolates and phenolic compounds)
Podosphaera xanthii (cucumber
Turmeric Curcuma longa (roots) (+)-(S)-ar-turmerone
powdery mildew)
Alternaria porri (purple blotch
Caryodaphnopsis baviensis Magnolol
diseases of Allium plants)
Erythro-austrobailignan-6, Meso- Alternaria alternata
dihydroguaiaretic acid and Nectandrin-B, Colletotrichum coccodes
Nutmeg Myristica fragrans
Lignans C. gloeosporioides (tomato gray
mold and tomato late blight).
new products. References
Integration with Modern Agriculture: Botanicals AlSheikh, H. M. A., Sultan, I., Kumar, V., Rather, I.
are being integrated with modern agricultural A., Al-Sheikh, H., Tasleem Jan, A. and Haq,
practices, such as precision farming and digital Q. M. R. (2020). Plant-based phytochemicals
agriculture, to enhance their efficacy and sustain- as possible alternative to antibiotics in
ability. combating bacterial drug resistance.
Global Regulatory Alignment: Efforts are Antibiotics, 9(8): 480.
underway to harmonize regulations globally to Cowan, M. M. (1999). Plant products as
facilitate the registration and commercialization of antimicrobial agents. Clinical Microbiology
botanical products. Reviews, 12(4): 564-582.
Conclusion Deresa, E. M. and Diriba, T. F. (2023). Phyto-
Phytochemicals represent a promising chemicals as alternative fungicides for
avenue for sustainable plant disease management. controlling plant diseases: A comprehensive
Their effectiveness, coupled with advances in review of their efficacy, commercial
formulation technology and regulatory support, representatives, advantages, challenges for
positions them as valuable alternatives to synthetic adoption, and possible solutions. Heliyon,
fungicides in modern agriculture. Continued 9(3).
research and development efforts are crucial to Rahman, M. and Borah, M. (2021). Phytochemicals:
maximize their potential and address existing Their role and mechanism in suppressing
challenges. plant pathogenic bacteria. The Pharma
Innovation Journal, 10: 466-471.

367
Biofertilizers Application and Adoption in Dairy Farming: Issues and

Strategies
Asif Mohammad
Introduction sources of nutrients function through processes like

Due to the negative environmental effects of growth hormone synthesis, phosphate solubilisation,
outdated practices, dairy production a vital and nitrogen fixation. In contrast to chemical
component of agriculture faces issues related to fertilizers, bio-fertilizers lessen soil deterioration and
sustainability. A dependence on inorganic fertilizers water pollution, hence promoting soil health and
has resulted from rising food demand and decreasing sustainability. Notably, cow dung is used as a
soil fertility (Mukhuba et al., 2018). This has further conveniently available basis material in India for bio-
degraded the health of the soil. A viable option for formulations that have antibacterial and plant
sustainable dairy production are bio-fertilizers, growth-promoting qualities (Narayana et al., 2024).
which uses advantageous microorganisms. The Benefits of bio-fertilizers applications in dairy
incorporation of bio-fertilizers into dairy production farming system
systems is looked at in this article, with particular Different benefits of bio-fertilizers in dairy
attention paid to their uses, benefits, drawbacks, and farming are discussed in the following paragraphs:
prospects. The use of dairy farm waste, specifically Enhanced Soil Fertility: By means of two primary
cow dung, as a feedstock for the creation of bio- mechanisms, bio-fertilizers enhance soil fertility and
fertilizer is particularly noteworthy and offers a soil structure. First of all, they raise the soil's organic
tempting possibility. In addition to improving crop matter level. Second, they encourage the soil
yields and soil fertility, this strategy also allays ecosystem's effective cycling of nutrients. This
environmental worries related to traditional waste strategy is especially helpful in dairy farming, where
disposal techniques in smallholder dairy farms. keeping pastures rich in nutrients is crucial to the
Bio-fertilizers health of the cattle. An abundant supply of organic
According to Roychowdhury et al. (2017), matter and vital plant nutrients including potassium,
bio-fertilizer are inoculants that include intentionally phosphorus, nitrogen, and other micronutrients can
amplified cultures of particular soil microorganisms be found in dairy farm waste, particularly in the form
(fungi, bacteria, and cyanobacteria) that improve soil of cow dung. These wastes encourage soil bacteria to
fertility and crop productivity. In addition to break down organic materials, which results in
chemical fertilizers, these affordable and sustainable improved nutrient cycling when they are converted
Asif Mohammad
Senior Scientist, ICAR-NDRI, E. R. S., Kalyani, West Bengal

368
into bio-fertilizers. This breakdown process makes it water quality and are frequently energy-intensive to
easier for nutrients to be released into the soil, create.
providing a consistent and easy-to-access source for Improved Crop Yields: Through a variety of
plant uptake. strategies that improve nutrient availability and
Cost-Effectiveness: When considering nutrient encourage healthy plant growth, bio-fertilizers
management strategies, bio-fertilizers may prove to increase agricultural productivity and eventually
be more economical than chemical fertilizers. By raise crop yields. This is especially important in dairy
using them, cropping systems become less dependent farming because efficient milk production and
on costly synthetic inputs and become more efficient animal health are directly impacted by the production
at using nutrients. The potential to turn agricultural of high-quality fodder. Organic matter-containing
wastes especially cow dung into bio-fertilizers offers bio-fertilizers, such those made from cow dung,
a special economic opportunity for dairy farmers. By strengthen soil structure by increasing aeration and
reducing reliance on outside sources of fertilizer, this water-holding capacity. Because of the enhanced soil
approach lowers input costs and increases the physical environment, plants are able to penetrate
farming operation's economic viability. deeper into the soil and gain more stability as well as
Environmental Sustainability: By lowering access to vital nutrients and water. Additionally, the
reliance on chemical fertilizers and lowering the bio-fertilizers made from cow dung are home to a
danger of environmental damage, bio-fertilizers wide variety of helpful microorganisms, including
encourage a more sustainable approach to fungi and bacteria. These microorganisms are
agriculture. Moreover, using bio-fertilizer promotes essential to the breakdown of organic matter because
a soil ecology that is more bio-diverse. By they convert it into forms that plants can easily
introducing these microbial inoculants, a balanced absorb.
and healthy soil environment is promoted by Application of Bio-fertilizers in fodder produ-
stimulating the development and activity of natural ction for scientific dairy farming
soil microbial communities. The process of turning Several techniques, each appropriate for
dairy farm waste into bio-fertilizer has several varying crop production phases and soil conditions,
advantages for the environment when it comes to are used in the bio-fertilizers based fodder crop
dairy farming. First of all, it diverts manure from production for scientific dairy farming:
conventional decomposition methods, which have Seed Treatment: A targeted method for introducing
the potential to produce large amounts of the potent helpful microorganisms to developing seeds is
greenhouse gas methane. Second, it lessens the need provided by bio-fertilizer seed coating. This
for chemical fertilizers, which may impact soil and guarantees that these bacteria will be in close proxy-

369
mity and will colonize the seedlings early on, Certain formulations of bio-fertilizers may contain
increasing germination rates and encouraging strong microorganisms with a focus on nutrient
early growth of roots. The beneficial microorganisms solubilisation. These microorganisms help transform
and the growing plant roots are closely related, which binding nutrients such as minerals and phosphorus
promotes effective nutrient uptake and the early into forms that plants can use. This adds more
development of an optimal root microbiome. The bioavailable nutrients to the finished compost,
seedlings may benefit from this early colonization by improving plant uptake.
increased root growth architecture, improved The challenges in adoption of bio-fertilizers by
absorption of nutrients efficiency, and possibly even farmers
suppression of soil-borne diseases. The use of bio-fertilizers for improved dairy
Soil Application: Direct surface application and pre- farming faces a number of difficulties despite the
planting soil integration are the two main ways that obvious advantages, those are given in the following
bio-fertilizers can modify soil. Through slightly paragraphs:
different mechanisms, both techniques improve the Knowledge Gaps: Farmers may not be fully aware
soil's structure and availability of nutrients during the of the advantages and correct ways to use bio-
growth period. fertilizers, which could impede their uptake by plants
Foliar Spray: Plant leaves can be sprayed with bio- and effectiveness. In order to close this knowledge
fertilizers. This process enables plants to directly gap and promote the incorporation of bio-fertilizers
absorb nutrients, and it can be very helpful in into agricultural operations, educational outreach
addressing nutrient deficits. activities and demonstrations are essential.
Compost Enrichment: By a number of methods, Environmental Variability: The temperature,
adding bio-fertilizer to compost heaps can speed up humidity, and soil properties (such as pH and organic
the process of decomposition and improve the matter concentration) can all have an impact on how
nutrient profile of the finished compost. Bio- effective bio-fertilizer is. Furthermore, there can be
fertilizers introduce an extensive variety of helpful differences in how certain kinds of crops react to the
microorganisms, including fungi and bacteria. These use of bio-fertilizer. Optimizing the effectiveness of
microorganisms break down complicated compo- bio-fertilizers requires research efforts aimed at
unds into smaller forms, hastening the organic comprehending these interactions while developing
matter's decomposition in the compost pile. This formulations that are particular to crop and
results in a more thorough transformation of organic environmental situations.
matter into compost that may be used and faster rates Distribution Constraints: Inadequate distribution
of decomposition. networks may prevent farmers in some areas from

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adopting bio-fertilizers. To improve the availability robust and effective and that are suited to certain soil
of bio-fertilizers, this can be handled by fortifying and climate conditions. When compared to
the infrastructure of the supply chain by looking into conventional methods, these advances might
joint ventures with nearby suppliers. significantly enhance the effectiveness as well as
Regulatory Inconsistency: Underdeveloped bio- affordability of bio-fertilizers.
fertilizer regulatory frameworks in some areas can Knowledge Dissemination: Programmes for farmer
result in problems with quality control and the sale education and extension services are important in
of hazardous or ineffective products. To maintain a reducing the knowledge gaps regarding bio-
uniform level of quality and increase farmer trust in fertilizers. These initiatives can guarantee the
bio-fertilizer technology, strong regulatory frame- efficient use of bio-fertilizers and promote their
works with precise requirements for bio-fertilizer widespread use by teaching farmers about their
manufacturing, quality evaluation, and branding advantages and suitable application techniques.
must be established. Policy and Incentives: Government initiatives that
Road ahead offer incentives and support can have a big impact on
The future prospects vis-a-vis action points farmer behaviour. Governments can provide
for utilising bio-fertilizers are discussed below: financial support and implement legislation that
Shifting Paradigm: The negative effects of using support sustainable practices to incentivize dairy
too much inorganic fertilizer on the environment and producers to switch from using traditional chemical
the economy are becoming more and more obvious. fertilizers to bio-fertilizers. This shift will make the
High prices, significant carbon footprints, nitrate farming sector more sustainable.
contamination of water sources, eutrophication Conclusion
(nutrient pollution causing algal blooms), decreased When compared with conventional chemical
activity of soil microbes, and soil organic matter loss fertilizers, bio-fertilizers increase soil fertility, save
are some of these disadvantages (Akbar et al., 2021). costs, and have less of a negative impact on the
This change in viewpoint presents bio-fertilizers as environment. This presents a possible route towards
an acceptable replacement for environmentally sustainable dairy production. Overcoming know-
friendly dairy production techniques. ledge gaps, guaranteeing reliable performance across
Technological Advancements: Adoption of bio- a range of circumstances, and enhancing availability
fertilizer seems to have excellent prospects for the through more robust distribution networks are all
future thanks to advances in science and technology. necessary for widespread acceptance. Strong
More research investment could end up in the regulatory frameworks are also essential for farmer
creation of bio-fertilizer formulations that are more confidence and product quality.

371
A sustainable solution is provided by Roychowdhury, D., Mondal, S. and Banerjee, S. K.

converting dairy farm waste, in particular cow (2017). The effect of biofertilizers and the
manure, into bio-fertilizers. This process replenishes effect of vermicompost on the cultivation and
soil nutrients, reduces emissions of greenhouse productivity of maize: A review. Advances in
gases, and improves economic viability by reducing Crop Science and Technology, 05(01).
input costs as well as generating revenue. Bio-
fertilizers can make dairy production a more
ecologically friendly and sustainable activity by
tackling these issues and promoting breakthroughs in
science, technology, and policy support.
References
Akbar, S., Ahmed, S., Khan, S. and Badshah, M.
(2021). Anaerobic digestate: A sustainable
source of bio-fertilizer. In M. K. Jhariya, A.
Banerjee, R. S. Meena, S. Kumar, & A. Raj
(Eds.), Sustainable Intensification for
Agroecosystem Services and Management
(pp. 493-542). Springer.
Mukhuba, M., Roopnarain, A., Adeleke, R.,
Moeletsi, M. and Makofane, R. (2018).
Comparative assessment of bio-fertiliser
quality of cow dung and anaerobic digestion
effluent. Cogent Food & Agriculture, 4(1):
1435019.
Narayana, S., Sathiasivan, K., Chauhan, S. and
Rajesh, M. (2024). Waste-liquors generated
during handmade paper manufacture from
cow dung as a potential source of
biofertilizer. Journal of Applied and Natural
Science, 16(1): 400-409.

372
Remote Sensing in Fruit Crops

Abstract
Fruit crops play a significant role in improving the productivity of land, generating employment,
enhancing exports, improving economic conditions of the farmers and entrepreneurs and providing food
and nutritional security to the people. For better management of the existing crops and to bring more
area under fruit crops, updated and accurate database is necessary for systematic planning and decision
making. Remote sensing (RS) is an advanced tool that aids in gathering and updating information to
develop scientific management plans in fruit crops.
Introduction needs, and the application of pesticides for pest and

There has been a slow evolution of disease management.
information technologies in fruit crop production as Remote Sensing: Remote sensing is the process of
innovators combined their prior field experience acquiring data or information about objects or
with an attitude of learning by doing while looking substances not in direct contact with the sensor by
for practical applications for farm management. The gathering its inputs using electromagnetic radiation
application of aerial or satellite imaging, along with or acoustical waves that emanate from the targets of
Global polar satellite (GPS) and (GIS) Geographical interest. This involves sensing and recording
information system, is the first step towards the reflected or emitted energy and processing,
successful application of Site-specific crop analyzing and applying that information.
management (SSCM) in fruit crops. The use of Site- Types of Sensors used in Remote Sensing
specific crop management (SSCM) for horticultural Sensor: These are the devices that receive
crops such as fruits has potential for increasing net electromagnetic radiation and convert it into signal
returns and optimizing resource use. The delineation that can be recorded or displayed as either numerical
of orchards and spatial analysis using geospatial data or an image. There are many types of sensors
technology can provide additional information for used in fruit crops:
management decision making, such as the  Microwave radiometer
determination of fruit yield, the quantification and  Gravimeter
scheduling of precise and proper fertilizer, irrigation  Spectrometer
Sushma Sharma
Research Scholar, Department of Horticulture (Fruit Science), SKUAST-J, Chatha, Jammu, UT of J&K
Mahital Jamwal
Professor/Associate Director Research, SKUAST-J, Chatha, Jammu, UT of J&K

373
 Camera satellite platform are onetime cost effected but

 Solid scanner relatively lower cost per unit area of coverage. It can
 Optical mechanical scanner acquire imagery of entire earth without taking
 Laser water depth meter permission.
 Laser distance meter Remote sensing process mainly involves the
 Radar use of visible to the microwave region. As the
 Satellites also act as sensors atmosphere appears to be transparent in the visible
In thermal remote sensing the invisible region most of the satellite remote sensing studies are
radiation patterns of objects are converted into designed in visible region. Sensor can detect the one
visible images and these images are called object from the other by the means of the electro-
thermograms or thermal images. Thermal images can magnetic radiation absorbed.
be acquired using portable, hand-held or thermal Principles and Process of Remote Sensing System
sensors that are coupled with optical systems In much of remote sensing, the process
mounted on an airplane or satellite. This technology involves an interaction between incident radiation
is a non-invasive, non-contact and nondestructive and the targets of interest.
technique used to determine thermal properties and Energy Source or Illumination (A): The first
features of any object of interest and therefore it can requirement for remote sensing is to have an energy
be used in many fields, where heat is generated or source which illuminates or provides electro-
lost in space and time. magnetic energy to the target of interest. Example:
Platforms for Remote Sensing System sun act as source of energy.
Platforms are nothing but vehicles or carriers Radiation and the Atmosphere (B): As the energy
of remote sensing. Mainly there are three types of travels from its source to the target, it will come in
platforms used in remote sensing. contact, interact and passes through the atmosphere.
Ground Based: These includes the use of vehicles, This interaction may take place a second time as the
portable masts and towers. These are mounted with energy travels from the target to the sensor.
cameras, and sensors at different heights. Interaction with the Target (C): Once the energy
Airborne: It includes the use of aeroplanes, makes its way to the target through the atmosphere it
helicopters and balloons. It is not cost effective one interacts with the target depending on the properties
and occupies only small areas. of both the target and the radiation.
Space Borne: In space-borne remote sensing, Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D): After the
sensors are mounted onboard a spacecraft (space energy has been scattered back or emitted from the
shuttle or satellite) orbiting the earth. Space-borne or target. It requires a sensor (remote - not in contact

374
with the target) to collect and record the electro- cted with an active sensor.
magnetic radiation. Application and Advantages of Remote Sensing in
Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E): The Fruit Crops
energy recorded by the sensor has to be transmitted Estimation of Cultivable Land Area and Mapping
often in electronic form to a receiving and processing of Orchards: Remote sensing systems have the
station at which the data was processed. capability of providing regular, synoptic, multi-
Interpretation and Analysis (F): The processed spectral and multi-temporal coverage of a cultivable
image is interpreted, visually and/or digitally or area. For example, Apple orchard area was estimated
electronically to extract information about the target, using remote sensing and agro-metrology land based
which was illuminated. observation in Pulwama district of Kashmir valley.
Application (G): The final step of remote sensing Recommended dose of Fertilizer Application: The
process is applying the information extracted from site-specific grove management by variable rate
image about the target in order to find the solution to delivery of inputs such as fertilizers on a tree size
particular problem. basis could improve horticulture crops profitability,
There are two basic types of sensors reduce fertilizer wastage and provide environmental
Passive Sensors: It record radiation reflected from protection.
the earth's surface. The source of this radiation must Detection of Water Stress: Remote sensing
come from outside the sensor. In most of the cases, it technology can also help in identification of water
is solar energy. Passive solar sensors can only stress by change in leaf colour. Many techniques
capture data during daylight hours. The Thematic such as high spatial resolution multispectral and
Mapper (TM) sensor system on the Landsat satellite thermal airborne imagery were used to monitor
is a passive sensor. crown temperature and the Photochemical Reflect-
Active Sensors: These are different from passive ance Index (PRI) in peach orchards.
sensors. Unlike passive sensors, active sensors Assessment of Quality: It is one of the important
require the energy source to come from within the parameters using aim of any producer. In grape wine
sensor. For example, a laser-beam remote sensing quality was assessed by vigor of vine using remote
system is an active sensor that sends out a beam of sensing.
light with a known wavelength and frequency. This Early Detection of Pest Infestation: Remote
beam of light hits the earth and is reflected back to sensing techniques can decrease pest monitoring
the sensor. It records the time it took for the beam of costs in orchards. The spider mite damage in
light to return. Topographic LIDAR laser beach orchards is evaluated by measuring visible and near
mapping data included on this CD-ROM were colle- infrared reflectance of leaves and canopies in peach

375
Table 1: Different types of remote sensing systems and sensors used in fruit crops
Crop (Rs.) Devices/Platforms Purpose Type of Remote Sensing
Apple Green seeker 505, tetra cam ADC Weed biomass evaluation Active and passive remote sensing
IRSA WiFS Orchard characterization Satellite remote sensing
Orange and pineapple IRS-P Satellite sensor, LISS-III Soil site suitability analysis Satellite remote sensing
Peach Spectra radio diameter Mite damage Aerial remote sensing
Nectarines and peache Field spectrometer ASD with Detecting water stress effects Aerial remote sensing
reflectance of 400 -1100 nm on fruits
Mango IRS-P Satellite Yield estimation Satellite remote sensing
Grapes Digital multispectral sensors Zonal vine yard management Aerial remote sensing
UAV (Rcats/APVS) To know the vigour of the crop Aerial remote sensing
orchards in California. vitality as it is related to many important plant vital
Disadvantages of Remote Sensing processes such as the photosynthetic potential,
 It is expensive for small areas, particularly for nutrient content, plant stress, maturity and
one-time analysis. senescence.
 It requires specialized training for analysis of Conclusion
images. Remote sensing is a significant technique for
 The Distortions in the image may occur due to monitoring orchards at high spatial resolution on a
relative motion of sensor and source. regular basis, allowing for site-specific, cost-
 It provides spatial, temporal and spectral effective management plans. Reduces monitoring
information. costs, improves resource use efficiency, lowers total
 Aerial photographs are costly if repetitive production costs, and increases profit. Remote
photographs are required to study the dynamic sensing can aid in the reduction of biotic and abiotic
features. stress conditions. Land fragmentation is the most
 Remote sensing is applicable in every field significant impediment to large-scale agricultural
starting from the area and production till post mechanization in India. Given the constraints,
harvesting. remote sensing is still a long way off in India.
Studies Related to Remote Sensing in Fruit Needbased and appropriate changes must be worked
Crops Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems (RPAS) out. Local technological expertise must be advanced.
also known as drones. These are gaining popularity References
in the monitoring of horticultural crops especially Panda, S. S., Gerrit, H. and Joel, O. P. (2010).
fruit crops. Based on the images obtained by Remote sensing and geospatial technological
Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems (RPAS) many applications for site-specific management of
plant physical characteristics can be derived such as fruit and nut crops: A review. Remote
the water content, cellular structure and plant Sensing, 2: 1973-1997.
pigment (e.g. chlorophyll) content. The chlorophyll Johnson, L. F., Bosch, D. F., Wiiliums, D. C. and
content is one of the most important parameter of tree Lobitz, B. M. (2001). Remote sensing of

376
vineyard management zones: Implications

for wine quality. Applied Engineering in
Agriculture, 17(4): 557-560.
Ye, X., Sakai, K. and Asada, S. (2008). Application
of narrow-band two-band vegetation index in
estimating fruit yield in citrus. Biosystems
Engineering, 99: 179-189.

377
AI in Horticulture
Abstract
Artificial intelligence is the process by which humans create intelligent machines. It falls
under the broad category of computer science that emphasizes the development of physical and
intangible systems that not only behave intelligently but also exhibit behavior on a par with how
people think and behave, achieving human-like performance in all cognitive tasks through the use
of only logical reasoning.AI having wide application in horticulture; By this we can detect diseases,
enhance the yield, can control the weed, detect the required nutrient to the plant, by this we can
control the use of fertilizers. Learning from prior data and making rapid, efficient decisions are the
fundamental building blocks of AI. A part of artificial intelligence called machine learning is where
the tools are developed. For determining the most mature fruits or vegetables an AI-based automatic
method has been created and developed. This method uses an algorithm based on computer vision
and machine learning that uses Hear-like features. AI technology is quickly fixing the issues and
advising precise steps that need be taken to solve them. AI is effective at keeping track of information
and promptly finding solutions. The digital transformation of the agriculture and horticulture sector
offers both producers and consumers enormous potential. The next great agricultural and farming
revolution is about to begin thanks to the introduction of digital agriculture, industrialization and
mechanization of production processes, networking, and data management.
Introduction of the vegetables consumed worldwide, placing us

India could grow a wide variety of second only to China in terms of acreage and
horticulture crops due to its various soil, climate, and production of these commodities. Horticulture crops
agro-ecological zones. Horticultural crops, which contribute significantly to India’s economy by
comprise fruits, vegetables, medicinal, aromatic, and raising rural residents’ incomes along with
decorative plants, are important components of a generating jobs for young people. The development
balanced diet, sources of medication and fragrance, of intelligent systems has increased the potential to
as well as possessing a variety of aesthetic benefits improve the cultivation and management elements of
for people. Fruits and vegetables contribute to 90% horticulture crops based on advances in technology
of all horticulture production in the nation. Our and information analysis methodologies. Surprisi-
nation currently produces 10% of the fruits and 14% ngly, horticulture has seen an increase in agricultural
Sushma Sharma
Research Scholar, Department of Horticulture (Fruit Science), SKUAST-J, Chatha, Jammu, UT of J&K
Mahital Jamwal
Professor/Associate Director Research, SKUAST-J, Chatha, Jammu, UT of J&K

378
technology research and commercialization while ages of AI in horticulture:

having the least amount of digitalization. The sector  AI provides more efficient ways to produce,
is nevertheless exposed to a wide spectrum of biotic harvest and sell essential crops.
and abiotic stress, which affects the yield and quality  AI implementation emphasis on checking
of the produce. In such cases, implementing the most defective crops and improving the potential for
recent technical advancements and solutions can healthy crop production.
result in better and more effective manufacturing  The growth in AI technology has strengthened
methods. agro-based businesses to run more efficiently.
The field of computer science known as  Used in applications such as automated machine
artificial intelligence (AI), also referred to as adjustments for weather forecasting and disease
machine intelligence, teaches machines how to or pest identification.
mimic human physical movements and respond in  AI can improve crop management practices.
human-like ways. The term ‘Artificial Intelligence’  AI solutions have the potential to solve the
was coined by John McCarthy in 1950. How come challenges farmers face such as climate variation,
artificial intelligence? It is viewed as a chance, an infestation of pests and weeds that reduce
particularly in challenging circumstances or issues yields.
that standard computing systems and humans are  It wouldn’t eliminate jobs of human farmers
unable to adequately resolve. It has many uses in the rather it will improve their processes.
horticulture sector. Machines may frequently be Applications
made to perform tasks more effectively than people, Produce maturity identification: Identifying the
including planting, watering, and harvesting as well stage of fruit ripeness requires taking pictures of
as testing new systems. To increase yield, the various crops under white/UV-A light. Particularly
horticulture sector needs workers with expertise in in the case of extremely perishable horticultural
artificial intelligence. Artificial intelligence (AI) products, farmers might develop multiple maturity
technologies help produce healthier crops, provide grades based on the crop/fruit category and place
information on current weather conditions, such as them into separate stacks before delivering them to
temperature, rain, wind speed, wind direction, solar the market. Harvesting at the right maturity would
radiation, pest control, and soil and growing also increase post-harvest shelf life.
conditions, organise data for farmers, lessen their Automation system in Irrigation: The Internet of
workload, and enhance the food supply chain. Things (IoT)-based smart irrigation system is a
Advntages of AI in Horticulture device that can automate the irrigation process by
The following are some significant advent- monitoring the soil’s moisture content and meteoro-

379
logical conditions. Irrigation is one of the most labor- Fruit harvesting robot: These robots require
intensive processes in farming which can be avoided picking up fruits without damaging the branches or
by artificial intelligence because it is aware of leaves of the tree. The robots must be capable to
historical weather patterns, soil quality, and the type access all areas of the tree being harvested and
of crops to be grown. distinguish between fruits and leaves by using video
AI in Shaping the Future of Farms image capturing. The camera is mounted on the robot
Drones: Through in-depth field analysis, long- arm and the colours detected are compared with
distance crop spraying, and high-efficiency crop properties stored in the memory. If a match is
monitoring, this technology is offering new ways to obtained, the fruit is harvested. If the fruit is hidden
increase agricultural yields and is quickly turning by leaves, an air jet can be used to blow leaves out
into an indispensable tool for farmers. Drones the way for a clearer view. The pressure applied to
inspect the soil’s condition and decide whether it the fruit is sufficient for removal from the tree, but
needs watering or planting. Vegetables and fruits are not enough to bash the fruit. The shape of the gripper
monitored by cameras that are being trained to spot relies on the fruit being picked. A drone is used to
anomalies or issues like dehydration and undesirable pick apples and the company Bx recently showed a
insects. The best time to harvest the crop can be video robot ‘dog’ Spot from Boston Dynamics
predicted using all this information. Agriculture has walking through an apple orchard with a camera and
undergone a high-tech transformation thanks to sensors.
drone technology. More drones can scan the ground These robots have to pick up fruit without
and spray evenly in real-time. When using drones damaging the tree’s leaves or branches. The robots
instead of traditional technology, the outcome of must be able to access all parts of the tree being
aerial spraying is five times faster. harvested and distinguish between fruits and leaves
Raising pots inside the greenhouse: Variety of by using video image capturing. The camera is
robotics-based solutions can be created to simplify installed on the robot arm, and the colourit detects is
the growing and transportation of potted plants while compared to data stored in memory. The fruit or
increasing production. The incredible benefit of a vegetable is collected if a match is detected. An air
robotic arm is that it can complete many tasks in a jet can be used to blow leaves out of the way to
3D environment, such as placing plants in a carrier provide a clearer view if the fruit is obscured by
and then removing them from the carrier and placing foliage. The pressure exerted to the fruit is sufficient
them on tables or in trays in the following motion. to remove it from the tree but insufficient to bash it.
This is performed with the greatest precision, even if The fruit or vegetable being plucked determines the
the plants are not located precisely in the right place. gripper’s form.

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A robot for lettuce weeding and thinning is business PEAT in Berlin has created a deep learning
used to boost lettuce productivity. Each plant is programme called Plantix that according to reports,
carefully inspected by its vision system, which then detects probable flaws and nutrient deficits in soil.
applies cutting-edge artificial intelligence algorithms Software algorithms analyse data and tie certain
that decide which plants to keep and which to get rid foliage patterns to specific soil issues, plant pests,
of to maximize productivity. and plant illnesses. The company claims that its
AI in horticulture: current approaches & software can quickly discover patterns with up to
achievements 95% estimated accuracy.
Blue River Technology: Weed Control: Given that Trace Genomics: Machine Learning for Diagnosing
an estimated 250 kinds of weeds have developed Soil Defects; Trace Genomics, a California-based
resistance to herbicides, controlling weeds is one of company, provides soil analysis services to farmers
farmers’ main priorities. A startup business in in a manner similar to the Plantix app. Illumina, the
California created a robot named “See & Spray” that system’s lead investor, assisted in developing
purportedly uses computer vision to track and provides clients with an understanding of the
precisely spray on weeds. Herbicide resistance can strengths and weaknesses of their soil using machine
be avoided with precise spraying. It accurately sprays learning. Users are said to obtain an in-depth
fertilizers where they are needed, on the plant. This overview of their soil’s components from Trace
might reduce the amount of herbicide needed to Genomics after sending them a sample of their soil.
spray the entire field by around 90%. Farm Shots: A Raleigh, North Carolina-based firm,
Crop Harvesting: It has reportedly resulted in also specializes in the analysis of agricultural data
millions of dollars’ worth of income losses due to a generated from satellite and drone imagery. The
labour shortage. To assist strawberry growers with company’s specific goal is to “detect diseases, pests,
picking and packing their products, Florida-based and poor plant nutrition on farms.” The business
Wish Farms stated that they would use a Harvest claims that their software can help consumers
CROO Robotics strawberry harvester in the summer understand exactly where fertilizer is required and
of 2017. can reduce fertilizer use by about 40%. With the
AI for Monitoring Crop and Soil Health PEAT - spatial resolution to distinguish individual plots
A machine Vision for Diagnosing Pests / Soil and/or plants and the temporal advantage of
Defects: Berlin-based agricultural tech startup PEAT monitoring changes over the course of the growth
has created a deep learning programme called Plantix cycle, hyperspectral imaging and 3D laser scanning
that according to reports, detects probable flaws and are capable of quickly giving improved information
nutrient deficits in soil. Agricultural technology and plant metrics across thousands of acres.

381
“aWhere”: The Colorado-based company developed for the specific crops are; Cuptex: An
“aWhere” makes use of satellites and machine Expert System for Cucumber Crop Production,
learning algorithms to assess farms for the detection Citex: An Expert System for Orange Production,
of diseases and pests, forecast the weather, and Tomatex: An Expert System for Tomatoes, and
analyse the sustainability of crops. The business Limex: A Multimedia Expert System for Lime
gives its customers access to more than a billion Production, etc.
points of agronomic information every day. Artificial intelligence and protected cultivation:
Temperature, precipitation, wind speed, and sun Greenhouse production processes are already highly
radiation are among the variables that are measured, automated and controlled but, similar to what is
“along with comparisons to historic values for occurring in many sectors, AI systems are now
anywhere on the agricultural Earth.” taking control to unprecedented levels. Because of
Expert Systems Implemented at CLAES: Agricul- their potential ability to process large amounts of
ture has developed into a sophisticated industry that data and make tiny continuous adjustments, AI
calls for the acquisition and integration of knowledge systems are beginning to provide greenhouse
and data from a wide range of sources. In order to operators with myriads of production-related
make decisions and stay competitive, modern benefits AI in protected horticulture can predict
farmers frequently rely on information from yield, ensure product quality from starting material
agricultural experts and advisers. Unfortunately, to harvest, help decide on the planning of time-to-
when a farmer needs support, agricultural specialists market and resources used and improve efficiency.
are not always around to provide it. Expert systems Plant phenotyping of horticultural crops and
were found to be an effective instrument with the use of crop sensors; Plant phenotyping can be
enormous potential in agriculture for resolving this defined as the set of methodologies and protocols
issue. An expert system, also known as a knowledge- used to measure plant growth, architecture and
based system (KBS), is a computer programme composition with a certain accuracy and precision at
created to mimic the problem-solving methods of a different scales of organisation, from plant organs to
subject-matter expert in a particular field or subject. complete crop canopies. The term is often restricted
In the field of agriculture, expert systems combine to plant breeding purposes, but it can also be used for
the collective knowledge of several disciplines, such plant production, specifically where measured plant
as plant pathology, entomology, horticulture, and features are used for precise crop maintenance and
agricultural meteorology, into a framework that most crop control in a controlled environment, such as
effectively responds to the unique demands of (autonomous) greenhouses and vertical farms.
farmers individually. Some of the expert systems Digitalisation and artificial intelligence for crop

382
morphology measurements: The shape and a moving trolley system with a mounted camera,
morphology of plants is related to variety, the flying drones inside the greenhouse or a robot that
underlying genetics and environmental factors (light, scans the plant with a 3D camera from many
temperature, irrigation). Digital plant phenotyping viewpoints. Using artificial intelligence algorithms,
refers to the use of computers for plant phenotyping the point clouds from different single viewpoints are
where digital sensors are used to measure plant converted into a robust representation of the crop.
characteristics. One of the most common digital Digitalisation and artificial intelligence for crop
phenotyping methodologies is image analysis, where physiology performance: Next to plant
cameras are used to record images and software is morphology, plant physiological processes are
used to automatically extract the measurements from important for crop monitoring. In crop production,
the imagesto access plant morphology (the shape of photosynthesis in the leaves yields important
a plant), in a reproducible and accurate way. biochemicals, such as sugars, starch, chlorophyll and
Currently, many different types of cameras are nutrients that are transferred to the plant organs,
available for measuring important plant features to flowers and fruits. Therefore, measuring the
characterise plant morphology. The most used efficiency of plant photosynthesis directly and non-
camera is the RGB colour camera, which produces destructively is a desirable way for obtaining
images in the visible spectrum, mimicking the information on crop performance and for the early
human eye. To relate the images to real dimensions, detection of deviations from optimal physiological
3D information is often needed, which resulted in conditions. Technologies like chlorophyll fluore-
RGB camera-based 3D sensors. The Intel Realsense scence imaging and thermal imaging are promising,
RGBD sensor is an affordable example of a RGB 3D especially if they can be applied to other parts of crop
sensor and is often used in horticultural phenotyping, canopies, as well as individual leaves. The chemical
e.g., for tomato fruit detection and counting. Other composition of the crop can be determined by
examples are LiDAR sensors. All of these might sampling leaves or fruits, sending them to a
become low cost because of the development of laboratory and waiting for the analysis. Recent
smart phone cameras for consumers. In greenhouse imaging spectroscopy was tested on a laboratory
crop production, the plants may be intertwined, and scale, to determine the composition of biochemicals
so they cannot be easily imaged from all sides. This in crops, with promising results.
leads to occlusion and hampers the possibility of Limitation of artificial intelligence in horticulture
imaging important plant traits with a 3D camera. To  Lack of familiarity with high tech machine
overcome this problem, more advanced imaging learning solutions in farms across most parts of
solutions are needed. This can either be achieved by the world.

383
 Cost is a big challenge. production and better quality while consuming fewer
 AI systems also need a lot of data to train resources. For horticulture, labour is a significant
machines and to make precise predictions. expense. In comparison to large-scale farming,
Challenges and future scope intensive horticultural crops require a significantly
Horticulture has been tackling significant more skilled labour force. Hiring labour for various
difficulties like absence of irrigation system, change tasks is responsible for over 50% of manufacturing
in temperature, density of groundwater, food scarcity expenditures. With the help of AI, you can control
and wastage and substantially more. The fate of labour use, making effective use of herbicides and
cultivating depends mostly on reception of various fertilizers and minimizing crop losses by harvesting
cognitive solutions. When it comes to handling at the right time. Artificial intelligence (AI) can assist
realistic challenges faced by farmers and using farmers in increasing production capacity and
autonomous decision making and predictive decreasing production costs. The application of AI in
solutions to solve them, farming is still at a nascent all application domains will also bring an ideal shift
stage. in the way we do research and development in
The AI technology will be useful to predict horticulture now. Artificial intelligence-based goods
the weather and other conditions related to and services, such as training data for drones,
agriculture like land quality, groundwater, crop automated manufacturing, and agriculture, will
cycle, and pest attack, etc. AI empowered sensors progress technologically in the future and offer more
can also be installed in the robotic harvesting valuable applications to this industry, for increasing
equipment to get the data. It is speculated that AI- efficiency. Artificial intelligence can be techno-
based advisories would be useful to increase logical revolution and boom in horticulture to feed
production by 30%. However, the farmers cope up the increasing human population of world. Artificial
with changing scenario to bring digital intelligence will complement and challenge to make
transformation in the agriculture by implementing right decision by farmers.
AI. It’s only one example of AI transforming References
agriculture, an emerging trend that will help spur an Bhavana, H. and Bhagwan, A. (2021). Review on:
agricultural revolution. We will have to be more Role of robotics in horticulture. Journal of
resourceful this time around. Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, Sp.
Conclusion 10(1): 306- 309.
Artificial intelligence in agriculture not only Dushyant D. and Champaneri. (2021). Artificial
assists farmers in automating their operations but intelligence: An Intelligent Path to improve
also changes to precise cultivation for increased crop Indian Agriculture. Just Agriculture, 1(10).

384
Non-Chemical Pest Management in Fruit Crops

Anil Varma Nalla and Keerthi M. C.
Abstract
Non-chemical pest management is becoming increasingly popular in fruit crop production due
to concerns about the adverse effects of chemical pesticides on the environment, human health, and
beneficial insects, as the awareness about chemical residues and their negative impacts on human health
has been increasing among people. It’s high time to implement Non-Chemical pest management in fruit
crops to avoid the chemical residues in food. Chemical residues in food have to be reduced, and
alternative pest management methods have to be improved.
Introduction IPM. Under the National Mission on Agricultural

India is the world's second-largest fruit Extension and Technology (NMAET-Plant Protect-
producer, contributing 10% of global fruit ion & Plant Quarantine), CIPMCs have monitored
production. However, its total fruit output 45.49 approximately 2.90 million hectares for pests and
million tons from 37.96 million hectares does not released 59,379.72 million biocontrol agents from
meet the Indian Council of Medical Research's 1994-95 to 2019-20.
recommended dietary allowance of 90 grams of fruit Non-Chemical Pest Management Practices for
per capita per day. Crop yield losses in India due to Fruit Crops: Many of us rely on chemical pesticides
insect pests, diseases, nematodes, weeds, and rodents to control pests. Still, we need to be aware of the
range from 15-25%, resulting in an annual cost of 0.9 effective biological and cultural methods that have a
to 1.4 lakh crore rupees (USD 12-18.5 billion). lower impact on non-target organisms, human
Integrated Pest Management (IPM), an environ- health, and the environment. Using various control
mentally sustainable approach to pest control, strategies helps manage pest resistance, resurgence,
employs various methods to prevent and manage pest and replacement. Pest resistance is the genetically
populations. An effective IPM program assesses the inherited ability of organisms to evolve or select
necessity, timing, location, and combination of strains that survive pesticide exposure previously
control methods. India has established 35 Central lethal to earlier generations. This resistance often
Integrated Pest Management Centres (CIPMCs) arises from repeated use of the same chemical on the
across 28 states and two union territories to promote same crop. Pest resurgence and replacement can
Anil Varma Nalla

Junior Seed Analyst, National Seed Research and Training Centre, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh
Keerthi M. C.
Scientist, Division of Crop Protection, ICAR-Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bengaluru, Karnataka

385
occur when broad-spectrum insecticides, like many organisms are introduced to crops to target specific
organo-phosphates, are used regularly (every two or pests.
three weeks) without monitoring pest populations Physical Control: The following approaches are
with pheromone traps. For instance, targeting employed in the physical control.
codling moths with these insecticides also kills  Use physical barriers like row covers or netting
beneficial insects that control other pests, leading to to prevent pests from reaching the plants.
secondary pest outbreaks. Leaf miners, leaf hoppers,  Sticky traps attract and capture flying insects,
and pear psylla can become significant pests for reducing pest populations.
apple and pear trees when their natural predators are  Pheromone traps are used to attract and trap
eliminated. Here are some effective practices for fruit specific pests, disrupting their mating patterns.
crops:  Choose fruit varieties that are naturally resistant
Cultural Practices: Cultural practices include or tolerant to specific pests and diseases.
removing fallen leaves, infected fruits, and plant
debris to reduce pest habitats and breeding sites.
Proper pruning enhances air circulation and sunlight
penetration, which helps to mitigate favorable
conditions for pests and diseases. Rotating crops
disrupts pest life cycles and reduces the buildup of
specific pest populations. Planting pest-repelling
companion crops or flowers can deter pests from
attacking fruit crops. Additionally, using organic
mulch helps maintain soil moisture and temperature Mechanical Control: Handpicking involves
while suppressing weed growth that can harbour manually removing different stages of insect pests
pests. from plants and is effective for larger pests like
Biological Control: Three different approaches are caterpillars, beetles, and certain types of worms.
used in biocontrol: introduction, augmentation, and Though labor-intensive, it is particularly useful for
conservation. These methods involve introducing or small-scale or organic fruit production. Physical
encouraging natural enemies like ladybugs, barriers such as nets, screens, and row covers can
lacewings, predatory mites, and parasitic wasps that prevent pests from reaching fruit crops, protecting
prey on pests. Additionally, nematodes that plants from insects, birds, and other pests while
parasitize insect pests can be applied to the soil to allowing air, sunlight, and water to reach the plants.
control soil-dwelling pests. Predator insects or Proper pruning and thinning of fruit trees can help

386
reduce pest populations by removing infested Alongside yield improvements, IPM is believed to
branches, improving airflow, and increasing sunlight result in higher net income per hectare and a more
penetration, making the environment less favorable favorable benefit-cost ratio than conventional
for pests and diseases. methods.
Effects of Integrated Pest Management Community Effect
A crucial component of IPM systems is their Human well-being: A concrete advantage of IPM is
“bottom-up” or “participatory approach,” which enhancing both environmental quality and human
relies heavily on knowledge sharing. This method well-being through decreased reliance on chemical
involves conducting farmer field trials to gather pesticides. IPM advocates for the utilization of
insights into farmers' perceptions, knowledge, and chemical pesticides as a final option when all
experiences, ensuring the advice provided is alternative approaches have been exhausted, with
practical and relevant. The ICAR-NCIPM carries out careful selection aimed at minimizing risks to human
field validation trials for crops (such as rice, cotton, health.
pulses, oilseeds, and horticultural crops) across the Gender: There is limited work done on the impact
country. As detailed in the following sections, these of IPM practices on women; a few case studies show
trials have yielded significant findings related to crop the role of women in participating in and dissemi-
yields, income, and other factors, including soil nating IPM practices.
health, nutrient and fertilizer usage, and water Ecological Consequences
management. Soil and Nutrient Components: IPM emphasizes
Financial Consequences implementing diverse agronomic strategies to
Production: IPM is seen as a superior “control prevent or minimize pest outbreaks, with soil and
strategy” that leads to increased yields and profits for nutrient management playing a crucial role. For
farmers. Nonetheless, initially transitioning to IPM instance, IPM highlights practices such as
may entail a temporary decrease in yields. incorporating green manures, employing fertilizers
Earnings: Integrated Pest Management (IPM) in a balanced manner, conducting regular monitoring
presents significant opportunities for farmers to of crops and pests, preserving natural enemies of
enhance their earnings by mitigating the impact of pests, utilizing bio-pesticides, reducing reliance on
pest attacks on crops, thereby minimizing pest chemical pesticides, and employing cultural control
resistance or resurgence issues. Research findings methods. These approaches have significant
indicate that IPM is likely to lower production costs implications for the health of the soil.
due to reduced pesticide usage, which accounts for a Water: IPM techniques are recognized for their
substantial portion of expenses in various crops. positive effects on surface and groundwater quality,

387
leading to decreased pesticide contamination. A Sehgal, M., Malik, M., Singh, R. V, Kanojia, A. K.
study conducted within the integrated watershed and Singode, A. (2018). Integrated Pest
program in Telangana demonstrated this impact over Management in Rice and Its Future Scope.
three consecutive years of implementing bio- International Journal of Current
intensive pest management methods. Initial findings Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 7(6):
indicated lower pesticide residues in fields practicing 2504-11.
IPM, although borewell water initially showed Palghar, T., Vennila, S., Lokare, R., Singh, N.,
higher residue levels than open wells. However, by Ghadge, S. M. and Chattopadhyay, C.
the third year, water samples from these areas (2016). Crop Pest Surveillance and Advisory
showed no detectable residues, suggesting a gradual Project of Maharashtra: A Role Model for an
reduction in contamination within IPM-managed E-Pest Surveillance and Area Wide Implem-
fields. entation of Integrated Pest Management in
Biodiversity: IPM contributes to biodiversity India. Pune. www.ncipm.org.in.
conservation by promoting the proliferation of Rao, G. V., Ranga, B., Kumari, R., Sahrawat, K. L.
natural pest predators. Yet, more comprehensive and Wani, S. P. (2015). Integrated Pest
studies are needed on how IPM specifically affects Management (IPM) for Reducing Pesticide
biodiversity in India. However, one research Residues in Crops and Natural Resources. In
examining the influence of IPM on soil-dwelling New Horizons in Insect Science: Towards
natural enemies suggests that using bio-pesticides Sustainable Pest ‘Management, edited by A.
such as Helicoverpa Nuclear Polyhedrosis virus K. Chakravarthy (ed.), 397-412. Patancheru:
(HearNPV) results in minimal disruption to natural Springer India. doi:10.1007/978-81-322-
enemies compared to the application of endosulfan. 2089-3.
Conclusion
In conclusion, employing non-chemical
methods for pest management in fruit crops proves
to be a viable and environmentally sustainable
strategy. Through the integration of various
techniques, farmers can effectively diminish pest
populations without resorting to chemical pesticides,
leading to enhanced plant health, improved fruit
quality, and a more ecologically sound environment.
References

388
Understanding Gluten Protein in Wheat: Composition, Function and

Implications
Sivendra Joshi, Babita Bhatt, Divya Chaudhary and Nidhi Sharma
Introduction acids like proline and glutamine, which are essential

Gluten, a protein complex found in wheat, is for the formation of the gluten network during dough
central to the quality of wheat-based products and mixing and baking.
has significant implications for human health. Function of Gluten in Baking
Comprising two main protein fractions, gliadin and Gluten's unique properties make it indispen-
glutenin, gluten contributes to the elasticity and sable in the baking industry. Its primary functions
chewiness of dough, making it a crucial component include:
in bread-making and other culinary applications.  Elasticity: Gluten allows dough to stretch
This article explores the composition, function and without breaking, which is essential for trapping
implications of gluten protein in wheat. carbon dioxide produced by yeast during ferme-
Composition of Gluten Protein ntation.
Gluten is not a single protein but a composite  Viscosity: Gliadins contribute to the fluidity of
of storage proteins found in wheat endosperm. These the dough, aiding in the dough's ability to spread
proteins are classified into two main types: and rise.
 Gliadins: Soluble in alcohol, gliadins are mono-  Gas Retention: The gluten network formed by
meric proteins that contribute to the extensibility glutenins traps gas bubbles, ensuring the dough
and viscosity of dough. They are primarily rises properly and maintains its shape during
responsible for the dough's ability to rise and baking
hold air.  Texture: Gluten provides the chewy texture
 Glutenins: Insoluble in alcohol, glutenins are characteristic of many wheat-based products,
polymeric proteins that provide strength and including bread, pasta and pastries.
elasticity to the dough. They form a network that Health Implications of Gluten
traps gas bubbles, giving bread its structure. While gluten is beneficial in baking, it poses
Both gliadins and glutenins are rich in amino health challenges for certain individuals. The most
Sivendra Joshi
Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Pantnagar, Udhan Singh Nagar, Uttarakhand
Babita Bhatt and Nidhi Sharma
GBPUA&T, Pantnagar, Udhan Singh Nagar, Uttarakhand
Divya Chaudhary
ICAR-National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi

389
well-known conditions related to gluten are: Conclusion

Celiac Disease: An autoimmune disorder where the Gluten protein in wheat plays a critical role
ingestion of gluten leads to damage in the small in the baking industry, contributing to the desirable
intestine. It affects approximately 1% of the global properties of dough and finished baked goods.
population. In individuals with celiac disease, gluten However, its implications for health, particularly for
triggers an immune response that damages the individuals with celiac disease, non-celiac gluten
intestinal lining, leading to malabsorption of sensitivity and wheat allergy, necessitate a careful
nutrients and a variety of symptoms ranging from approach to dietary choices. As the demand for
gastrointestinal distress to neurological issues. gluten-free products continues to grow, ongoing
Non-Celiac Gluten Sensitivity (NCGS): Individ- research and innovation in food science are essential
uals with NCGS experience symptoms similar to to provide safe and enjoyable alternatives for those
celiac disease upon consuming gluten, such as affected by gluten-related disorders.
abdominal pain, bloating and fatigue, but without the
associated intestinal damage. The prevalence of
NCGS is not well defined, but it is estimated to affect
a larger portion of the population than celiac disease.
Wheat Allergy: An allergic reaction to proteins
found in wheat, including but not limited to gluten.
This condition can cause symptoms ranging from
mild (hives, itching) to severe (anaphylaxis).
Gluten-Free Diets and Alternatives
For those who need to avoid gluten, a variety
of gluten-free grains and flours are available,
including rice, corn, quinoa and sorghum. Addition-
ally, many gluten-free products are now available in
the market, formulated to mimic the texture and
functionality of traditional wheat-based products.
These products often use alternative binding agents
such as xanthan gum or guar gum to replicate the
elasticity and viscosity provided by gluten.

390
Plant Growth-Promoting Microorganisms: Harnessing them as Biocontrol

Agents for Plant Diseases
Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGP Antagonism: PGPM produces antibiotics, lytic

R) are bacteria residing in the rhizosphere, enhancing enzymes, and volatile organic compounds that
plant growth by colonizing roots and utilizing root inhibit the growth of pathogens directly.
exudates. The rhizosphere, where plant roots thrive, Competition: PGPM competes with pathogens for
fosters intense microbial activity, creating a nutrients and space on plant surfaces and within the
specialized nutrient-rich zone distinct from the rhizosphere, reducing pathogen colonization.
surrounding soil. Root exudates serve as vital Induced Systemic Resistance (ISR): PGPM
nutrients, shaping a unique microbial community activates plant defense mechanisms, priming the
crucial for plant health and growth. plant to resist infections by pathogens through
The rhizosphere microbial community comp- signaling molecules and secondary metabolites.
rises bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, protozoa, and Detoxification: Some PGPMs can degrade toxins
algae, with bacteria being the most prevalent. These produced by pathogens or detoxify harmful
microbes are well-established for promoting plant compounds in the soil, enhancing plant health.
growth. “Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria
(PGPR)” coined by Kloepper and Schroth describes
these beneficial microbes, pivotal in biofertilizer
formulations. PGPR not only enhances plant
development at the root level but also plays a role in
managing phytopathogens, underscoring their multi-
faceted agricultural benefits.
Mechanisms of Plant Growth-Promoting Micro-
Fig. 1: Mechanism of action of PGPR (plant growth-
organisms (PGPM) as Biocontrol Agents promoting rhizobacteria)
Archana A. M.
Eramma
Bhavya V. P.

391
Nutrient Availability: PGPM enhance nutrient promoting nitrogen fixation and suppressing root
availability to plants through nitrogen (N2) fixation, pathogens.
phosphorus solubilization, and the production of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens
growth-promoting substances like phytohormones Mechanisms: Produces lipopeptides (e.g., surfactin,
(Fig. 1). iturin) that exhibit antifungal activity and induce
Bacterial and fungal strains promoting plant systemic resistance in plants.
growth, employed as biocontrol agents against Applications: Effective against a wide range of
plant pathogens (Fig. 2) fungal pathogens, including Fusarium, Botrytis, and
Bacterial Plant Growth-Promoting Strains Alternaria spp.
Pseudomonas spp. Fungal Plant Growth-Promoting Strains
Mechanisms: Produce antibiotics, siderophores Trichoderma spp.
(iron-chelating compounds), and lytic enzymes that Mechanisms: Produce antifungal metabolites (e.g.,
inhibit pathogen growth. Some strains also induce trichodermin, gliotoxin) and lytic enzymes (e.g.,
systemic resistance in plants. chitinases, glucanases) that degrade fungal cell
Applications: Effective against various fungal and walls.
bacterial pathogens, including Fusarium spp., Applications: Used against soil-borne pathogens
Phytophthora spp., and Pseudomonas syringae. such as Fusarium, Pythium, and Rhizoctonia spp.
Bacillus spp. Also promotes plant growth through nutrient
Mechanisms: Produce antibiotics (e.g., bacitracin, solubilization.
surfactin) and enzymes (e.g., chitinases, proteases) Beauveria bassiana
that degrade pathogen cell walls or inhibit their Mechanisms: Entomopathogenic fungus that infects
growth. and kills insect pests, indirectly reducing plant
Applications: Used against fungal pathogens like diseases caused by insect vectors.
Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, and Verticillium spp., and Applications: Effective against pests like aphids,
bacterial pathogens such as Xanthomonas and whiteflies, and beetles, thereby indirectly controlling
Erwinia spp. viral and bacterial plant diseases.
Rhizobium spp. Metarhizium spp.
Mechanisms: Fix atmospheric nitrogen into a plant- Mechanisms: Another entomopathogenic fungus
available form, enhancing plant growth and vigor. that infects and kills insect pests, impacting vector-
Some strains also produce siderophores and borne plant diseases.
antibiotics. Applications: Used similarly to Beauveria bassiana
Applications: Beneficial for legume crops by for integrated pest management (IPM) strategies.

392
Precision Agriculture: Adoption of precision

agriculture techniques, including tailored application
of PGPM based on soil and plant health diagnostics,
can optimize biocontrol strategies.
Climate Change Resilience: Exploration of PGPM
species and strains that are resilient to climate change
effects will be crucial for sustainable agriculture in
Fig. 2: Impact of fungal and bacterial biocontrol
agents (BCAs) on plants changing environmental conditions.
Integration and Challenges Education and Adoption: Increasing awareness and
Synergistic Effects: Combining different strains knowledge among farmers, researchers, and
with complementary mechanisms (e.g., antibiosis, policymakers about the benefits and proper use of
induced resistance) can enhance biocontrol efficacy. PGPM will facilitate broader adoption and integr-
Environmental Considerations: Effectiveness of ation into agricultural practices.
biocontrol agents can vary with environmental Summary and Conclusion
conditions such as soil pH, moisture levels, and In summary, plant growth-promoting micro-
temperature. organisms represent a promising approach for
Commercialization: Scaling up production and biocontrol of plant diseases, offering sustainable,
ensuring stability of biocontrol products for field eco-friendly alternatives to chemical pesticides.
applications remains a challenge. Addressing current challenges and advancing
Regulatory Approval: Meeting regulatory require- research and technology will be key to realizing their
ments for safety and efficacy is crucial for full potential in agriculture.
widespread adoption in agriculture. In conclusion, bacterial and fungal plant
Future Perspectives growth-promoting strains offer multifaceted benefits
Advances in Microbial Ecology: Continued as biocontrol agents against plant pathogenic
research in microbial ecology will enhance under- microorganisms. Continued research and technol-
standing of PGPM interactions with plants, ogical advancements are essential to optimize their
pathogens, and the environment. use for sustainable agriculture and integrated pest
Biotechnological Innovations: Development of management strategies.
novel PGPM strains through biotechnological References
approaches, such as genetic engineering and metage- Chandran, H., Meena, M. and Swapnil, P. (2021).
nomics, holds promise for improving biocontrol Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria as a
efficacy. green alternative for sustainable agriculture.

393
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El-Saadony, M. T., Saad, A. M., Soliman, S. M.,
Salem, H. M., Ahmed, A. I., Mahmood, M.,
El-Tahan, A. M., Ebrahim, A. A., Abd El-
Mageed, T. A., Negm, S. H. and Selim, S.,
(2022). Plant growth-promoting micro-
organisms as biocontrol agents of plant
diseases: Mechanisms, challenges and future
perspectives. Frontiers in Plant Science, 13:
923880.
Vejan, P., Abdullah, R., Khadiran, T., Ismail, S. and
Nasrulhaq Boyce, A. (2016). Role of plant
growth promoting rhizobacteria in
agricultural sustainability: a review.
Molecules, 21(5): 573.

394
Combination of Micronutrients on the Wheat Yield Parameters

Abstract
The field experiments were conducted at the Agriculture farm of BFIT Crop Research Centre,
Dehradun, Uttarakhand, during 2021-22 on the title “Investigation of the impact of a combination of
micronutrients on the wheat growth and yield parameters”. A RBD (Randomized Block Design) of
plot with eight treatments and three replications was used in this study. The experimental treatments
included: T1 - Control (without fertilizer or any other growth activity), T2 - RDF (NPK) only, T3 -
RDF (NPK) + LF Grade V 10 kg ha-1 mixture of micronutrient on SA only, T4 - RDF (NPK) + LF
GradeV 10 kg ha-1 mixture of micronutrient on SA + 0.25% FS of micronutrient mixture @ tillering
stage only, T5 - RDF (NPK) + LF Grade V 15 kg ha-1 mixture of micronutrient on SA only, T6 - RDF
(NPK) + LF Grade V 15 kg ha-1 mixture of micronutrient on SA + 0.25 % FS @ tillering stages only,
T7 - RDF (NPK) + LF Grade V 25 kg ha-1 mixture of micronutrient on SA only, T8 - RDF (NPK) +
LF Grade V 25 kg ha-1 mixture of micronutrient 0.25% FS of micronutrient mixture @ tillering stage
only. Significant increases in spike length, spikelets spike-1, spike m-2, number of tillers m-2, number
of grains spike-1, 1000-grain weight, grain, straw and biological yields (ton) fed-1 were noted in the
study's results. Additionally, the harvest index was found to be significantly higher in T 8 only. The
highest grain yield was achieved by T8. While lower values of yield attributes was found in the
control plot.
Introduction about 14% of the global crop area and has the largest
Triticum aestivum L. or wheat, is a share in global food trade (OECD/FAO, 2020).
significant cereal crop that provides food for Thanks to its diverse agro-ecological conditions,
approximately one-third of the global population. India has emerged as the world's second-largest
With a global production of 713 million tons in 2018, wheat producer, ensuring food and nutrition security
wheat ranked third in terms of grain production, for a significant portion of its populace through
behind rice (745 million tons) and maize (1,016 consistent supply and output, particularly in recent
million tons). Wheat is the food crop which covers times. The crop has been grown on about 30 million
Harmandeep Singh
Officer Agricultural Services, Nestle India Ltd. Moga, Punjab
Ravinder Kaur
Assistant Professor, School of Agriculture, Dev Bhoomi Uttarakhand University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand
Aditi Verma
Assistant Trainer, Department of Agriculture, Centre for Agriculture Farmers and Development (NGO), Uttarakhand
Swati Dudhpuri
Alumini, Department of Agriculture, Dolphine Institute of Biomedical and Natural Sciences, Dehradun, Uttarakhand

395
hectares (14% of the world's total area) in order to problems with soil fertility related to acidity, such as
reach the highest-ever output of 99.70 million tonnes aluminum toxicity and deficiencies in calcium (Ca),
of wheat (13.64% of world production), with a record magnesium (Mg) and molybdenum (Mo) (Goulding,
average productivity of 3371 kg ha-1 (Sendhil et al., 2016).
1997). Wheat is a highly nutritious grain. 13.2% The main component of those changes is the
protein, 2.5% fat, 78.1% starch, 2.1% mineral matter, transport process. Many eukaryotic creatures have
72 g of carbohydrates, and 0.4 g of sugar are found previously had their Mn transporters discovered at
in 100 g of whole-grain wheat flour (Atli Arnason, the molecular level (Pittman, 2005). Copper (Cu) is
2019). necessary for plant growth. It contributes to a number
In the real world, boron is essential for the of enzymatic functions and is essential for the
formation of pollen tubes, flower male fertility, floral synthesis of chlorophyll, among other things.
organ development, and plant consumption of Result and Discussion
carbohydrates (Blevins and Mkrystyna, 1998). As a Effect of micronutrients mixture on the yield
result of boron shortage, poor anther and pollen parameter on wheat: The available data show that
development occurs during the grain setting stage the administration of micronutrients significantly
(Cheng and Rerkasem, 1993), and the resulting grain affected the grain weight. T8 (RDF (NPK) + 25 kg
is often starch-free (Dell and Huang, 1997). ha-1 mixture of micronutrient 0.25% FS of micro-
Significant reductions in grain output can occur even nutrient mixture @ tillering stage only) recorded the
in the absence of obvious indicators during maximum grain weight of 32.93 g, which was
vegetative growth, and low boron levels in the field statistically equal to 31.83 g obtained in T6 (RDF
may have a bigger effect on sexual reproduction. The (NPK) + 15 kg ha-1 mixture of micronutrient on SA
sterility resulting from low wheat boron availability + 0.25 % FS @ tillering stages only). Minimum
in boron-deficient soils is a significant concern number of grain weight (22.33) was recorded in T1
(Shorrocks, 1997). (control) plot. Present results are supported by
Despite being crucial for photosynthetic Kumar et al. (2018) who recorded by combining Zn,
activity, little is known about Mn homeostasis in Fe, Mn, and Cu, they were able to significantly
plants. On the other hand, Mn deficiency can pose a increase seed weight. A lot of research were taken
substantial nutritional threat to plants in high pH and out in the last ten years to explain the impacts of
high partial pressure of O2 soils, where Mn micronutrient. The findings by Bhatt and Srivastava
bioavailability can fall well below the level required (2005) indicated that adding individual micronutrient
for normal plant growth (Broadley et al., 2007). In (Fe, Zn, Cu, and B) or a combination of Fe + Zn +
these situations, it is often associated with other Cu + B to NPK fertilizer increased grain quality.

396
Crop productivity is the rate at which a crop gathers that the apparent reason for the enhanced wheat
organic matter as a result of photosynthesis, the production resulting from Mn application can be
process by which green plants transform light energy attributed to improvements in leaf area index, which
into chemical energy (Reddy, 2004). Three would give the crop a better base upon which to
parameters determine the grain yield: the weight of generate resources that is, a better supply of
the kernels, the number of spikes, and the number of carbohydrates. The crop's overall biomass and yield
kernels spike-1. According to the results provided, the components have increased as a result of this better
doses of NPK and micronutrients had a significant source. The Harvest index (HI) shows the
impact on grain production across different distribution of biomass between grain and straw
treatments; the treatment T8 (RDF (NPK) + 25 kg ha- production both directly and indirectly. Maximum
1
micronutrient mixture 0.25% FS of micronutrient harvest index was recorded T8 RDF (NPK) + 25 kg
mixture @ tillering stage only) had the highest grain ha-1 mixture of micronutrient 0.25% FS of micro-
yield (4.43 t ha-1). While (T6 and T7) gave grain nutrient mixture @ tillering stage only) followed by
yields of 3.93 and 3.73 t ha-1, respectively, with T5 RDF (NPK) + LF Grade V 15 kg ha-1 mixture of
statistical parity. In the T1 (control), the Minimum micronutrient on SA only. But minimum harvest
Grain Yield t ha-1 (1.67) was noted. The current index recorded T4 RDF (NPK) + LF Grade V 10 kg
findings are corroborated by Chaudry et al. (2007), ha-1 mixture of micronutrient on SA + 0.25% FS of
who reported a considerable increase in wheat micronutrient mixture @ tillering stage only. This is
production when boron was applied in conjunction contrary to Salih Hemn Othman (2013) who said that
with a modest dose of NPK. Uddin et al. (2008) also micronutrient did not affect significantly to
applied 2 kg ha-1 of boron and saw a 50% harvesting index. The crop material that obtained
improvement in yield. The biological yield data after grain extracted is called straw yield, the straw
showed that the micronutrient mixture applied yield was affected significantly by RDF &
topically and via RDF had a substantial impact. Micronutrient Mixture. The highest straw yield of
Maximum biological yield was produced by T8 (RDF 7.07 t ha-1 was obtained with T8 RDF (NPK) + 25 kg
(NPK) + 25 kg ha-1 mixture of micronutrient 0.25% ha-1 of micronutrient mixture + 0.25% FS of
FS of micronutrient mixture @ tillering stage only) micronutrient mixture @ tillering stage only, being
(11.43 t ha-1) followed by T6 (10.43 ton ha-1), at par (6.83 t ha-1) T6 RDF (NPK) + 15 kg ha-1
whereas the T1 (control) treatment had the lowest micronutrient mixture on SA + 0.25 % FS @ tillering
biological output (4.40 tons ha-1). Additionally, Khan stages only. The lowest straw yield (2.73 t ha-1) was
et al. (2008) showed increases in wheat yield recorded in T1 (control) treatment (2.73 t ha-1). LAI
following Mn treatment to the soil. They suggested is the ratio of total leaf area to ground cover. Usually,

397
Table 1: Effect of micronutrients mixture on the yield parameter on wheat

Treatment Test weight (1000 Grain yield (t ha-1) Biological yield Harvest Straw yield Leaf Area
grain) in gm in (t ha-1) index (%) (t ha-1) Index (LAI)
T1 (control) 22.33 1.67 4.40 37.85 2.73 2.92
T2 25.80 2.10 5.53 37.97 3.43 3.04
T3 28.90 2.53 6.60 38.43 4.10 3.11
T4 29.87 2.70 7.47 37.10 4.77 3.18
T5 30.77 3.23 8.37 38.60 5.13 3.31
T6 31.83 3.93 10.43 37.72 6.83 3.45
T7 31.17 3.73 9.93 37.58 6.27 3.38
T8 32.93 4.43 11.43 38.79 7.07 3.61
SEm ± 0.34 0.13 0.11 1.974 0.197 0.0190
CD (5%) 0.71 0.27 0.24 4.095 0.408 0.0394
it reaches its peak during crop emergence (Reddy, Conclusion

2004). Leaf area index was estimated at CRI, Tillring This study could be concluded that the
and Harvesting stage and data is presented in Table. response of wheat crop to micronutrient mixture was
The data clearly show that the leaf area index positive with irrespective of concentration that
increased progressively during crop growth period, means the growth and yield of wheat Crop could be
higher LAI was recorded at tillring stage. The rate of improved with increasing when the soil application
increase in leaf area index was recorded maximum RDF (NPK) + 25 kg ha-1 mixture of micronutrient
between the stages of CRI to tillring indicating the 0.25% FS of micronutrient mixture @ tillering stage
grand growth period of the crop. The highest leaf only showed significant high performance. The
area index was found in T8 plot (RDF (NPK) + 25 kg result of spraying micronutrients mixture with
ha-1 mixture of micronutrient 0.25% FS of micro- broadcasting gives more result as compare to alone
nutrient mixture @ tillering stage only). The second broadcasting. Similar results were reported by
best treatment was recorded in T6 plot. Lowest leaf researcher.
area index was recorded in T1 (control) plot. The References
administration of boron generally improved tissue Atli Arnarson. (2019). Wheat 101-Nutrition Facts
development and plant growth, which raises the and Health Effects B.Sc. PhD Updated on
concentration of the mineral in leaves and raises the April 4, 2019.
leaf area index. Blevins, D. G. and Mkrystyna, L. (1998). Boron in
Plant Structure and Function. Annual
Reviews in Plant Physiology and Plant
Molecular Biology, 49: 481-500.
Broadley, M. R., White, P. J., Hammond, J. P.,
Zelko, I. and Lux, A. (2007). Zinc in plants.
New Phytology, 173: 677-702.
Fig. 1: Effect of micronutrients mixture on the yield
parameter on wheat
398
Chaudry, E. H., Timmer, V., Javad, A. S. and OECD/FAO. (2020). OECD-FAO Agricultural
Siddique, M. T. (2007). Wheat response to Outlook 2020-2029, OECD Publishing,
micronutrients in rained areas of Punjab. Soil Paris/ FAO, Rome.
& Environment, 26: 97-101. Pittman, J. K. (2005). Managing the manganese:
Cheng, C. and Rerkasem, B. (1993). Effects of molecular mechanisms of manganese
Boron on Pollen Viability in Wheat. Plant transport and homeostasis. New Phytology,
Nutrition from Genetic Engineering to Field 167: 245-248.
Practice, 405-407. Reddy, S. R. (2004). Principles of Crop Production -
Dell, B. and Huang, L. (1997). Physiological Growth Regulators and Growth Analysis, 2nd
Response of Plants to Low Boron. Plant and Ed. Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana, India.
Soil, 193: 103-120. Salih, H. O. (2013) Effect of Foliar Fertilization of
Goulding, K. W. T. (2016). Soil acidification and the Fe, B and Zn on nutrient concentration and
importance of liming agricultural soils with seed protein of Cowpea (Vigna Unguiculata
particular reference to the United Kingdom. L). Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary
Plant Archives, 32: 390-399. Science, 6(3): 42-46.
Khan, M. A., Fuller, M. P. and Baloch, F. S. (2008). Sendhil, R., Kiran, T. M. K. and Gyanendra, P. S. S.
Effect of soil applied zinc sulphate on wheat V. M (1997). The occurrence and correction
(Triticum aestivum L.) grown on calcareous of boron deficiency. Plant Soil, 193: 121-
soil. Pakistan Cereal Research Communi- 148.
cations, 36(4): 571-582. Shorrocks, V. M. (1997). The occurrence and
Kumar, K., Singh, P. and Singh, S. N. (2018). correction of boron deficiency. Plant Soil,
Influence of foliar spray boron and thiourea 193: 121-148
doses on biochemical and productive tillers Uddin, M. N., Islam, M. S. and Islam, A. B. M. S.
of wheat cultivars in two sowing conditions. (2008). Effect of boron on wheat at different
Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phyto- boron application methods. Journal of
chemistry, 7(2): 3446-3452. Subtropical Agriculture Research Develop-
Bhatt, L. and Srivastava, B. K. (2005). Effect of ment, 6: 483-486.
foliar application of micronutrients on
physical characteristics and quality attributes
of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) fruits.
Indian Journal of Agriculture Science, 75(9):
591-592.

399
Combination of Micronutrients on the Wheat Growth Parameters

Abstract
The field experiments were conducted at the Agriculture farm of BFIT Crop Research Centre,
Dehradun, Uttarakhand, during 2021-22 on the title “Investigation of the impact of a combination of
micronutrients on the wheat growth and yield parameters. A RBD (Randomized Block Design) of
plot with eight treatments and three replications was used in this study. The experimental treatments
included: T1 - Control (without fertilizer or any other growth activity), T2 - RDF (NPK) only, T3 -
RDF (NPK) + LF Grade V 10 kg ha-1 mixture of micronutrient on SA only, T4 - RDF (NPK) + LF
Grade V 10 kg ha-1 mixture of micronutrient on SA + 0.25% FS of micronutrient mixture @ tillering
stage only, T5 - RDF (NPK) + LF Grade V 15 kg ha-1 mixture of micronutrient on SA only, T6 – RDF
(NPK) + LF Grade V 15 kg ha-1 mixture of micronutrient on SA + 0.25 % FS @ tillering stages only,
T7 - RDF (NPK) + LF Grade V 25 kg ha-1 mixture of micronutrient on SA only, T8 - RDF (NPK) +
LF Grade V 25 kg ha-1 mixture of micronutrient 0.25% FS of micronutrient mixture @ tillering stage
only. Significant increases in spike length, spikelets spike-1, spike m-2, number of tillers m-2, number
of grains spike-1, 1000-grain weight, grain, straw, and biological yields (ton) fed-1 were noted in the
study's results. Additionally, the harvest index was found to be significantly higher in T8 only. The
highest grain yield was achieved by T8. While lower yield of growth attributes / parameters are found
in the control plot.
Introduction million tons). Wheat is the food crop which covers

Triticum aestivum L. or wheat, is a about 14% of the global crop area and has the largest
significant cereal crop that provides food for share in global food trade (OECD/FAO, 2020).
approximately one-third of the global population. Thanks to its diverse agro-ecological conditions,
With a global production of 713 million tons in 2018, India has emerged as the world's second-largest
wheat ranked third in terms of grain production, wheat producer, ensuring food and nutrition security
behind rice (745 million tons) and maize (1,016 for a significant portion of its populace through
Harmandeep Singh
Officer Agricultural Services, Nestle India Ltd. Moga, Punjab
Ravinder Kaur
Assistant Professor, School of Agriculture, Dev Bhoomi Uttarakhand University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand
Aditi Verma
Assistant Trainer, Department of Agriculture, Centre for Agriculture Farmers and Development (NGO), Uttarakhand
Swati Dudhpuri
Alumini, Department of Agriculture, Dolphine Institute of Biomedical and Natural Sciences, Dehradun, Uttarakhand

400
consistent supply and output, particularly in recent Table 2: Treatments Details

times. The crop has been grown on about 30 million T1 Control (without fertilizer or any other growth activity)
T2 RDF (NPK) only
hectares (14% of the world's total area) in order to T3 RDF (NPK) + LF Grade V 10 kg ha-1 mixture of
micronutrient on SA only.
reach the highest-ever output of 99.70 million tonnes T4 RDF (NPK) + LF Grade V 10 kg ha-1 mixture of
of wheat (13.64% of world production), with a record micronutrient on SA + 0.25% FS of micronutrient
mixture @ tillering stage only
average productivity of 3371 kg ha-1 (Sendhil et al., T5 RDF (NPK) + LF Grade V 15 kg ha-1 mixture of
1997). Wheat is a highly nutritious grain. 13.2% T6 RDF (NPK) + LF Grade V 15 kg hac-1 mixture of
micronutrienton SA + 0.25 % FS @ tillering stages
protein, 2.5% fat, 78.1% starch, 2.1% mineral matter, only.
T7 RDF (NPK) + LF Grade V 25 kg ha-1 mixture of
72 g of carbohydrates, and 0.4 g of sugar are found
in 100 g of whole-grain wheat flour (Atli, 2019). T8 RDF (NPK) + LF GradeV 25 kg ha-1 mixture of
micronutrient 0.25% FS of micronutrient mixture @
In the real world, boron is essential for the tillering stage only.
formation of pollen tubes, flower male fertility, floral Result and Discussion
organ development, and plant consumption of Effect of micronutrients mixture on the growth on
carbohydrates (Blevins and Mkrystyna, 1998). As a wheat: Table 3 shows that the tallest plant (89.87
result of boron shortage, poor anther and pollen cm) was obtained from the treatment T8 RDF (NPK)
development occurs during the grain setting stage + 25 kg ha-1 mixture of micronutrient 0.25% FS of
and the resulting grain is often starch-free (Dell and micronutrient mixture @ tillering stage only, while
Huang, 1997). Significant reductions in grain output the shortest plant (49.63 cm) was obtained from the
can occur even in the absence of obvious indicators treatment (control). The different levels of micro-
during vegetative growth, and low boron levels in the nutrients had no significant effect on the growth of
field may have a bigger effect on sexual the mustard crop. It was also discovered that a
reproduction. The sterility resulting from low wheat mixture of trace nutrients and (NPK) build up plant
boron availability in boron-deficient soils is a growth in this instance. Narimani et al. (2010)
significant concern (Shorrocks, 1997). corroborate the current findings, showing that all
Table 1: Experiment Details micronutrients improved these features when
Experimental Design and layout
Crop Wheat compared to the control group. The results showed
1. Variety PBW 292 (single)
that micronutrients and RDF (NPK) had a major
2. Year and Season 2021, Winter
3. Design Randomized Block Design impact on tiller output. In T8 treatment application of
(RBD)
Treatments 8 RDF (NPK) + 25 kg ha-1 mixture of micronutrient
Replications 3
Total no of plots 24 0.25% FS of micronutrient mixture @ tillering stage
4. Plot Size 2×1 m2 only produced the maximum number of tillers
5. Fertilizer (N:P:K) 80:40:40
6. Date of Sowing 28/12/2022 (386.17) which was statistically at par with T7 (383.
7. Date of Harvesting 26/04/2022

401
Table 3: Effect of micronutrients mixture on the growth of wheat

Treatment Plant height (cm) Number of tillers (m-2) Spike Length(cm) Grain spike-1
T1 (control) 49.63 316.17 9.4 29.83
T2 58.47 332.25 12.4 30.83
T3 68.37 333.58 13.3 32.50
T4 71.67 335.25 13.7 33.83
T5 78.57 336.58 13.5 35.00
T6 86.50 340.25 13.9 37.17
T7 83.50 337.42 13.4 36.92
T8 89.87 347.08 14.3 39.25
SE m± 0.86 0.47 0.22 0.54
CD (5%) 1.79 0.98 2.11 1.13
50). The minimum number of tillers (285.17 m-2) was recorded. Boron was crucial for grain setting and a
recorded in T1 (control) treatment. A similar result larger grain count in wheat because it is involved in
has been found in past experiment that when Cu was the transfer of food resources in plants.
applied, Kumar and Shanwad (2009) saw an increase
in the number of tillers, whereas Manal et al. (2010)
saw a rise in the number of tillers when Mn was
applied. The data on spike length revealed significant
increase with applied RDF (NPK) & Micronutrient
mixture foliar application. Maximum spike length of
14.3 cm was produced by T8 plot (RDF (NPK) + 25
kg ha-1 mixture of micronutrient 0.25% FS of Fig. 1: Effect of micronutrients mixture on the
micronutrient mixture @ tillering stage only). While growth on wheat
minimum spike length 9.4 was recorded in T1 Conclusion
(control). The spike length data are repersented in This study could be concluded that the
below table and graphically. The micronutrient response of wheat crop to micronutrient mixture was
combination of Cu + Fe + Mn + Zn produced the positive with irrespective of concentration that
highest values of spike length and number of grains means the growth and yield of wheat Crop could be
spike-1, according to Mekkei and El-Haggan Eman's improved with increasing when the soil application
(2014) observations. Maximum number of grains RDF (NPK) + 25 kg ha-1 mixture of micronutrient
(39.25) was produced by T8 (RDF (NPK) + 25 k ha- 0.25% FS of micronutrient mixture @ tillering stage
1
mixture of micronutrient 0.25% FS of micro- only showed significant high performance. The
nutrient mixture @ tillering stage only) which was result of spraying micronutrients mixture with
statistically at par with T6 and T7 with 37.17, and broadcasting gives more result as compare to alone
36.92 grains spike-1 respectively. In the T1 (control) broadcasting. Similar results were reported by
plot, the minimum number of grains (29.83) was researcher.

402
References Kumar, K., Singh, P. and Singh, S. N. (2018).

Atli Arnarson. (2019). Wheat 101-Nutrition Facts Influence of foliar spray boron and thiourea
and Health Effects B.Sc. PhD Updated on doses on biochemical and productive tillers
April 4, 2019. of wheat cultivars in two sowing conditions.
Blevins, D. G. and Mkrystyna, L. (1998). Boron in Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phyto-
Plant Structure and Function. Annual chemistry, 7(2): 3446-3452.
Reviews in Plant Physiology and Plant Bhatt, L. and Srivastava, B. K. (2005). Effect of
Molecular Biology, 49: 481-500. foliar application of micronutrients on
Broadley, M. R., White, P. J., Hammond, J. P., physical characteristics and quality attributes
Zelko, I. and Lux, A. (2007). Zinc in plants. of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) fruits.
New Phytology, 173: 677-702. Indian Journal of Agriculture Science, 75(9):
Chaudry, E. H., Timmer, V., Javad, A. S. and 591-592.
Siddique, M. T. (2007). Wheat response to OECD/FAO. (2020). OECD-FAO Agricultural
micronutrients in rained areas of Punjab. Soil Outlook 2020-2029, OECD Publishing,
& Environment, 26: 97-101. Paris/ FAO, Rome.
Cheng, C. and Rerkasem, B. (1993). Effects of Pittman, J. K. (2005). Managing the manganese:
Boron on Pollen Viability in Wheat. Plant molecular mechanisms of manganese
Nutrition from Genetic Engineering to Field transport and homeostasis. New Phytology,
Practice, 405-407. 167: 245-248.
Dell, B. and Huang, L. (1997). Physiological Reddy, S. R. (2004). Principles of Crop Production -
Response of Plants to Low Boron. Plant and Growth Regulators and Growth Analysis, 2nd
Soil, 193: 103-120. Ed. Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana, India.
Goulding, K. W. T. (2016). Soil acidification and the Salih, H. O. (2013) Effect of Foliar Fertilization of
importance of liming agricultural soils with Fe, B and Zn on nutrient concentration and
particular reference to the United Kingdom. seed protein of Cowpea (Vigna Unguiculata
Plant Archives, 32: 390-399. L). Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary
Khan, M. A., Fuller, M. P. and Baloch, F. S. (2008). Science, 6(3): 42-46.
Effect of soil applied zinc sulphate on wheat Sendhil, R., Kiran, T. M. K. and Gyanendra, P. S. S.
(Triticum aestivum L.) grown on calcareous V. M (1997). The occurrence and correction
soil. Pakistan Cereal Research Communi- of boron deficiency. Plant Soil, 193: 121-
cations, 36(4): 571-582. 148.

403
Techniques for Vegetable Seed Production

The vegetables occupy an important role in quality seed for their own. For the guidance of
our dietary system and plays a significant role in farmers, who are interested to produce quality seed
supplementing the food resources for feeding the fast or vegetable crops, important practices followed in
increasing population of the country. One of the seed production are summarized as below:
major factor which influences the quality and Important Steps/Tips for Quality and Production
quantity of vegetable production is the seed. Seed is Source of seed: Always use seed from ICAR/ SAUs
the basic and cheapest input which enables the Institutes, NSC, HSDC, Directorate of Horticulture
farmers to get higher return per unit area. The for seed multiplication programme.
efficiencies of other costlier input like fertilizers, Methods of seed Production
irrigation, weedicides, insecticides and pesticides  Seed to seed method: Seed / seedlings sown/
revolves around the use of good quality seed. A seed planted at a place in the field where crops
must confirm the following conditions to be called a remains throughout its life and attain maturity.
quality seed: This method is employed in peas, sem, cowpea,
 Genetically pure with respect to varietal methi, okra, spinach, cucurbits, tomato, brinjal
distinctness. and chillies etc.
 High degree of physical purity.  Root/bulb to seed method: When the roots
 Physiological viable to give rise to vigorous attain a desirable size (carrot 110-125. Radish 60-
seedlings. 70 and turnip 80-90 days), the roots are uprooted
 Free from designated seed born disease, and selected and stecklings are prepared and
objectionable weed seeds, other crop seeds, inert planted for seed crop. In case of onion, bulbs
matter and mechanical damage. grown in preceding rabi crop are used as planting
The framers needs experiences to become material. In case of cauliflower, the plants having
well conversant with different aspects, isolation, matured curds are uprooted and replanted in well
rouguing, harvesting, curing, threshing and proper prepared field for seed production and curs can
seed storage techniques. In the absence of above be discarded and proper spacing and fertilizer can
relevant experiences, farmers fail to produce the be given to the seed crop.
Satyapal Singh Yadav

Department of Vegetable Science, Maharana Pratap Horticultural University, Karnal, Haryana
Shahroon Khan
Department of Fruit Science, Maharana Pratap Horticultural University, Karnal, Haryana

404
Mode of pollination: Seed producer should know Stage of harvest is very much important in
the mode f pollination of crop to maintain the proper determining the quality of seeds of vegetable crops.
isolation between the two varieties/ crop. On the To improve the quality of seed, fully ripened fruits
basis of mode of pollination, the crops are divided in and mature umbels should be harvested.
three group: Threshing: Hand threshing is relatively cheap
 Self-pollinated crops: Methi, clusterbean, method for small seed lot and is still used for large
cowpea, sem, peas, tomato. seed lots also where the labour is cheap.
 Often cross -pollinated crops: Chillies, okra Dry seeds are removed from mother plant
and brinjal material by beating or rolling the material. It is
 Cross pollinated crops: Cauliflower, radish, important to ensure that plant material does not
turnip, carrot, onion, spinach and cucurbits. produce debris which either difficult or costly to
Isolation: During course of seed production one separate from the seed sample by subsequent
major factor isolation, is to ensure that possibility of processing. It is also extremely important to avoid
cross pollination between two varieties of the crop is damaging the seed during threshing process.
minimised. This is achieved either by ensuring that Prescribed isolation distance, time of inspection
and rouging of some vegetables crops
crop which are likely to cross pollinated are not Crop Isolation Distance (M) Time of inspection
flowering at the same time or that they are isolated Foundation Certified and rouging
seed seed
by distance. The isolation is depends upon the mode Peas & 25 10 Before Flowering
Beans
of pollination of a particular crop. Methi 50 25 At flowering
Palak 1600 1000 Edible pod stage
Crop Inspection and Roguing: plants not confirm- 1000 800  20-30 days after
Carrot
ing to the genetic and physical characters of a sowing.
 Steckling
particular variety (plant vigour and size, colour, reparation &
replanting
shape and size of the leaves, flower and fruits) are  At flowering
Radish 1600 1000 As above
called undesirable and process of removing these &
turnip
plants called rouguing.
Onion 1000 500  30-40 days after
Harvesting and curing: Seed crop should be transplanting.
 When bulb are
harvested at proper time. Early harvested crops lifted.
 Bulb replanting
produce under developed seed/ poor quality seed  At flowering
Cauli- 1600 1000  Vegetative
whereas over ripened or undue delay in harvesting flower growth stage
may result in shattering of seed and yield loss. In  When curd
formation starts
some crops ripening is uneven and this may  80% curd
formation
necessitate more than one harvest at regular intervals.  At flowering

405
Seed extraction from wet and fleshy fruits:

Extraction of seed is done by hand or by specially
designed machine.
Seed drying: To maintain the quality of seed, it is
necessary to dry the seed properly before packing
and storage. Store seeds in a cool, dry place to
maintain viability.

406
Solar Textiles: Weaving a Greener Future

Bhumika Lohar and Rupal Babel
Introduction Today, solar textiles have evolved into highly

Solar textiles are textiles that contain efficient and versatile solutions, driven by
photovoltaic cells capable continuous research and technological innovations.
of turning sunlight into Types of Solar Textiles
power. Unlike typical  Photovoltaic Fabrics: Incorporate traditional
rigid solar panels, these silicon-based solar cells known for their high
fabrics are flexible and lightweight, making them efficiency.
easy to integrate into everyday items such as apparel,  Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs): Employ
tents, and curtains. Solar textiles utilize the principles organic dyes for capturing sunlight, providing
of photovoltaic technology, where solar cells absorb both flexibility and aesthetic variety.
light and transform it into electrical energy. This  Organic Photovoltaics (OPVs): Employ
innovation facilitates energy generation on-the-go by organic materials, offering lightweight and
providing a distinctive combination of sustainability flexible alternatives, although they have lesser
and functionality. By integrating solar textiles into a efficiency compared to silicon-based cells.
variety of products, we can achieve efficient and  Hybrid Systems: Involve the integration of
convenient utilization of solar energy. multiple technologies in order to enhance
History and Evolution performance.
The concept of integrating solar cells into Materials Used in Solar Textiles
textiles dates back several decades, with early Solar textiles are made from a combination of
research focusing on small-scale applications. The advanced materials designed to maximize energy
1990s saw the development of basic solar fabrics, conversion and durability:
primarily used in niche applications. However,  Conductive Polymers: Efficiently transport
significant advancements were made in the 2000s electrical charges.
with the advent of flexible photovoltaic materials.  Photovoltaic Materials: The fabric integrates
Key milestones include the creation of dye- photovoltaic materials such as silicon,
sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) and organic perovskites, and organic molecules to harness
photovoltaics (OPVs), which opened new solar energy.
possibilities for lightweight and flexible solar textiles  Flexible Substrates: Typically composed of pol-
 Rupal Babel
Bhumika Lohar and
Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture 
and Technology, Udaipur, Rajasthan

407
ymers or composites, offer the required Industrial and Commercial Applications

combination of flexibility and strength. Beyond consumer products, solar textiles
Advantages of Solar Textiles have significant potential in industrial and
Solar textiles offer numerous advantages commercial applications:
over traditional solar panels. Their flexibility and  Building-Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV):
lightweight nature make them ideal for integration Utilize solar textiles in
into various products, from clothing to building architectural elements
materials. This versatility allows for the continuous like facades, roofs and
generation of solar energy in diverse environments. shading systems, enh-
Solar textiles are cost-effective in large-scale ancing energy efficie-
production, potentially reducing the overall cost of ncy in buildings.
solar energy systems. Moreover, they contribute to  Automotive Textiles:
sustainability by utilizing eco-friendly materials and Integrate solar cells
reducing reliance on fossil fuels. Their aesthetic into vehicle surfaces,
appeal and multifunctionality further enhance their providing additional
value, making solar textiles a promising solution for power for electric vehicles and reducing reliance
sustainable energy generation. on traditional energy sources.
Challenges and Limitations  Agricultural Applications: Power irrigation
Despite their potential, solar textiles face systems, sensors and other equipment, promoting
several challenges and limitations. Technical sustainable farming practices.
challenges include achieving high energy conversion Several real-world examples illustrate the
efficiency and ensuring long-term durability under successful implementation of solar textiles:
varying environmental conditions. Economic chall-  Solar-Powered Clothing Line: Integrates
enges involve the cost of materials and manu- photovoltaic cells into jackets and backpacks,
facturing processes, which can be higher compared allowing users to charge their devices on the go.
to traditional solar panels. Regulatory consider-  Solar Tents: Designed for disaster relief,
ations, such as safety standards and environmental providing essential power for communication
regulations, also play a crucial role in the adoption of and lighting in emergency situations.
solar textiles. Addressing these challenges through  Solar Curtains: Installed in energy-efficient
ongoing research and development is essential to buildings, reducing reliance on grid electricity
unlocking the full potential of solar textiles and and lowering energy costs.
ensuring their widespread adoption. Challenges in Adoption

408
The widespread adoption of solar textiles fabrics, solar textiles can be integrated into a wide
faces several challenges that must be addressed to range of products, from clothing to building
unlock their full potential: materials. Despite the challenges and limitations,
 Consumer Acceptance: Influenced by factors ongoing research and development are driving
such as awareness, perception, and cost. advancements in solar textile technology, enhancing
 Technical Barriers: Including efficiency and their efficiency and durability. The potential
durability need continuous improvement. applications and benefits of solar textiles are vast,
 Economic Challenges: Involve reducing produ- making them a key player in the transition towards a
ction costs and achieving scalability. sustainable and eco-friendly energy future.
Future Prospects References
The future prospects of solar textiles are Smith, J. (2019). Solar Textiles: A Comprehensive
promising, driven by continuous advancements in Review on Materials and Technologies.
technology and increasing demand for sustainable Journal of Materials Science, 54(8): 6409-
energy solutions. Emerging technologies such as 6437.
perovskite solar cells offer higher efficiency and Van Cleynenbreugel, T., Van Langenhove, L. and De
flexibility compared to traditional materials. Clerck, K. (2018). Wearable Solar Textiles:
Research is also focused on developing self-healing A Review on Materials, Devices, and
and self-cleaning solar textiles, enhancing their Applications. Solar Energy Materials and
durability and performance. Additionally, advance- Solar Cells, 174: 95-105.
ments in nanotechnology and material science are Vollebak. (n.d.). Solar Charged Jacket. Retrieved
expected to further improve the efficiency and from https://www.vollebak.com/product/
functionality of solar textiles. The integration of solar-charged-jacket/.
smart textiles with sensors and IoT devices Van Dongen, P. (n.d.). Solar Shirt. Retrieved from
represents another promising trend, enabling https://paulinevandongen.nl/projects/solar-
intelligent energy management and monitoring shirt.
systems.
Conclusion
In conclusion, solar textiles represent a
transformative innovation in the renewable energy
landscape, offering a versatile and sustainable
solution to energy generation. By harnessing the
power of the sun through flexible and lightweight

409
Hydrogel: A Game Changer for Drought Resistant Crop

Laxman Navi, Santosh Araganji, Harish M. C. and Vineeth M.
Abstract
The agricultural sector is increasingly challenged by climate change, particularly in drought-

prone regions, threatening global food security and the livelihoods of millions of farmers. Hydrogels,
superabsorbent polymers with high water retention capacities, have emerged as a transformative
technology in drought-resistant agriculture. When integrated into soil, hydrogels act as water
reservoirs, gradually releasing moisture to plant roots, thereby maintaining consistent soil moisture
levels. This characteristic enhances crop resilience, improves water use efficiency and promotes
sustainable agriculture. Hydrogels also contribute to better soil structure, nutrient retention and
reduced water usage, leading to increased crop yields and environmental sustainability. Advanced
applications, including precision agriculture, seed coating and controlled-release fertilizers, further
highlight the potential of hydrogels. Future innovations focus on developing biodegradable and smart
hydrogels, hydrogel composites and gene-edited crops to optimize water management and agricultural
productivity in a changing climate.
Introduction amounts of water relative to their mass. When

The agriculture sector faces significant incorporated into soil, they act as water reservoirs,
challenges due to climate change, particularly in gradually releasing moisture to plant roots over time.
regions prone to drought. Water scarcity has become This unique property makes hydrogels particularly
a critical issue, threatening food security and the effective in mitigating the impacts of drought on
livelihoods of millions of farmers worldwide. In crops. By maintaining consistent soil moisture
response to this pressing problem, innovative levels, hydrogels help plants survive and thrive in
technologies are being developed to enhance crop conditions of limited water availability.
resilience and sustainability. Among these innovat- The adoption of hydrogel technology in
ions, hydrogels have emerged as a revolutionary tool agriculture offers numerous benefits, including
in drought-resistant agriculture. Hydrogels are improved water use efficiency, enhanced soil health
superabsorbent polymers capable of retaining large and increased crop yields. This introduction explores
Laxman Navi and Santosh Araganji

Department of Agronomy, UAS, GKVK, Bengaluru, Karnataka
Harish M. C.
AICRP for Dryland Agriculture, UAS, GKVK, Bengaluru, Karnataka
Vineeth M.
Department of Plant Pathology, UAS, GKVK, Bengaluru, Karnataka

410
the potential of hydrogels to transform drought- roves. Hydrogels increase soil porosity, which
resistant farming practices, highlighting their role in enhances aeration and water infiltration. This creates
promoting sustainable agriculture and ensuring food a more favourable environment for root growth and
security in a changing climate. development.
What are Hydrogels? Reduced Water Usage: The water-holding capacity
Hydrogels are three-dimensional networks of of hydrogels allows for more efficient use of
hydrophilic polymers that can absorb and retain available water resources. This leads to reduced
significant amounts of water. They are commonly water usage and irrigation frequency, conserving
used in a variety of fields, including medicine, valuable water resources and reducing the strain on
pharmaceuticals and agriculture, due to their high water supplies.
water retention capabilities. Increased Crop Yields: Consistent soil moisture
Types of Hydrogels Used in Agriculture provided by hydrogels helps maintain optimal
Natural Polymer Hydrogels: These are derived growing conditions for crops. This results in higher
from natural sources such as cellulose, starch and crop yields and improved quality, as plants
chitosan. They are biodegradable and environment- experience less stress from water scarcity.
ally friendly. Enhanced Nutrient Retention: Hydrogels help in
Synthetic Polymer Hydrogels: Made from retaining nutrients within the soil, preventing them
synthetic polymers like polyacrylamide, these from leaching away with water. This ensures a steady
hydrogels offer higher water retention capacity and supply of essential nutrients to plants, promoting
longer durability. better growth and development.
Hybrid Hydrogels: These combine natural and Climate Resilience: By improving water manage-
synthetic polymers to leverage the benefits of both, ment and reducing the impact of drought, hydrogels
offering high performance and biodegradability. help create more resilient agricultural systems. This
Advantages of hydrogel in agriculture resilience is crucial in the face of climate change,
Improved Water Retention: Hydrogels can absorb which is expected to increase the frequency and
and retain large amounts of water, which is then severity of droughts.
gradually released to plant roots. This ability to hold Cost-Effective Solution: Although the initial cost of
water in the soil reduces the need for frequent hydrogels may be higher, the long-term benefits,
irrigation, making it especially beneficial in drought- including increased crop yields, reduced water usage
prone areas. and improved soil health, make them a cost-effective
Enhanced Soil Structure: By incorporating solution for farmers.
hydrogels into the soil, the overall soil structure imp- Environmental Sustainability: Hydrogels contrib-

411
ute to sustainable farming practices by reducing providing them with a moisture reservoir that helps
water wastage, improving soil health and minimizing in better germination rates and early growth, even in
the need for chemical fertilizers due to better nutrient arid conditions.
retention. This leads to a lower environmental impact Controlled-Release Fertilizers: Hydrogels can
and promotes eco-friendly agriculture. encapsulate fertilizers, releasing nutrients slowly
Improved Seed Germination and Plant Establish- over time. This ensures a steady supply of nutrients
ment: Hydrogels can be used as seed coatings to to crops, enhancing growth and reducing the need for
enhance germination rates and early plant establish- frequent fertilization.
ment. The moisture provided by the hydrogels Future Innovations
ensures that seeds have a better chance of Biodegradable Hydrogels: Research is focused on
germinating and establishing strong root systems, creating biodegradable hydrogels from natural
even in dry conditions. materials like chitosan, cellulose and gelatin. These
Application in Various Agricultural Settings hydrogels break down naturally, reducing the risk of
Hydrogels are versatile and can be used in long-term soil pollution.
various agricultural settings, including field crops, Smart Hydrogels: Innovations in smart hydrogel
horticulture, landscaping and urban agriculture. technology are aimed at developing hydrogels that
Their ability to improve water management and soil respond to environmental stimuli such as pH,
health makes them suitable for a wide range of temperature, and moisture levels. These hydrogels
applications. can optimize water release based on real-time soil
Reduction in Soil Erosion: By retaining moisture and plant needs, enhancing efficiency.
and improving soil structure, hydrogels help reduce Hydrogel Composites: Combining hydrogels with
soil erosion. This is particularly important in areas other soil amendments like biochar or compost can
with heavy rainfall or sloping terrain, where soil enhance their effectiveness. These composites
erosion can be a significant problem. improve soil fertility and structure while providing
Advanced Applications the water retention benefits of hydrogels.
Precision Agriculture: Hydrogels can be integrated Gene-Edited Crops: The integration of hydrogel
with sensors and IoT devices to create smart technology with gene-edited crops designed to be
irrigation systems. These systems can monitor soil drought-resistant can further enhance agricultural
moisture levels in real-time and release water from productivity. These crops can make better use of the
hydrogels as needed, optimizing water usage and moisture provided by hydrogels, leading to higher
reducing wastage. resilience and yields.
Seed Coating: Hydrogels can be used to coat seeds, Conclusion

412
Hydrogels represent a revolutionary advanc- Saini, A. K. and Malve, S. H. (2022). Impact of

ement in addressing the challenges posed by climate hydrogel on agriculture a review. Ecology
change and water scarcity in agriculture. Their ability and Environment Conservation, 29: 36-S47.
to retain and gradually release water significantly
mitigates the impact of drought on crops, ensuring
consistent soil moisture and promoting healthy plant
growth. The adoption of hydrogel technology offers
numerous benefits, including improved water use
efficiency, enhanced soil health, increased crop
yields, and reduced environmental impact. By
incorporating hydrogels, farmers can achieve more
sustainable and resilient agricultural practices.
Advanced applications and future innovations in
hydrogel technology further enhance their potential,
paving the way for more efficient and eco-friendly
farming solutions. As the agriculture sector
continues to adapt to climate change, hydrogels will
play a crucial role in ensuring food security and
promoting sustainable agricultural practices world-
wide.
References
Grabowska-Polanowska, B., Garbowski, T., Bar-
Michalczyk, D. and Kowalczyk, A. (2021).
The benefits of synthetic or natural hydrogels
application in agriculture: An overview
article. Journal of Water and Land Develop-
ment, 208-224
Kaur, P., Agrawal, R., Pfeffer, F. M., Williams, R.
and Bohidar, H. B. (2023). Hydrogels in
agriculture: Prospectus and Challenges.
Journal of Polymers and the Environment,
31(9): 3701-3718.

413
Bacterial Endophytic Microbial Consortia Enhancing Plant Defense

Mechanisms against Pathogenic Fungi and Bacteria
Endophytes, originating from the phyllo- microorganisms that inhabit the internal tissues of
sphere and rhizosphere, are microorganisms isolated plants without causing harm. They play various roles
from the internal tissues of plants following surface in plant health, including nutrient acquisition, stress
sterilization (Verma et al., 2017). They encompass a tolerance, and defense against pathogens. Here are
spectrum of associations with plants, including some common types of bacterial endophytes:
mycorrhizal, pathogenic, epiphytic, saprotrophic, Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria: These bacteria have the
and endophytic forms, depending on colonization ability to convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form
type and function (Brader et al., 2017). Among these, usable by plants (ammonia), thereby enhancing plant
endophytic microbes and mycorrhizal fungi are growth and reducing the need for synthetic
notable for their ability to penetrate plant tissues fertilizers. Examples include Rhizobium, Brady-
without causing harm, forming symbiotic relation- rhizobium, and Azospirillum.
ships that can occasionally be mildly pathogenic (de Phosphate-Solubilizing Bacteria: These bacteria
Tender, 2017). release phosphorus bound in organic or inorganic
These endophytic microorganisms, spanning forms in the soil, making it available for plant uptake.
bacteria, fungi, eukaryotes, and archaea, inhabit They contribute to improved plant growth and
various plant tissues across a wide range of plant development, especially in phosphorus-deficient
species such as rice, wheat, tomato, cowpea, maize, soils. Examples include Pseudomonas, Bacillus, and
strawberry, chickpea, mustard, sugarcane, chili, Enterobacter species.
citrus, soybean, cotton, pearl millet, and sunflower Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR):
(Verma et al., 2017; Yadav et al., 2018). These bacteria colonize the rhizosphere (soil around
Types of Bacterial Endophytes plant roots) or internal tissues of plants, promoting
Bacterial endophytes are a diverse group of growth through various mechanisms such as produc-
Archana A. M.
Eramma
Bhavya V. P.

414
tion of phytohormones (like auxins), enhancing (Frankia species).

nutrient availability and inducing systemic resistance These types of bacterial endophytes illustrate
against pathogens. Examples include Pseudomonas the diverse roles and functions they play in plant
fluorescens, Bacillus subtilis and Rhizobium species. biology and agriculture, highlighting their potential
Endophytic Actinobacteria: Actinobacteria are a applications in sustainable crop production and
group of bacteria known for producing bioactive environmental management.
compounds with antimicrobial, antifungal, and Interactions between Plants and Bacterial
antiviral properties. They can colonize various plant Endophytes
tissues and contribute to plant defense against Plant-bacterial endophyte interactions repre-
pathogens. Examples include Streptomyces and sent complex, mutually beneficial relationships
Micromonospora species. between plants and certain bacteria that colonize
Methylobacteria: These bacteria utilize methanol their internal tissues without causing disease. These
and other volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as interactions have significant implications for plant
carbon and energy sources. They are often found in health, growth, and environmental adaptation. Here
association with plants and can promote plant growth are some key aspects of plant-bacterial endophyte
and stress tolerance. Examples include Methylo- interactions:
bacterium species. Nutrient Acquisition: Bacterial endophytes, such as
Endophytic Cyanobacteria: Cyanobacteria are nitrogen-fixing bacteria (e.g., Rhizobium), contribute
photosynthetic bacteria capable of fixing atmos- to plant nutrition by converting atmospheric nitrogen
pheric carbon dioxide and nitrogen. Some into ammonia, which is readily used by plants. This
cyanobacteria can form endosymbiotic relationships symbiotic relationship reduces the plant's depend-
with plants, contributing to nitrogen availability and ence on synthetic fertilizers.
enhancing plant growth in nutrient-poor environ- Enhanced Stress Tolerance: Endophytic bacteria
ments. Examples include Nostoc and Anabaena can enhance the plant's ability to tolerate various
species. environmental stresses, including drought, salinity,
Endophytic Symbionts: These are bacteria that and heavy metal toxicity. They achieve this by
establish mutualistic relationships with plants, producing stress-responsive compounds, such as
providing benefits such as enhanced nutrient uptake, osmolytes and antioxidants, or by modulating plant
protection against pathogens, and improved stress hormone levels to promote stress tolerance.
tolerance. Examples include various symbiotic Disease Suppression: Certain endophytic bacteria
nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Rhizobium, Bradyrhizo- possess biocontrol capabilities against plant patho-
bium) and mycorrhizal fungi-associated bacteria gens. They can inhibit the growth of pathogenic

415
fungi and bacteria through mechanisms such as nct microbial communities that contribute uniquely
competition for nutrients and space, production of to their growth and health.
antibiotics or antifungal compounds, and induction Understanding these interactions is crucial
of systemic resistance in the host plant. for developing sustainable agricultural practices,
Induced Systemic Resistance (ISR): Some including biocontrol strategies, bioremediation of
endophytic bacteria can activate the plant's immune contaminated soils, and enhancing crop productivity
system, priming it to defend against subsequent in challenging environments. Ongoing research
pathogen attacks. This ISR mechanism involves the continues to uncover new insights into the
production of signaling molecules or elicitors by the mechanisms and applications of plant-bacterial
bacteria, which trigger the plant's defense responses. endophyte interactions, shaping future advancements
Plant Growth Promotion: Plant growth-promoting in agriculture and environmental science.
bacteria (PGPB) enhance plant growth and Bacterial EndophytesApplications
development through various mechanisms, including Bacterial endophytes, owing to their benefi-
production of phytohormones (e.g., auxins, cyto- cial interactions with plants, have diverse applicat-
kinins), solubilization of nutrients (e.g., phosphate), ions across agriculture, environmental management,
and facilitation of root elongation and branching. and biotechnology. Here are some key applications:
Modulation of Plant Physiology: Endophytic Biofertilizers: Nitrogen-fixing bacteria, such as
bacteria can influence various aspects of plant Rhizobium species in legumes and Azospirillum in
physiology, such as photosynthesis, water relations, non-leguminous plants, are used as biofertilizers.
and nutrient uptake efficiency. They may alter the They reduce the need for synthetic nitrogen
expression of plant genes involved in these fertilizers by converting atmospheric nitrogen into
processes, leading to improved overall plant ammonia, which is readily utilized by plants (Fig. 1).
performance. Biocontrol Agents: Certain endophytic bacteria
Environmental Adaptation: Endophytic bacteria have biocontrol properties against plant pathogens.
play a role in helping plants adapt to specific They inhibit the growth of pathogenic fungi and
environmental conditions, such as nutrient-poor soils bacteria through mechanisms like competition for
or extreme climates. They contribute to the plant's nutrients, production of antimicrobial compounds
ecological fitness by providing adaptive traits that (e.g., antibiotics, siderophores), and induction of
increase survival and reproductive success. systemic resistance in plants. Examples include
Diversity and Specificity: The diversity of bacterial Pseudomonas and Bacillus species.
endophytes varies across plant species and environ- Induced Systemic Resistance (ISR): Beneficial
mental conditions. Different plants may harbor disti- bacteria trigger ISR in plants, boosting both local and

416
systemic defense responses to safeguard the host

against pathogen assaults. In addition to the
traditional salicylic acid-mediated ISR, various
endophytes also activate immune responses
involving jasmonic acid and ethylene pathways.
Table 1 outlines these different strategies, with
illustrated examples provided in Fig. 1.
Table 1: Various tactics employed by endophytic
bacteria to combat phytopathogens
Strategy Used Mechanisms
Competition Competitive colonization of roots, adhesion
for space and ability, growth phase different-iation and
nutrients efficient utilization of organic acids from
root exudates for synthesizing various Fig. 2: Exploring the Pros and Cons of Using
components. Bacterial Endophytes in Sustainable Agriculture
Competition The production of siderophores chelates
Phytoremediation: Certain endophytic bacteria
with ferric ferric iron, thereby reducing its avail-ability
iron for pathogen growth. assist in phytoremediation processes by enhancing
Detoxification Synthesis of fusaric acids, which neutralize
of virulence toxins released by phyto-pathogens. the degradation, detoxification, or immobilization of
factors Suppression of quorum-sensing efficiency
by degrading auto-inducer signals, thereby pollutants (e.g., heavy metals, organic contaminants)
preventing the activation of multiple
virulence genes. in contaminated soils. They facilitate the uptake and
Antibiosis Synthesis of potent compounds including transformation of pollutants by plants, improving
2-hexyl-5-propyl resorcinol, pyoluteorin,
phenazines, volatile hydrogen cyanide environmental quality (Figure 1).
(HCN)-like compounds, pyrrolnitrin, D-
gluconic acid, 6-pentyl-α-pyrone, and the Plant Growth Promotion: Plant growth-promoting
volatile 2,3-butanediol. Production of
active lipopeptides such as iturin, surfactin, bacteria (PGPB) enhance plant growth and
polymyxin, fengycin and bacitracin.
Synthesis of phenols, pyrrolnitrin, phlorog-
development through mechanisms such as product-
lucinol, and volatile organic compounds. ion of phytohormones (e.g., auxins, cytokinins),
Induced Enhanced ISR through the synthesis of
systemic pyocyanin, salicylic acid and sidero-phores. solubilization of nutrients (e.g., phosphate), and
resistance Enhanced ISR facilitated by the interaction
(ISR) of chemical elicitors like chitosan and its facilitation of root growth and nutrient uptake
derivatives with endophytic microbes. ISR
strengthened by the increased production of efficiency.
antioxidant enzymes.
Biological Control of Insect Pests: Some endoph-
ytic bacteria exhibit insecticidal properties against
agricultural pests. They can produce toxins or
secondary metabolites that deter feeding or disrupt
the life cycle of insect pests, offering a sustainable
Fig. 1: Endophytic Bacteria's Contributions to Plant alternative to chemical insecticides.
Growth: Direct and Indirect Mechanisms
417
Seed Coating and Inoculants: Endophytic bacteria inhabit the plant's interior, offering protection from
are used in seed coating and inoculant formulations harsh environmental conditions. Advanced techni-
to improve seed germination, seedling vigor, and ques such as CRISPR/Cas-mediated genome editing
early plant establishment. They colonize the seeds or are elucidating plant-microbe interactions, paving
young plants, providing immediate benefits to crop the way for tailored plants and microbes with
growth and health. agricultural benefits.
Indigenous Knowledge and Traditional Agricul- Endophytes produce bioactive metabolites
ture: In many traditional agricultural systems, that promote plant growth, enhancing crop yields
farmers have long relied on the beneficial more effectively than conventional agrochemicals
interactions between plants and indigenous endo- applied externally. Moreover, bacterial metabolites,
phytic bacteria for crop health and productivity. This including those derived from endophytes, hold
knowledge is increasingly recognized and integrated promise for various technological and industrial
into modern agricultural practices. applications, such as nanoparticle synthesis for
Biotechnological Applications: Endophytic bacte- medical, industrial, and electronic uses. Future
ria are studied for their potential in biotechnological applications include nano-drugs, nano-pesticides,
applications, including production of bioactive and nano-fertilizers designed to combat plant
compounds (e.g., antibiotics, enzymes, biofuels), pathogens and enhance soil fertility sustainably.
bioremediation technologies, and as sources of novel Research into eco-friendly microbial techniques,
genes for genetic engineering of crop plants. particularly endophytes, is essential for developing
These applications highlight the versatility precise methods to fabricate nanoparticles of specific
and potential of bacterial endophytes in sustainable shapes and sizes. Furthermore, exploring new
agriculture, environmental conservation and biotech- bioactive compounds from endophytic bacteria and
nological innovation. Continued research and understanding their interactions with plants will
development are essential for harnessing their full optimize their use in economically viable products.
potential and integrating them effectively into References
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Conclusion S. S., Elsaied, A., Oelmüller, R., Hijri, M.,
Biotechnology has found diverse applicati- Bhowmik, A., Elkelish, A. and Hassan, S. E.
ons in medical, industrial, and agricultural sectors D. (2021). Harnessing bacterial endophytes
due to its cost-effectiveness and environmental for promotion of plant growth and
friendliness. Unlike rhizosphere and phyllosphere biotechnological applications: an over-
bacteria that reside on plant surfaces, endophytes view. Plants, 10(5): 935.

418
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mechanisms of endophytes used in plant
protection and other bioactivities with
multifunctional prospects. Frontiers in
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endophytes and rhizobacteria for nutrients
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Food, 6(2): 496-524.

419
The Untold Story of Pesticides: Are they Helping or Harming?

Divyanshi Rawat
Abstract
Pesticides are essential in modern agriculture for pest control and crop production. However,
their impact on health and the environment has sparked significant debate. This article examines the
benefits and drawbacks of pesticide use, exploring their effects on human health, the environment, and
sustainable agricultural practices. The study also discusses alternative pest control methods, emphasizing
the need for a balanced and sustainable approach.
Introduction ply, which is essential for feeding the growing

Pesticides have become a cornerstone of global population.
contemporary agriculture, offering an effective  Disease Prevention: Pesticides can control pests
means to control pests and increase crop yields. that spread diseases to humans and animals,
However, their widespread use has led to concerns indirectly contributing to public health.
about their safety and environmental impact. This Controversies and Risks
article aims to provide a comprehensive overview of Despite their advantages, pesticides pose
the benefits and risks associated with pesticide use significant risks to human health and the environ-
and explore alternative methods for sustainable pest ment. Some of the major concerns include:
management.  Health Risks: Many pesticides contain
The Benefits of Pesticides chemicals that can be toxic to humans. Long-
Pesticides are crucial for protecting crops term exposure can lead to serious health issues
from pests and diseases. They help farmers maintain such as cancer, reproductive problems, and
high yields and ensure food security by reducing crop endocrine disruption.
losses. Some of the key benefits of pesticides  Environmental Contamination: Pesticides can
include: contaminate soil and water, leading to adverse
 Enhanced Crop Protection: Pesticides protect effects on wildlife and ecosystems. Non-target
crops from a wide range of pests and diseases, species, including beneficial insects like bees,
leading to higher agricultural productivity. can be harmed by pesticide exposure.
 Increased Food Security: By preventing crop  Biodiversity Loss: The use of pesticides can
losses, pesticides help ensure a stable food sup- reduce biodiversity by affecting various organis-
Divyanshi Rawat
University Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Chandigarh University, Mohali, Punjab

420
ms, including insects, plants, and aquatic life. Alternatives to Pesticides

This can disrupt ecological balance and harm To reduce the negative impacts of pesticides,
ecosystems. alternative pest control methods are being developed
Environmental Impact and implemented. These alternatives aim to provide
Pesticides can have a profound impact on the effective pest management while minimizing health
environment. They not only kill pests but also affect and environmental risks. Key alternatives include:
non-target species. The decline in bee populations,  Integrated Pest Management (IPM): This
essential for pollination, is one of the most approach combines biological, cultural, and
significant consequences. Additionally, pesticide mechanical practices to manage pests. IPM
runoff can lead to water pollution, harming aquatic emphasizes the use of natural pest control
ecosystems. Soil health can also be compromised, as methods and reduces reliance on chemical
pesticide residues may degrade soil quality and pesticides.
reduce its fertility over time.  Organic Farming: Organic farming avoids
Human Health Concerns synthetic pesticides, instead using natural pest
Research has shown that pesticide residues control methods such as crop rotation, biological
on food can pose significant health risks. Even low control, and the use of natural predators.
levels of exposure can accumulate in the human  Biological Control: This method involves using
body, leading to chronic health problems. Vulnerable natural predators, parasites, or pathogens to
populations, such as children and pregnant women, control pest populations. Biological control is
are particularly at risk. Health concerns associated environmentally friendly and sustainable.
with pesticide exposure include: Conclusion
 Chronic Health Issues: Long-term exposure to Pesticides play a crucial role in modern
pesticides can lead to chronic diseases such as agriculture, but their potential risks to human health
cancer and neurological disorders. and the environment cannot be ignored. It is essential
 Developmental Effects: Pesticide exposure to balance pesticide use with sustainable practices to
during critical periods of development can have ensure a safer future for agriculture. By adopting
lasting impacts on children's health and develop- alternative pest control methods such as IPM,
ment. organic farming, and biological control, we can
 Acute Poisoning: In cases of high exposure, reduce the negative impacts of pesticides and
pesticides can cause acute poisoning, leading to promote a more sustainable agricultural system. This
immediate health effects such as nausea, research highlights the importance of considering
dizziness and respiratory issues. both the benefits and risks of pesticide use. A balan-

421
ced approach that incorporates sustainable practices

and alternative pest control methods is necessary to
protect human health, preserve the environment, and
ensure long-term agricultural productivity.

422
Brooding Management of Chicks

Tathagat P. Khobragade and Viral V. Gamit
Abstract
Managing chicks is crucial to ensuring their health, growth, and productivity. Whether you're
raising chicks for eggs or meat, proper management practices from the moment they hatch are essential.
This includes providing the right environment, nutrition, and care to foster their development. The
management of chicks starts even before the arrival of chicks by preparation of shed and brooding
equipment set up. Proper management of chicks increases the chances of survival which generates more
profits.
Brooding Management Types of Brooding

The period from hatching until chicks no  Natural Brooding: This method utilizes broody
longer require supplementary heat is known as the hens to provide warmth for chicks, suitable for
“brooding period,” typically lasting 3-6 weeks. This small scale operations. Before placement, hens
duration depends on seasonal temperatures and must be inspected for health and freedom from
housing type. Newly hatched chicks need supple- parasites like lice and ticks.
mentary heat because they cannot regulate their own  Artificial Brooding: Used in largescale farming,
body temperature. this method employs temperature controlled
Supplementary heat can be provided by a brooders instead of hens.
broody hen or, more commonly, by artificial It offers several advantages
brooders such as gas, kerosene, or charcoal stoves.  Chicks can be raised throughout the year.
As chicks grow, their downy coat is replaced by  Efficient brooding of large numbers by fewer
feathers, allowing the brooding temperature to personnel.
gradually decrease. Supplementary heat is typically  Control over sanitation, temperature, and feeding
discontinued around 3-4 weeks of age. During the schedules.
brooding period, utmost care must be taken for the Common Types of Artificial Brooders
chicks. They require adequate warmth, shelter, fresh Hover Brooder: Uses a 100 or 200 watt bulb to
air, proper food, and clean water. maintain uniform temperature where electricity is
Tathagat P. Khobragade
M.V.Sc. Scholar, Department of Animal Nutrition, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Junagadh,
Kamdhenu University, Gujarat
Viral V. Gamit
Assistant Professor, Department of Livestock Production Management, College of Veterinary Science and Animal
Husbandry, Junagadh, Kamdhenu University, Gujarat

423
available. Requires minimal attention but may not Brooding Requirements

provide adequate warmth in very cold conditions, Temperature: Critical for chick health, with
necessitating frequent litter changes. specific requirements varying by age and environ-
Infrared Brooder: Utilizes infrared lamps placed 20 mental conditions. Improper temperatures can lead to
- 25 inches above the litter to warm chicks directly. poor growth and health issues.
A single 250 watt bulb can provide warmth for 60 - Table 1: Brooding Temperature Requirements
70 chicks, ensuring comfort without significantly for different age group
Age Brooding Temperature
heating the surrounding air. 0 to 1 week 93° to 95°F (33.9° to 35°C)
Central Heating System: Found in large 1 to 2 weeks 88° to 90°F (31.1° to 32.2°C)
2 to 3 weeks 83° to 85°F (28.3° to 29.4°C)
commercial operations, uses coal, oil, gas, or 3 to 4 weeks 78° to 80°F (25.6° to 26.7°C)
4 to 5 weeks 75°F (23.9°C)
electricity to circulate heated air or water through 5 to 6 weeks 70°F (21.1°C)
6 weeks and Comfort Zone 50° to 70°F (10° to 21.1°C)
pipelines beneath the building, maintaining consist- over
ent warmth. Ventilation: Fresh air is important for good health of
Gas Brooding: Uses LPG or biogas to generate heat, the chicks. Ventilation is essential to remove harmful
with the heating element positioned 34 feet above gases and maintain dry litter, preventing conditions
chick level. like coccidiosis.
Brooder House Considerations Humidity: Should be maintained between 30-75%
Location: Should be isolated from other poultry RH to avoid issues like wet litter or respiratory
houses by a minimum of 100 meters. problems.
Preparation: Ensure the brooder house is thorou- Space: Adequate floor space is crucial for comfort
ghly cleaned and scrubbed at least 7-10 days before and health. Floor space requirements should be in the
chick arrival, with proper fumigation if necessary. following ways: at 0-3 weeks of age 0- 0.5 sq. feet,
Maintain 2-4 inches of litter using materials like at 4-6 week of age 0.5- 0.75 sq. feet and 6-8 weeks
sawdust or ground maize, topped with newspaper to of age 0.75- 1 sq. feet per chicks is needed
prevent ingestion. General Considerations during Brooding
 Ensure all preparations are completed before
chick arrival.
 Vaccinate chicks against diseases like Ranikhet
and Marek's.
 Maintain clean waterers and feeders, adjusting
sizes as chicks grow.
 Use antibiotics sparingly in clean environments.
Fig. 1: Brooding set up

424
 Monitor and adjust temperature according to Singh, R. A. (2009). Poultry Production, Kalyani
environmental changes. Publishers (3th edition), Ludhiana.
 Manage ventilation for optimal air quality.
 Remove any deceased chicks promptly.
 Maintain detailed records of brooding house
performance.
 Schedule debeaking appropriately and address
health issues promptly, such as coccidiosis
outbreaks.
Conclusion
Managing chicks effectively is crucial for
promoting their healthy development and ensuring
successful poultry management. This involves
several key practices that must be diligently followed
to create optimal conditions for the chicks from
hatching through to maturity. Effective management
of chicks involves ensuring proper brooding
conditions with adequate warmth, providing a
balanced diet rich in protein, maintaining access to
clean water at all times, monitoring health closely for
early intervention, and providing sufficient space as
they grow. Attention to these key aspects helps
promote healthy development and lays the
foundation for successful poultry management.
References
Bias, B. (2012). The Essentials of Livestock
Production Management, NBS Publisher and
Distributor (2012).
Banerjee, G. C. (2012). A Text Book of Animal
Husbandry (8th edition), Oxford and IBH
Publishing Company Pvt Ltd., New Delhi.

425
Post-Harvest Handling of Vegetable Crops

India has emerged as the second largest longer shelf life should be preferred for long distance
producer of vegetables after China producing about marketing. Cultivar selection should be made with
209.39 million tonnes of vegetables from 11.35 knowledge of the use to which the commodity is
million hectare of land which is about 14 % of total intended. Red onion cultivars are more suitable than
world production. Sizeable percentage of production white cultivars for storage and dehydration. Thin
of vegetables is lost due to defective handling from neck and small size onion bulbs are associated with
harvesting to marketing and due to lack modern longer storage life. Arka Niketan was found to be the
storage and processing facilities. Despite abundant best variety of onion for storage. Most of the tomato
production, an estimated 30-35% of fruits and hybrids had better self-life than open pollinated
vegetables are lost between harvest and consumption varieties.
due to their perishable nature. Wastage of horticul- Cultural Practices: Irrigation and nutritional
tural produce is a big concern for nation’s economy. management affect the keeping quality of most of the
Post-harvest losses are serious in a developing vegetable crops. Higher doses of nitrogen application
country because of lack of elaborate harvesting had an adverse effect on storability of onion bulb due
equipment, collection centre in major producing to rotting and sprouting. The maximum safe doses
areas, suitable containers and packing materials, are 120 to 160 kg ha-1. However higher rate of
commercial storage plants, proper transport facilities phosphorus and potash improved the keeping quality
and ignorance about the advantages of proper of onion bulbs. Optimum irrigations are best for
handling. Not only this but high moisture content of better keeping quality of most of the vegetables.
vegetable, large unit size, high rate of transpiration, Harvesting: It should be done in cool hours to
soft texture and susceptibility to brushing, rotting prevent wilting and shrivelling of vegetable. It
and senescence forced the vegetable to go for higher should be kept in mind that harvesting during or
post-harvest losses. immediately after rains should not be carried out as
The controls of such losses in major it creates conditions most favourable for multi-
vegetables is mentioned below: plication of organism. As possible, the delayed
Selection of cultivars: The varieties which have harvesting should be avoided due to poor quality.
Satyapal Singh Yadav

Shahroon Khan

426
Curing: Curing of onion bulbs and potato tubers is materials such as plastic, film bags, paper board
practised to reduce the post-harvest decay and boxes, plastic nets are most effectives.
improving skin colour and hardiness. Curing is done Transportations: Transport and distribution are
in shade for 3-4 days to reduce about 6-8% moisture. most significant areas of post-harvest losses. Long
It is very important post-harvest operation. distance transport should be either through train at
Post-harvest treatments: Precooling of tomato priority basis and under refrigerated conditions.
before storages, waxing of brinjal, tomato and Short life vegetable should be airlifted. A system for
melons improved the shelf life and appearance of the cold chain should be developed to reduce post-
produce. Lot of research finding are available where harvest losses.
treatment of growth regulators and other chemicals Market Preparation: Prepare vegetables for market
were found beneficial in improving shelf life of by sorting them according to size, quality, and
vegetables. appearance standards. Presentation plays a signifi-
Pre-harvest spray: In case of onion recommend- cant role in consumer acceptance. Promote farmer’s
ations of maleic hydrazide (MH) 1500-2000 ppm direct interaction with the consumer through farmers
(300 to 400 g acre-1 in 200 lt of water) before 20 days market and also through on line market.
of harvesting may be done. In case of garlic such
treatment of MH is also help full with higher doses
of 3000 ppm (600 gm acre-1 in 2000 litter of water)
if applied before harvesting at green leaf stage.
Packing house operations: Washing, sorting,
grading and packing are very important aspects to
practices before vegetables are sent to market. Root
and tuber crops are washed before harvesting to
improve their appearance reduce field het and
prevent wilting. Grading is done depending on the
requirement of buyers. Generally two grades are
followed:
 Good quality or general grade.
 Medium quality or commercial grade.
Packing: Packing is also important. A good package
is designated also for delivery of the contents
conveniently and cheaply. Use of modern packaging

427
Fruit based Agroforestry Systems in Drylands

Abstract
Worldwide, fruit-tree-based agroforestry systems have been only modestly studied,

especially in quantifying biophysical interactions occurring in mixtures of fruit trees and crops.
Mixed cropping of fruit trees + annuals showed significant yield advantages over maize + fava
intercropping, superior to sole cropping of the same species. Annual-crop yields were generally
unaffected by over story treatments making fruit yields an additive benefit. Pear + fava mixed
cropping improved yields of top-grade pears with no reductions in fruit quality. The results suggest
small farm productivity and fruit quality can be increased through careful association of fruit trees
with annual crops. Increased capture of growth resources (radiation and precipitation) by the fruit-
tree + crop mixture suggests that the resources are not efficiently used by the sole crop stand and the
increased resource use was at least partially responsible for the realized gains. On-farm studies
indicated that fruit-tree-based agroforestry was potentially more attractive to relatively prosperous
families or those with larger land holdings. The inability to meet annual food security needs, poor
fruit quality, and lack of market infrastructure were identified as factors that limit adoption. The
complementarity of production with the dominant maize crop, home consumption of fruit, and the
potential to generate additional cash on limited land holdings was identified as promoting the
adoption of fruit-tree-based agroforestry within some groups.
Introduction agroforestry system can be defined as a planting

Crop production on dryland in particular system comprising combinations of plants with
results in low, unstable, and often uneconomic yields various morpho-phenological features to maximize
because of aberrant monsoon behavior. These marg- the natural resource use efficiency and enhance total
inal lands are not able to sustain arable crops, factor productivity. Fruit-based cropping system is
particularly during drought conditions. Tree compo- now considered to be the most ideal strategy to
nent in dryland agriculture increases production and provide food, nutrition, and income security to the
income, besides imparting stability to the farming people. Integration of annual crops with fruit trees
system. Among the alternate land use systems yields multiple outputs that ensure production and
developed, fruit-based agroforestry systems are income generation sustainably. The main compon-
readily picked up by the fruit growers due to cash ents of fruit-based agroforestry systems are the main
benefits derived from this system. The fruit-based crop, filler crop, and inter-crop. There are different
Department of Horticulture, SHUATS, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh

428
kinds of fruit-based systems used across the country  This system contains a variety of year-round
for crops like mango, guava, ber, aonla, sapota, etc. items (fruits, vegetables, spices, etc.) available in
Agri-horti-system: In this system, horticultural systems like home gardens that not only assure
crops, silvicultural plantations, and fodder crops are food but also help with food security during times
grown together on the same unit of land it's called the of famine.
‘Fruit-Based Agroforestry System’. Fruit Crops Suitable for Dryland
Fruit-based agroforestry systems Mango: Swain (2014) experimented to assess the
 Fruit-based systems or agri-horti-silviculture effect of various intercrops on the performance of
systems consist of growing crops, trees and fruit mangoes in the rainfed uplands of Odisha. The
trees ornamental trees or vegetables/flowers on results of the study revealed that the mango + guava
the same land at the same time. + cowpea intercropping system exhibited better
 The fruit-based agroforestry system consists of a performance which has been reflected in the form of
mix of annual and perennial plant pieces as plant height, fruit weight, and fruit yield of mango
distinct parts on the same plot of land that are closely followed by the mango + guava + french bean
arranged in a geometry that allows for maximum system. Overall, mango has demonstrated resilience
use of space in all four dimensions (length, and productivity in dryland agriculture, especially
breadth, height, and depth), which in turn leads when integrated into diverse agri-horticultural
to maximum economic production of the system. systems.
 Fruit crops that are drought resistant can endure Ber: Ber, also known as the Indian plum, has shown
and generate money for farmers even during promising performance in dryland agroforestry
severe drought. Silvicultural plantations would systems. Research has highlighted that legumes such
control sand drift, provide forage, fuel and timber as cluster bean, cowpea, and moth bean thrived better
and aid in creating ideal microclimates. under ber fruit trees compared to other fruit trees like
 This agroforestry system contributes goods and aonla and pomegranate. Additionally, studies have
services, some of which have the potential to be pointed out that intercropping sequences involving
profitable cash crops. ber, such as fenugreek okra intercropped with ber,
 Fruits have a high market value due to their exhibited the highest net return and Benefit-Cost
relatively short juvenile (pre-production) phase Ratio (BCR), thus recommending it for enhanced
and the contribution they make to household diet system productivity and profitability. The optimal
and nutrition; as a result, this system offers combination of aonla + ber + karonda + moth bean +
farmers subsistence and sizable economic returns mustard has shown a maximum benefit-cost ratio of
even in unfavorable agro-ecological conditions. 3.48:1, emphasizing ber's positive economic impact

429
in agroforestry systems. Overall, ber has proven to hardy, drought-tolerant, and multi-purpose use of
be a valuable component in dryland agroforestry, tamarind as a climate-smart crop for agroforestry
contributing to improved productivity, income systems in dryland regions. Tamarind has shown
generation, and sustainability in such environments. potential to contribute to economic stability,
Aonla: Aonla with other crops, such as intercrops environmental sustainability, and soil fertility
during the establishment phase of aonla orchards, led improvement in arid and semi-arid regions, making
to improved productivity, soil health, and economic it a valuable component in fruit-based agroforestry
benefits. Additionally, only-based agri-horticultural systems in dryland.
systems in eastern India have shown positive results Combination of different fruit tree: Combining
in terms of yield, soil health, and economics. This different fruit trees in dryland agriculture can create
indicates that aonla is a suitable component for fruit- diverse and resilient agroforestry systems with
based agroforestry systems in dryland areas, enhanced productivity and sustainability. Here are
contributing to enhanced productivity, economic some successful combinations of fruit trees in
returns, and soil fertility in such environments. dryland agriculture:
Integration of aonla with other crops has led to  Mango + Guava + Papaya: This combination
improved productivity, soil health, and economic offers a mix of tropical fruits with varying
returns. A study observed that the combination of maturity periods, allowing for continuous fruit
aonla + ber + karonda + moth bean + mustard production throughout the year.
resulted in a maximum benefit-cost ratio of 3.48:1,  Tamarind + Aonla + Ber + Karonda: Integra-
highlighting the economic advantages of integrating ting these trees provides a range of fruits with
aonla into agri-horticultural systems. Overall, only- diverse flavors and applications, contributing to
based agri-horticultural systems offer economic biodiversity and multiple income streams.
benefits through enhanced productivity, profitability,  Aonla + Ber + Karonda + Moth Bean +
and sustainable management in dryland environ- Mustard: This mix enhances soil fertility and
ments. economic benefits, showcasing a diverse agri-
Tamarind: Tamarind, also known as Tamarindus horticultural system with improved sustain-
indica, has been proven to be a suitable component ability.
for fruit-based agroforestry systems in dryland.  Guava + Moringa + Balanites + Ziziphus:
Studies have evaluated the performance of Tamarind Combining these fruit trees can create a resilient
trees that are deliberately combined with crops and system in drylands, offering a source of fresh
animals in agri-horticultural systems in dryland fruits, nuts, and leaves for various purposes.
areas. Additionally, research has focused on the Overall, integrating different fruit trees in

430
dryland agriculture systems not only diversifies the Awasthi, O. P., Singh, I. S. and More, T. A. (2009).
produce but also enhances ecological services, Performance of intercrops during establish-
economic returns and resilience to climatic ment phase of aonla (Emblica officinalis)
variations. orchard. Indian Journal of Agricultural
Conclusion Sciences, 79(8): 587-91.
Mounting pressure on our natural resources Chundawat, B. S. (1993). Intercropping in orchards.
due to rocketing population rise has ushered in large- Advances in Horticulture, 2(2): 763-775.
scale degradation of our environment and ecosystem Das, D. K., Chaturvedi, O. P., Jha, R. K. and Kumar,
thus calling for immediate attention to seeking newer R. (2011). Yield, soil health and economics
approaches in cropping systems to meet the food, of aonla (Emblica officinalis Gaertn.) based
fiber, firewood, and timber requirements of the 21st agri-horticultural systems in eastern India.
century. For sustainable management of drylands Current Science, 101(6): 786-790.
and for enhancing the economic viability of the Dayal, D., Mangalassery, S., Meena, S. L. and Ram,
cropping system, the partial shift from the existing B. (2015). Productivity and profitability of
high input requiring rotation to low input requiring legumes as influenced by integrated nutrient
system is the need of time. Several researchers management with fruit crops under hot arid
reported that fruit-based agroforestry systems were ecology. Indian Journal of Agronomy, 60(2):
useful for improving the farmers' economic returns, 297-300.
generating employment, higher production, soil Kumar, R. D., Sreenivasulu, G. B., Prashanth, S. J.,
fertility status, and quality characteristics of fruits Jayaprakashnarayan, R. P., Nataraj, S. K. and
under drylands. Hegde, N. K. 2010). Performance of safed
References musli (Chlorophytum borivilianum L.) in
Arya, A., Awasthi, O. P., Singh, J. and Singh, B. tamarind plantation as intercrop and as a sole
(2011). Cost-benefit analysis under fruit- crop in an open area. International Journal of
based multiple cropping systems. Progres- Agricultural Sciences, 6(1): 359-360.
sive Horticulture, 43(1): 72-75. Mutanal, S. M., Patil, S. J. and Girish, S. (2007).
Meena, S. S., Lal, G., Mehta, R. S., Meena, R. D.; Studies on mixed cropping of tree species
Kumar, N. and Tripathi, G. K. (2017). with tamarind (Tamarindus indica).
Comparative study for yield and economics Karnataka Journal of Agricultural Sciences,
of seed spices based cropping system with 20(3): 568-570.
fruit and vegetable crops. International
Journal of Seed Spices, 7(1):35-39.

431
Methodology for the Processing of Fish Fingers

Ankit Kumar Gupta, Devesh and Faruk Ansari
Abstract
The demand for fish is very high in Indian region, where annual per capita fish consumption
increased to 8.89 Kg in 2021 from 4.9 Kg in 2005. Fish are an important part of a healthy, well-balanced
diet. Fishes are good source of protein and vitamins, and are a primary dietary source of heart healthy
omega-3 fatty acids. Processing of raw fish to make it plate-ready is often not convenient for consumers
particularly for the urban population. The present communication deals with development of a protocol
for ‘ready-to-serve’ fish finger from Catla (Catla catla), which is one of the highly preferred and
commercial important cultivated fish group ‘Indian Major Carps’. The result indicates a viable protocol
for preparation of ‘ready-to-serve’ fish finger from Catla with high nutritional quality.
Introduction gate its sensory quality.

Carp, as a freshwater fish species, has been Material and method
one of the most widely cultured species all over the Catla (Catla catla), between 1300 and 1400 g
world due to its fast grow rate, easy cultivation and in weight, were collected alive from nearby fish
high feed efficiency ratio. During the last 10 years, market. Having been transferred to laboratory, the
India has doubled its production of freshwater fish fish were washed with potable water to remove any
to 2 million metric tons (MT) per year. The undesired substance (dirt, slime etc.) and then
production is mainly based on the carp species catla processed (degutted, descaled and beheaded). Then,
(Catla catla); rohu (Labeo rohita); and mrigal they were filleted. The fillets were then washed with
(Cirrhinus mrigala); each of which amounts to about potable water to remove blood and slime at room
500,000 MT per year. So, demand has come from the temperature, the yield of flesh achieved by hand-
carp producer, to develop alternatives products to filleting was 55.14 %. The fillet was minced with a
increase the carp consumption. sharp knife. The fish finger mince included 93.15%
Fish Finger is ready-to-eat product prepared fish mice, 2% salt, 3% Bengal gram flour, 0.24%
from fish meat. It is also available in frozen form in cumin powder, 0.24% black pepper powder, 0.24%
supermarkets. Fish finger is made using a whitefish turmeric powder, 0.24% chili powder, 0.48% ginger-
such as Catla, Rohu, Mrigal etc. as a battered and garlic paste, 1-piece egg. The batter is taken for rest
breaded product. The aim of this study to produce for 30 minutes. After the batter application, it was
‘ready-to-serve’ fish finger from Catla and to investi- also covered with conventional bread crumbs and
College of Food Technology, IGKV, Raipur. Chhattisgarh

432
then fried at 180 ºC for 30 s in Siaw, C. L., Idrus, A. Z. and Yu, Y. (1985).
hot sunflower oil and then Intermediate technology for fish craker
served hot with sauces. (Keropok) production. Journal of Food
Result Technology, 20: 17-21.
Ready to serve fish Ihm, C. W., Kim, J. S., Joo, D. S. and Lee, H. E.
finger is prepared and served, (1992). Processing and quality stability of
it is the best way to eat fish but precooked frozen fish foods: (I) processing of
can be used to increase the sardine burger. Hanquk Nonghwakak
economic value of fish and Hoechi. Journal of Korean Agriculture
increase the consumption of Chemical Society, 35: 254-259.
fish in those area where they Clucas, I. J. and Sctcliffe, P. J. (1987). An
are available in abundant introduction to fish handling and processing.
amount. The sensory quality Report of the Tropical Products Institute,
of Fish Finger prepared from Catla carp were 143-186.
evaluated in terms of color, odor, flavor, texture and Çakli, S., Takaya, L., Kisla, D., Çelik, U., Ataman,
general acceptability. C. A., Cadun, A., Kilinc, B. and Maleki, R.
Conclusion H. (2005). Production and quality of fish
One of the main aims of processing finger from different fish species. Europian
technology is to develop different tastes. Therefore, Food Research Technology, 220: 526-530.
we think that a different taste of fish finger produced Lovell, R. T. (1975). Laboratory Manual for Fish
from catla carp and these new flavors will increase Feed Analysis and Fish Nutrition Studies,
the economic value of these species. Auburn University Department of Fisheries
References and Allied Aquacultures, International
Herborg, L. (1976). Production of separated fish Center for Aquaculture, Alabama.
mince for traditional and new products. Food Lovell, R. T. (1981). Laboratory Manuel for Fish
Minced Fish Symposium, pp 82-83. Feed Analysis and Fish Nutrition Studies.
Sipos, E. F., Endres, J. G., Tybor, P. T. and Auburn University Department of Fisheries
Nakajima, Y. (1979). Use of Vegetable and Allied Aquacultures, International
Protein in Processed Seafood Products. Center for Aquaculture, Alabama.
Journal of American Oil Chemistry Society,
56: 320-327.

433
Development and Preparation of Fish Sandwich using Catla Fish

Abstract
Fishes are good source of protein and vitamins, and are a primary dietary source of heart healthy
omega-3 fatty acids. Processing of raw fish to make it plate-ready is often not convenient for consumers
particularly for the urban population. This article deals with development of a ‘ready-to-serve’ fish
sandwich from Catla fish (Catla catla), which is one of the highly preferred and commercial important
cultivated fish in India. A ready to serve sandwich paste was developed from the meat of Catla fish
with peeled potato by thermal processing with several mix ingredients such as ginger, garlic, green
chilli, coriander, etc. This paste was further placed in between fried bread slices and onions,
mayonnaise, tomato sauce, cabbage were applied upon the paste to enhance the flavour of sandwich.
As a result, sensory evaluation was done for the fish sandwich to evaluate it's final quality and overall
acceptability.
Introduction
S. No. Ingredients Quantity (gm)
Sandwich is a food typically consisting of 9. Oil 200 ml
10. Salt 25 gm
vegetables, sliced cheese or meat, placed on or 11. Cinnamon Powder 3 gm
12. Cardamom powder 2 gm
between slices of bread. It is a fast food preferred in 13. Coriander powder 3 gm
western country, though over time it has become 14. Cabbage 315 gm
15. Potato 500 gm
prevalent worldwide. 16. Tomato 250 gm
17. Onion 500 gm
A fish sandwich is, most generally, any kind 18. Bread 4 packets
of sandwich made with fish. The term is frequently Preparation of fish sandwich
used to describe food made with breaded, fried fish,
which are commonly found in fast food venues.
Materials and Methods
Ingredients used for preparation of fish sandwich
S.No. Ingredients Quantity (gm)
1. Fish 1000 gm
2. Fenugreek powder 3 gm
3. Green chilli 15 gm
4. Garlic 75 gm
5. Ginger 18 gm
6. Chilli powder 11 gm
7. Cumin powder 11 gm
8. Turmeric powder 3 gm


434
References
Ihm, C. W., Kim, J. S., Joo, D. S. and Lee, H. E.
(1992). Processing and quality stability
ofprecooked frozen fish foods: (I) processing
of sardine burger. Hanquk Nonghwakak
Hoechi. Journal of Korean Agricultural
Chemistry Society, 35: 254-259.
Clucas, I. J. and Sctcliffe, P. J. (1987). An
introduction to fish handling and processing.
Report of the Tropical Products Institute,
143-186.
Çakli, S., Takaya, L., Kisla, D., Çelik, U., Ataman,
Result: The final fish sandwich was ready with a C. A., Cadun, A., Kilinc, B. and Maleki, R.
variety of high quality, fresh ingredients that H. (2005). Production and quality of fish
complement each other, providing a delicious taste. finger from different fish species. Europian
The sandwich was well-assembled, with balanced Food Research Technology, 220: 526-530.
layers of ingredients ensuring every bite is satisfying.
A combination of textures, such as crunchy lettuce,
tender meats, or creamy spreads, added dimension
and enhanced the overall eating experience.
Conclusion
Fresh fish sandwiches were served with
tomato ketchup and mayonnaise to the panelists i.e.,
college faculties for its sensory evaluation. They
have given positive response to the sandwich and
their opinion regarding its quality.

435
Development and Preparation of Fish Mangodi

Abstract
In this work, Rohu fish was used to produce the value-added product of fish. Effective
preparation technique was employed to obtain the high-quality processed fish product (fish mangodi).
Rohu is rich in Omega 3 fatty acids, Vitamin A, Vitamin B, and Vitamin C. It is also rich in Vitamin D.
Fish mangodi generally gives around 680 gm calories, 25 gm carbohydrates, 65 gm proteins, and 36 gm
fats. Codfish is the best fish for the preparation of fish mangodi and is high in protein and rich in
vitamins and nutrients. High quality raw materials were employed to produce the most attractive
processed fish product.
Introduction ate sector and to generate the employment from rural

Fish mangodi is one of the most popular and urban community and create opportunities.
snacks which was originated in Mughal kitchens Materials and Methods
during the reign of Emperor Akbar and is consumed Materials required: Fresh fish (1100 gm), Ginger
all over the world. The snack is consumed in (15 gm), garlic (10 gm), green chillies (40 gm), onion
different states of India with some differences in the (300 gm) and coriander leaves (20 gm), Moong dal
recipes of individual perception and taste. Mangodi (300 gm), Gram flour (100 gm), corn flour (100 gm),
is badi like snacks which usually made with batter of turmeric powder (4 gm), cumin seeds (4 gm), salt (40
soaked and grinded moong dal batter and deep fried gm), baking powder (5 gm), eggs (2 Nos.), Oil (1
in oil. Similarly, fish mangodi is a deep-fried snack Ltr), Tomato sauce (200 ml), cabbage (100 gm),
food with a characteristic flavour which is prepared lemon (1 pc) and tomato (200 gm).
with fish meat, vegetables, moong dal, gram flour Preparation: Purchase fresh fish from the market
and other ingredients like spices, herbs, etc. Any fish which is the main raw material required. Wash it with
having a white meat can be used like rohu, pangasius clean water in order to remove the dust particles,
etc. It is a spicy and delicious food which is crunchy bacteria, and other slime from gills and skin. Remove
in texture. It has a short shelf life of about 24 hours, the skin, head, fins, visceral organ and bones after
which may be extended if it is refrigerated properly. washing. Prepare the fillet from the dressed fish.
All facts of production must be carefully controlled Using meat mincer, mince the fish fillets. Now fry
to create a quality fish mangodi. The aim of this work the minced meat in oil for 5-10 minutes. Prepare a
is to prepare the value-added product of fish, in priv- paste using ginger, garlic, green chilies and coriander
436
leaves. Prepare the batter/paste by grinding the

soaked moong dal using a grinder (moong dal which
was soaked overnight). Prepare a fine paste of ginger,
garlic, green chillies and coriander leaves. Mix the
paste of moong dal and fried minced meat with the
paste of ginger, garlic, chillies and coriander leaves.
Add gram flour, corn flour, turmeric powder, cumin
seeds, salt, baking powder, eggs, to the prepared
paste. Add chopped onions, chillies, and coriander Conclusion
leaves. Mix all the ingredients properly. Keep the In this work, the raw material especially,
dough for a resting period of about an hour. It should Rohu fish was used to prepare the product (fish
not be marinated for a longer period of time as baking mangodi) and characteristic flavour. Most suitable
soda loses its freshness. Give the dough any shape experimental process conditions were also studied.
and deep fry it until turn’s brown in colour. Cook it These conditions helped to maintain the stability
on medium flame so that it is cooked properly. At last along with the purity and uniformity of product. This
garnish it with tomato sauce, chutney, cabbage, work has been performed, based on the preparation
lemon, onion, green chillies. Now your product is recipes of fish mangodi from the laboratory scale to
ready to eat and to be sold in the market. mass production.
References
(1992). Processing and quality stability
ofprecooked frozen fish foods: (I) processing
of sardine burger. Hanquk Nonghwakak
Chemistry Society, 35: 254-259.
Clucas, I. J. and Sctcliffe, P. J. (1987). An
introduction to fish handling and processing.
Report of the Tropical Products Institute,
143-186.
Çakli, S. et al. (2005). Production and quality of fish
finger from different fish species. Europian
Food Research Technology, 220: 526-530.

437
Development and Preparation of Fish Cutlet using Rohu Fish

Abstract
The demand for fish is very high in Indian region, where annual per capita fish consumption
increased to 8.89 Kg in 2021 from 4.9 Kg in 2005 are an important part of a healthy, well-balanced
diet. Fishes are good source of protein and vitamins, and are a primary dietary source of heart healthy
omega-3 fatty acids. Fish mince from low priced fish can be utilized for preparation of fish cutlet. The
production of fish cutlet is a viable technology to utilize low priced fish. This paper deals with various
aspects of preparation of fish cutlet from fish and its acceptability on organoleptically basis. The
preparation of fish cutlet includes the unit operations such as washing, boiling, deboning, cooking,
shaping, battering and rolling in breadcrumb, frying.
Introduction S. No. Ingredients Quantity (gm)

14. Vegetable oil 1500 ml
In modern world, people hardly find time to 15. Tomato ketchup Serving size
cook which encourages a demand for “ready to cook” 16. Mayonnaise Serving size
or “ready to serve” foods. Fish cutlet is a value-added

product of fish made by mincing or mashing (after
boiling) of boneless fish meat, cooking the meat with
veggies and spices and shallow or deep frying the
dough battered in egg white and rolling over bread
crumb powder. Prepared cutlet can be stored at -20°C.
Material and Method
Ingredients used for preparation of Fish Cutlet
S. No. Ingredients Quantity (gm)
1. Fish (Rohu) 1200
2. Potato 650
3. Onion 160
4. Green chilly 15
5. Ginger-Garlic paste 25
6. Lemon 1 medium size
7. Chilli powder 10
8. Turmeric powder 8
9. Garam masala 10
10. Salt To taste
11. Egg 4 eggs
12. Bread Crumb 300
13. Coriander Leaves 12

438
Result: The Fish Cutlet prepared by Rohu fish has a Ihm, C. W., Kim, J. S., Joo, D. S. and Lee, H. E.
golden-brown colour outside, (1992). Processing and quality stability of
has a crispy texture can be precooked frozen fish foods: (I) processing of
served with tomato ketchup, sardine burger. Hanquk Nonghwakak
mayonnaise and tomato Hoechi. Journal of Korean Agricultural
chutney or any chutney of the consumer’s choice. Chemistry Society, 35: 254-259.
Fish Cutlet is a good value-added product for Clucas, I. J. and Sctcliffe, P. J. (1987). An
enhancing the economic value of fish in the areas introduction to fish handling and processing.
where fish is quite abundant and to reduce the loss of Report of the Tropical Products Institute,
fishes. 143-186.
Conclusion Çakli, S., Takaya, L., Kisla, D., Çelik, U., Ataman,
The product Fish Cutlet made using Rohu C. A., Cadun, A., Kilinc, B. and Maleki, R.
fish is one of the right ways of utilising the excess H. (2005). Production and quality of fish
fish production in India and to increase the economic finger from different fish species. Europian
value of fish and to minimize the loss of fish in India. Food Research Technology, 220: 526-530.
Fish Cutlet is also a food product which has high
protein content and it is a good option for eating as
snacks for those who consume non-vegetarian food
products.
References
Herborg, L. (1976). Production of separated fish
mince for traditional and new products. Food
Minced Fish Symposium. Pp. 82-83.
Sipos, E. F., Endres, J. G., Tybor, P. T. and
Nakajima, Y. (1979). Use of Vegetable
Protein in Processed Seafood Products.
Journal of American Oil Chemical Society,
56: 320-327.
Siaw, C. L., Idrus, A. Z. and Yu, Y. (1985).
Intermediate technology for fish craker
(Keropok) production. Journal of Food
Technology, 20: 17-21.

439
Development and Sensory Quality of Fish Balls

Abstract
Fish ball is a kind of mince-based product in south Asian market. The product has been
introduced in well off restaurants but not yet introduced in common consumer market in India. Rohu
fish was used to produce the value-added product of fish. Effective preparation technique was employed
to obtain the high-quality processed fish product (fish mangodi). Rohu is rich in Omega 3 fatty acids,
Vitamin A, Vitamin B, and Vitamin C. It is also rich in Vitamin D. The demand for fish is very high in
India region, where annual per capita fish consumption increased to 8.89 Kg in 2021 from 4.9 Kg 2005.
Fish are an important part of a healthy, well-balanced diet. Fishes are good source of protein and
vitamins.
Introduction Having been transferred to laboratory, the fish were

The value that is added to any product or washed with potable water to remove any undesired
service through a particular process that may change substance, and then processed (degutted, descaled
the nature of raw material is called value addition and and beheaded). Then they were filleted, each fillet is
the products thus produced are called value-added of nearly 100 g. the fillets were then washed with
products. Different types of value-added products potable water to remove blood and slime at room
can be produced from fish such as fish fillet, fish ball, temperature, the yield of flesh achieved by hand
fish burger, fish finger, fish stick and other surimi- filleting was 65.38%. The fillet was boiled in hot
based products. Fish ball is a ready to eat convenient water at 60-70°C and then cooled at room
product prepared using the minced fish meat. The temperature and deboned manually. After deboning
minced meat is mixed with various ingredients and boiled fish is meshed with boiled 33.33% potato, 1%
shaped in the form of ball. Batter the prepared coriander leaves, after proper meshing it is partially
product by dipping in egg white and corn flour and fried in sunflower oil with including 10% onion,
breaded the product by rolling over bread crumb 1.67% ginger garlic paste, 2% salt, 0.33% cumin
powder by manually. Fish ball was fried into hot seed, 0.33% turmeric powder, 0.33% chili flakes.
edible oil. Make small balls manually from the mix then it is
Material and method deep fried in sunflower oil after dipping in corn flour
Rohu (Labeo rohita), between 1200-1300 g batter and coating with bread crumb, Fry fish balls
in weight, were collected alive from nearby market. until it color change into brown.

440
its consumption and economic value.

References
Choi, S. I., Han, B. H., Krin, J. C., Bae T. J. and Cho,
D. H. (1988). Prediction of thermal
diffusivities of fish meat paste products.
Bulletin of Korean Fishishey Society, 21:
288-291.
Edwards and Kaewpaitoon. (1981). Fish Farming
with Livestock Manure. Paper presented at a
seminar on Maximum Livestock Production
from Minimum Land, jointly organized by
the Department of Animal Science, BAU,
NYRDP-DANIDA, Bangladesh Agricultural
University, Mymensingh, 2-5 Feb., 1981.
Hall, G. M. and Ahmad, N. H. (1997). Surimi and
fish mince products. In: Hall, G.M. (Ed.),
Fish Processing Technology, pp. 74-91.
Blackie Academic and Professional, London.
Hossain, M. I., Kamal, M. M., Shikha, F. H. and
Hoque, M. S. (2004). Effect of washing and
Result: Fish ball is prepared and served hot with salt concentration on the gel forming ability
sauces. Sensory Quality of fish ball prepared with of two tropical fish species. International
Rohu carp is evaluated as its taste, shape, brown Journal of Agricultural Biology, 6: 762-766.
color, crispy texture and overall acceptability. It is Jensen, J. (1993). Fancy fish products. Food
not the best way to eat fish but, is a good way to Marketing and Technology, August.
increase the consumption, which help farmers to earn Karmas, E. and Lauber, E. (1987). Novel products
some economic value. from underutilized fish using combined
Conclusion processing technology. Journal of Food
One of the main aims of processing Science, 52: 7-9.
technology is to develop different taste, therefore we Kurokawa, T. (1979). Kamaboko-forming ability of
think that a different processed product like Fish ball frozen and ice stored lizard fish. Bulletin of
enhance the overall acceptability of fish and increase Japanian Society of Scientific Fishery, 45.

441
Methodology and Preparation of Fish Pickles

Abstract
Pickling with salt, vinegar, sugars and spices forms a traditional method of food preservation
and is also widely employed for fish curing. A great variety of fishery products prepared with vinegar
and spices enjoy wide popularity in Germany and other north European countries. Pickling is also
practised in the East in countries like China, Japan and the Philippines. Although pickled products are
of a semi-perishable nature since the concentrations of salt and vinegar employed are limited by
considerations of palatability, they possess a greater appeal to consumers than salted and dried fish.
Fish pickles were prepared from Catla fish and their nutritional and food quality were assessed. The
quality of the pickle prepared with mustard was excellent. All of the fish pickles preserved under
different condition were found in acceptable condition up to storage and pickle with vinegar stored at
4 ͦ C was found good for consumption at the end of Process.
Introduction ng Bangladesh. Like any other vegetable or fruit

Catla has high vitamin A content which is pickles, fish pickles have also gained popularity in
highest among 26 commonly consumed fish species. the recent past. The demand for these types of ready
Moreover, bones of Catla serve as a rich source of to serve fishery products is increasing day by day
calcium and some other minerals as this species is among the non-vegetarian population in our country.
normally cooked and eaten whole Pickling is one of Material and method
the oldest methods used for preserving various food Ingredients: 1 kg fish pieces of catla carp, 50 gm
items including fish. It is largely remained as a garlic, 50 gm ginger, 10 gm turmeric powder, Salt as
household art in India. Pickling protects the food and required, 40 gm mustard seeds, 100-gram ginger, 40
also helps to retain its wholesomeness and nutritive gm Kashmiri chili powder, 60 ml mustard oil, 50 ml
value for a long time. A variety of methods have been vinegar, 5 gm curry leaves, 15 gm fenugreek.
reported for the preparation of fish pickle The Preparation: Marinate the cleaned fish pieces with
method is essentially same for preparing all types of ginger-garlic paste, turmeric powder, dry roasted
fish pickles and the manufacturing process is not fenugreek powder, red chili powder and salt. Keep
very complicated and requires comparatively less aside for at least an hour, heat mustard oil in a pan,
capital investment. Pickles are widely consumed in fry the marinated fish, set them aside to be used later,
many South and South-east Asian countries includi- add some more oil into the same pan, splutter the


442
mustard seeds, sauté ginger and garlic, add curry Conclusion

leaves, lower the flame before adding Kashmiri chili One of the main aims of processing
powder, and salt, sauté until the raw smell of the technology is to develop different tastes. Therefore,
powders is gone, pour in the vinegar, allow the gravy we think that a different taste of fish pickle produced
to boil, into it add the fried fish pieces, mix well until from catla carp and these new flavors will increase
the fish pieces are nicely coated in the gravy, allow the economic value of these species.
the pickle to cool down completely and store in air References
tight containers. Çakli, S., Takaya, L., Kisla, D., Çelik, U., Ataman,
C. A., Cadun, A., Kilinc, B. and Maleki, R.
H. (2005). Production and quality of fish
from differentfish species. Europian Food
Research Technology, 220: 526-530.
(1992). Processing andquality stability of
precooked frozen fish foods: (I) processingof
sardine burger. Hanquk Nonghwakak
Chemical Society, 35: 254-259.
Siaw, C. L., Idrus, A. Z. and Yu, Y. (1985).
Intermediate technology forfish craker
(Keropok) production. Journal of Food
Technology, 20: 17-21.
Sipos, E. F., Endres, J. G., Tybor, P. T. and
A Flow Chart of Catla Fish Pickle Preparation Nakajima, Y. (1979). Use of Vegetable
Result: Ready to serve fish Pickle is prepared and Protein in Processed Seafood Products.
served, it is the best way to eat fish. It can be used to Journal of American Oil Chemical Society,
increase the economic value of fish and increase the 56: 320-327.
consumption of fish in those area where they are Clucas, I. J. and Sctcliffe, P. J. (1987). An
available in abundant amount. The sensory quality of introduction to fish handling and processing.
Fish pickle prepared from Catla carp were evaluated Report of the Tropical Products Institute,
in terms of color, odor, flavor, texture and general 143-1.
acceptability.

443
Essential Steps for Successful Orchard Planning and Establishment

Shahroon Khan, Surender Singh, Satyapal Singh and Sonia Singh
The Haryana state climate suitable for many  The frequent irrigation crops should be planted
fruit crops but as compared to Punjab we are still near the source of water. The same maturing
lacking. Although due to Government, efforts crops should be nearby to easy harvesting.
Haryana farmers are moving towards horticulture  The self-incompatible fruit crops requires
crops. In year 2017-18, in Haryana state the fruit polleniser for pollination. Therefore, before
crops cover the area 64021 hectares and production plantation of main crop, the pollenisers should
793350 metric tonnes. An orchard is a long-term also be planted as per requirement of crop.
venture so careful planning is must for successful  The spacing for orchard should be optimum for
planning. better growth and yield. When, intercrops or
The Basics Principles of Orchard Planning multiple crops are grown, the spacing should be
 The orchard should be located in right location maximum.
and site having all suitable conditions for  The system of planting is decided much earlier as
successful growing. before layout of orchard.
 The selected site, if uncultivated should uproot  There should be provision of windbreaks to
the root and existing bushes and make in proper protect the fruit trees from clutches of strong
level. wind.
 The minimum space is allotted for road, path and  The plant material is one of the most important
building. In any case, it should not exceed of 10% parameters from orchard success. Therefore, the
of total area. The orchard building should be near plant material should be purchased from
the road. government nurseries or any reliable source.
 The evergreen plants should be planted on front Selection of Site: It is better to start an orchard in a
side while deciduous plants on backside of predominant area. It will not only help to sharing the
orchard. The small height plants on foreground experience but also to purchase equipment, plant
side while tall trees should be on rear side of material, transport, marketing and storage facility.
orchard for better supervision of orchard. Climate: The fruit plant should be grown as per
Shahroon Khan and Surender Singh
Satyapal Singh
Sonia Singh
Department of Floriculture, Maharana Pratap Horticultural University, Karnal, Haryana

444
climatic condition of the fruits. The factors like day,  Initial Care: Water newly planted trees regularly,
night temperature, rainfall, wind velocity, hailstorm, especially during the first growing season. Aim
humidity should be taken in consideration before for deep, infrequent watering to encourage deep
plantation. root growth.
Soil: Conduct a soil test to determine pH and nutrient  Mulch around the base of the tree and it will help
levels. to conserve the moisture and suppress weeds
 Amend the soil as needed based on the soil test growth.
results. Most fruit trees prefer well-draining soil Pruning and Training: Prune fruit trees annually to
with a pH between 6.0 and 7.0. promote good structure, increase light penetration,
 The soil should be well-drained and sandy loamy and improve air circulation. Train young trees to
soil having good organic carbon. No hard pan encourage a strong framework and proper fruiting.
will in soil up to 02 meters and water table should Fertilizing and Pest Management: Follow recom-
be below 03 meters. Avoid fruit crops in soil mendations based on soil tests for fertilization.
having salinity and alkalinity problems. Generally, fruit trees benefit from balanced fertili-
Layout: The layout is very important operation in zers applied in early spring. Monitor trees regularly
orchard establishment. The plant should be establi- for pests and diseases. Implement integrated pest
shed at proper distance for better growth. management (IPM) practices to minimize chemical
System of planting: The system of planting is based use and maintain tree health.
on slope of land, purpose of utilization of orchard
space, convenience etc. There are six major orchard
planting method. (A) Square System (b) Rectangular
system (c) Triangular system (d) Hexagonal System
(e) Quincunx/Diagonal System (f) Contour System
Digging of Pit: For plantation, digging the pit size
should be 1x1x1 (m3). These pit can be done by
Tractor mounted auger or manually. Upper 0.5 m soil
mixed with well decomposed FYM fill the pit along
with 2 kg Single Super Phospahte. After plantation,
apply 30 ml Chloropyriphos on each pit along with
first irrigation.

445
Types of Organic Pesticides for Organic Agriculture

Sunil B. Pawar
Introduction insects do not attack crops, plants and buds. Due to

Pesticides are either natural or chemically nectar and aroma, Worm and insects are attracted to
synthesized compounds that are used to control a plants, they are away from plants due to the
variety of pests. These chemical compounds are used scorching and bad odour of Dashparni Ark, and by
in a variety of sectors like food, forestry, agriculture which plants can be protected.
and aquaculture. Pesticides shows their toxicity into Materials
the living systems. Due to chemical pesticides cause Sr. Ingredient Name Qty in Litres/
No. Kgs
cancer and other tumors, damage to the brain and 1 Neem leaves 5 Kg
nervous system, birth defects, infertility and other 2 Karanj leaves 2 Kg
3 Papaya leaves 2 Kg
reproductive issues, and harm to the liver, kidneys, 4 Custard apple leaves 2 Kg
lungs, and other body organs are examples of chronic 5 Ghaneri leaves 2 Kg
6 Castor leaves 2 Kg
health impacts. Organic Pesticides are materials 7 Rui leaves 2 Kg
usually from animal or plant origin and are free from 8 Dhatura leaves 2 Kg
9 Gulvel 2 Kg
chemicals, harmful organisms and natural pesticides 10 Nirgundi (Vitex negundo) 2 Kg
are eco-friendly, effective in controlling pests, 11 Tumeric-200 grams 200 gm
12 Pungent Green Chili - 1 Kg 1 kg
promoting sustainable agriculture, healthier produce, 13 Garlic-½ kg ½ kg
and mitigating pesticide-resistant species, while 14 Ginger - 500 grams 500 gm
15 Cow urine - 20 litres 5 liters
reducing reliance on synthetic chemicals. Natural 16 Cow Dung-20 kg 2 kg
pesticides are environmentally safe, targeted pest 17. Water- (200 litres plastic drum) 170 liters
control, sustainable farming, reduced health risks, Method of Preparations

and minimal residue in crops for agriculture.  Mix 5 litres of cow urine in 170 litres of water,
Types of Organic Pesticides then take 2 kg of cow dung. Mix it with the help
Dashparni Ark: The word Dashparni Ark contains of a rod.
two different words: ‘Dasha’ means ‘ten’ and  Then add 200 grams of turmeric powder to it and
‘parana’ means the plant or tree leaf. ‘Extracts’ mix very well. Add 500 grams of ginger paste
means to remove the juice. It is a natural pesticide, and mix it.
which can be used on any crop and vegetable plants  Add 500 grams of garlic paste, add 1 kg of hot
or fruit trees. Due to the Dashparni Ark, worm and green chili paste to it.
Sunil B. Pawar
Assistant Professor, Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, DST, Udgir, Maharashtra

446
 Leave it for overnight, the alkaloids of leaves are  Grind the kernels gently to powder it.
released in the water.  Soak it overnight in 10 litres of water.
 Add 2 kg sliced neem leaves and 2 kg chopped  Stir with wooden plank in the morning till
leaves of Karanja. Add 2 kg of custard apple solution becomes milky white.
(Sitaphal) leaves. Add 2 kg castor leaves.  Filter through double layer of muslin cloth and
 Later, add Datura leaves - 2 kg and Nirgundi make the volume to 100 litres.
leaves - 2 kg. And then 2 kg ghaneri leaves and  Add 1% detergent (Make a paste of the detergent
later on 2 kg of gulvel. At last, add 2 kg papaya and then mix it in the spray solution)
leaves and then 2 kg of rui leaves.  Mix the spray solution well and use.
 Stir the contents with a rod for uniform mixture. Things to be taken care
 Use any of the 10 types of the above mentioned  Collect the Neem fruits during bearing season
leaves. It is kept for 40 days. All the medicinal and air-dry them under shade.
elements dissolved in water during this period.  Do not use the seeds over eight months of age.
 This is stirred every day in the morning and The seeds stored over and above this age lose
evening with a rod. It is stored after filtering and their activity and hence not fit for NSKE
can be used for six months. preparation.
Application: Use 5 litres of this Dashparni ark in  Always use freshly prepared neem seed kernel
200 litres of water. This is the ultimate tip of pest extract (NSKE).
control in organic farming. Its application provides  Spray the extract after 3.30 pm to get effective
protection from all types of insect diseases in organic results.
farming. Preparing spray solution
Neem Seed Kernel Extract (NSKE)  It takes 500-2000 ml of neem kernel extract per
Neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) is effective tank (10 liters capacity). An acre needs 3-5 Kg of
for a variety of leaf eating insects. Aphid, shoot and neem kernels. Just the kernel should be used;
fruit borer, pod fly, leaf miner, etc. can be controlled remove the outer seed coat. 3 Kg of kernels will
with this. do if the seeds are fresh. 5 Kg are needed if the
For preparation of 100 litres of 5% NSKE solution, seeds are old.
following material are required. Neem seed kernels  Pound the kernel gently and tie it loosely with a
(well dried) 5 kg, Water (Good quality)-100 litres, cotton cloth. Soak this overnight in a vessel
Detergent 200 g, Muslin cloth for filtering. containing 10 litre of water. After this, it is
Method of Preparations filtered.
 Take required quantity of NSK (5 kg).  After filtration, 6-7 liters of extract are produced.

447
Dilute 500-1000 ml of this extract with 9 ½ or 9 (You can keep the solution for 6 months and use.)
liters of water. In order to ensure that the extract Brahmastra
sticks firmly to the leaf surface, add 10 ml/litre of Brahmastra is a natural insecticide prepared
khadi soap solution before to spraying. from leaves which have specific alkaloids to repel
Depending on the severity of the pest attack, the pests. It controls all sucking pests and hidden
extract's concentration can be increased or caterpillars that are present in pods and fruits.
decreased. Ingredients: Plastic drum - 50 litre capacity, Cow
Neemastra urine - 10 litres, Neem leaves - 3 kg, Custard apple
Neemastra is used to prevent or cure diseases, leaves - 2 kg, Papaya leaves - 2 kg, Pomegranate
and kill insects or larvae that eat plant foliage and leaves - 2 kg, Guava leaves - 2 kg.
suck plant sap. This also helps in controlling the Method of Preparations: Take a plastic drum. Add
reproduction of harmful insects. Neemastra is very 10 litres of cow urine to it. Crush 3 kg neem leaves,
easy to prepare and is an effective pest repellant and make a paste and add. Then crush and make a paste
bioinsecticide for Organic Farming. from 2 kg each of Custard apple leaves, Pomegranate
Ingredients: Plastic drum - 150 litre capacity, Cow leaves, Papaya leaves and Guava leaves and add.
urine - 5 litres, Cow dung - 5 kg, Neem leaves - 5 kg, Then stir the solution for 10-15 minutes with a stick.
Filter cloth - 1 piece The solution should be boiled 30 minutes for five
Method of Preparations: Take a 150 litre capacity times at 1-hour intervals. Cool the solution and filter
plastic drum and add 100 litre water to it. Add 5-litre with the help of filter cloth to another pot. Cover the
cow urine and 5kg of cow dung and stir with the stick drum of the filtered solution for 24.
for 10-15 minutes. Then add 5kg green neem leaves Application
paste in it and again stir continuously for 10-15  Mix 1-litre Brahmastra with 50-litre water and
minutes. Cover the drum tightly and keep it for 24 apply during the evening at 15 days interval.
hours in a shaded place. Filter the solution with a thin  This Brahmastra will control the boring pest, sap
filter cloth. feeder, and hairy caterpillar.
Application  It can be used in vegetable crops, fruits &
 Apply the solution with a sprayer in 10 day plantation crops and floriculture.
intervals. Agneyastra
 This Neemastra will control all types of sap Agneyastra is a natural pesticide used in
feeder pests and mealy bug pests in the crops. agriculture to control insect pests, prepared using
 It can be used in vegetable crops, fruits & traditional Indian methods. It provides greenery and
plantation crops and floriculture. nutrition for plants, part of low-cost natural farming

448
practices for plant protection. 6 months and use.)

Ingredients: Plastic drum - 50 litres capacity, Cow Conclusion
urine - 10 litres, Tobacco leaves - 1 kg, Neem leaves Regular usage of chemical pesticides has
- 5 kg, Green chilli - 500 gram, Garlic - 500 gram, negative effects on humans as well as the
Stick - 01, Filter cloth - one piece. environment; instead, make use of organic pesticides
Method of Preparations: Take a plastic drum. Add instead of chemical pesticides. Certain pests, such as
10 litre of cow urine to it. Crush and make a paste of viruses, fungi, and bacteria, affect crops. This causes
1 kg of tobacco leaves and add to it. Then crush 500 a decline in crop production, both in terms of
gm green chilli and 500 gm garlic and add into the quantity and quality. Therefore, it is possible to
solution. Stir for 10 minutes. Then add 5 kg of neem control both crop quantity and quality without the use
paste in it and again stir for 10 to 15 minutes. The of chemical pesticides. Yes, organic pesticides are
solution should be boiled for 30 minutes for five responsible for this. It is preferable to use organic
times at 1-hour intervals. Cool the solution and filter pesticides because they increase good quality and
with the help of a filter cloth to another pot. Cover quantity while controlling pests without affecting
the drum of the filtered solution for 24 hours. plants.
Application References
 Mix 1 litre of Agneyastra with 50 litre of water Organic methods of pests and disease management,
and apply during the evening at 15 days interval. Centre for Indian Knowledge Systems,
 It can be used in vegetable crops, fruits & Chennai
plantation crops and floriculture. https://agritech.tnau.ac.in/org_farm/orgfarm_ofk_pl
 It will control stem borer, fruit borer, pod borer, tprotection.html
leaf folder, gall midge, grasshopper, etc.
Note
 For any biopesticide preparation, use one week
old cow urine and two days old cow dung.
 Always use the sprayer with a wider nozzle
during spraying.
 Always apply the bio-pesticide during the
evening.
 Never use very tender leaves or older leaves in
the preparation.
(The organic pesticide you can keep the solution for

449
The Rise of Ashwagandha Cultivation and Its Health Benefits

Shahroon Khan, Satyapal Singh and Surender Singh
Introduction alkaloids. The total alkaloid content in

Ashwagandha, botanically known as Ashwagandathe roots of Indian types has been
Withania somnifera, is an ancient medicinal herb that reported to vary between 0.13-0.31. The drug is
holds significant importance in traditional Ayurvedic mainly used in Ayurvedic and Unanic preparations.
medicine. Also referred to as Indian ginseng or In addition to alkaloids, roots are reported to contain
winter cherry, ashwagandha has gained global starch, reducing sugar, hentriacontane, glycosides,
popularity for its wide-ranging health benefits and dulcital, withaniol acid and a neutral compound. The
large adaption level. free amino acids identified in the roots include
Origin and Distrubution: Ashwagandha is aspartic acid, glycine, tryosine, alanine, proline,
originating from Mediterranean region in North tryptophan, glutamic acid and cystine. iii) Berries
Africa and belong to family Solanaceae. In India, contain milk coagulating enzymes, esterases, free
aswagandha is found wild in grazing grounds in amino acids, fatty oil, essential oil and alkaloids. The
Mandsaur and the forest lands in the Bastar district amino acids present are proline, hydroxy-proline,
of Madhya Pradesh, all over the foothills of the valine, tryoline, aspartic acid, glycine, asper agine,
Punjab and Himachal Pradesh and Western Uttar cystine and glutamic acid.
Pradesh, in the Himalayas. It is also found in the wild Health Benefits
in the Mediterranean regions in North Africa. The  Withaferin A- contains antibiotic and antitumor
crop is cultivated in an area of about 4000 ha in India, properties. It is used for curing carbuncles in the
mainly in the drier parts of Manasa, Neemach and indigenous system of medicine. The paste
Jawad tehsils of the Mandsaur district of Madhya prepared from leaves is used for curing
Pradesh, in Punjab, Sindh, Rajasthan and South inflammation of tubercular glands and from its
India. roots.
Nutritive and chemical composition: Several types  Fruit for curing the skin diseases, bronchitis and
of alkaloids are found in this plant, out of which, ulcers. It is used as aphrodisiac, remunerative
withanine and somniferine are important. In addition tonic. Diuretic, Hypnotic, Sedative and
the leaves are important to contain five unidentified restorative, useful in rheumatism, cough debility
Shahroon Khan and Surender Singh

Satyapal Singh

450
from old age, dropsy and general weakness. yellow, high level of alkaloids (0.60%).
 Adaptogenic effects: Ashwagandha come under Raj Vijay Ashwagandha-100: High yielding,
adaptogen class, helping the body cope with matures between 160-170 days, yield, 6-7 q ha-1 root
stress. Pratap: CIMAP, Lucknow, High dry root yield 35 q
 Antioxidant activity: Ashwagandha show strong ha-1, withaferine-A content 0.72% in dry leaves
antioxidant properties, protecting cells from from developed by Central Institute of Medicinal and
damage by free radicals. aromatic plants, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh.
 Anti-inflammatory effects: It is great anti- Propagation: Collect mature seeds from ripe
inflammatory effects, it may help reduce berries. Ensure the berries are fully ripe and have
inflammation conditions. turned red. Cutting: Take 15-20 cm long root cuttings
Botanical Description: Ashwagandha is a perennial from mature ashwagandha plants during the dormant
shrub belonging to the season (usually late winter to early spring).
Solanaceae family. Soil and climate: Ashwagandha grows well in sandy
Ashwagandha typically loam soil, in slightly alkaline soil with good drainage
grows to a height of 30-150 cm (1-5 feet). It has a condition. It grows better in 600-1200 m altitude.
central stem that is The crop requires dry season during its growing
woody at the base and period. Temperature between 20 to 35 oC is most
herbaceous towards the suitable for cultivation.
top. The leaves are simple, ovate to elliptic in shape, Land preparation: Ashwagandha is usually grown
and measure 5-10 cm in length. Ashwagandha in fields which are not well covered by the irrigation
produces small, greenish-yellow flowers that are systems. The field on which food crops cannot be
bell-shaped. The flowers are clustered together in grown profitably because of low rainfall can be used
axillary cymes (a flat-topped inflorescence with for ashwangandha cultivation. The soil of the field
stalked flowers arranged along the main stem). selected for ashwagandha cultivation is well pulveri-
Varieties zed by ploughing. The field should be leveled and
Nagori: In this varieties the root are thin and found pressed by using heavy wooden plank.
mainly in Nagori disst in Madya Pradesh. Nursery raising and planting: The crop can be
Jawahar Asgand 20: Spreading type plant, medium sown either by broad casting or in lines. Line to line
in height, berries yellow and developed by method should be preferred increased root
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Jabalpur, production also helps in performing intercultural
MP. practices in required by farmers. The seeds are
Jawahar Asgand 134: Plant erect and tall, berries usually sown about 1-3 cm deep during June- July

451
in nursery. A light shower after sowing ensures good Yield: The average yield of Ashwagandha from 1
germination. About 5-12 kg seeds are sufficient for hectare of commercial cultivation is approximately 3
one hectare field. The seedling of 25-35 days old can to 5 q. of dry roots and 50 to 75 kg of seeds. The
be transplanted in the fields marinating 30 x 30 cm. maximum yield can be procured upto 6.5 to 7.0 q ha-
1
spacing between the plants & the rows. As . Commercially, 6 to 15 mm diameter and 7 to 10
Ashwagnadha is a rainy season Kharif crop, the time cm length root species are better. Alkaloid
of its sowing should be decided by date of arrival of percentage in roots ranges from 0.13 to 0.31%.
monsoon in area of cultivation. Grades: The Ashwagandha is divided into 4 groups
Manures and fertilizers: The ashwagandha crop on basis of grade:
does not require heavy doses of manure and  Grade A: Root piece 7 cm long, diameter 1 to
fertilizers. In Madhya Pradesh, where it is grown on 1.5 cm. Roots should be brittle, solid and pure
a commercial scale, no fertilizers are applied and the white from inside.
crop is cultivated on only residual fertility. Studies at  Grade B: The root is about 5 cm long, diameter
the Indore Research Station have showed no effect of 1 cm, brittle, solid and white from inside.
nitrogen and phosphorus on its root yield.  Grade C: Root pieces should be solid, 3-4 cm
Irrigation: Light shower after transplantation long, diameter less than 1 cm.
ensures establishment of seedlings. There is no need  Lower grade: Small pieces of root, roots are
of irrigation if rainfall is at regular intervals. somewhat hollow, yellowish from inside.
Excessive rainfall/water is harmful to the crop. Only Conclusion
life saving irrigations may be applied, if required to Ashwagandha cultivation can be a rewarding
ashwagandha. This is to be noticed that ashwagandha endeavor, especially given its medicinal properties
is a dry land crop and do not need much water. and market demand. Understanding the factors that
Disease: Seed rotting, seedling blight and leaf blight influence yield and implementing best practices in
are common diseases affecting Ashwagandha. The cultivation, harvesting, and processing can help
incidence can be minimized by spraying Dithane M- maximize productivity and ensure a high-quality
45 @ 3 g L-1 at the interval of 7-10 days. product suitable for both personal use and
Harvesting: The plants start flowering and bearing commercial ventures.
fruits from December onwards. The crop is ready
for harvest in January- March at 150 to 180 days after
sowing. The maturity of crop is judged by drying out
of leaves and yellow red berries in the plant standing
in the field.

452
Crop Rotation: A Profitable Approach for Sustainable Agriculture

Gangadhar M. Arkachari, Eramma, Bhavya V. P., Archana A. M. and Sindhu R. V.
Fulfilling the ever-growing food demand of and pests as well as their dependence on a single
the people on a national and international level is source of nutrients and insect and weed pressure are
extremely difficult due to limited agricultural supply minimised.
(Davis et al., 2016). The agricultural industry plays a Factors Affecting the Crop Rotation
crucial role in addressing the productivity issue  Fragmentation of land: This is thought to be the
because of rising food consumption and decreased main factor preventing the adoption of
crop yields brought on by population expansion. diversified crop rotation because it results in
Fertility, or the texture of the soil, is essential to insufficient resource allocation, which is linked
agricultural productivity and environmental health. to production costs.
Increased crop production and soil productivity will  Balanced use of inputs: This reduces the total
be required in the future due to growing food demand returns to land because it causes extra time
and a lack of available agricultural land. Experts are losses, wastes space across boundaries, lacks
growing more worried these days about the loss of surveillance and discourages the use of
soil brought on by intensive farming. Crop rotation predefined types of machinery, all of which
is one method of sustainable farm management that impede agricultural development.
aims to increase soil organic matter and decrease soil  Farm size: Expanding the size of a farm can
erosion. Crop rotation is a practical method in the encourage farmers to choose a variety of crops in
practice of sustainable agriculture (Khaledian et al., rotation, which lowers the cost of production per
2017). unit.
The process of planting a variety of crops in Roles of Diversified Crop Rotations
the same area across a number of growing seasons is  Enhancement of Soil Health: Crop rotation
known as crop rotation. By using this technique, the plays a crucial role in improving soil health by
likelihood that crops will become resistant to weeds boosting soil fertility, nutrient efficiency, and

Eramma
Bhavya V. P.
Archana A. M.

453
halting the development of soil-borne illnesses, as wheat and pulses can enhance soil quality and
in addition to optimizing crop output. boost system output.
 Resistance to Diseases: It is very helpful to be
able to interrupt the disease cycle in a soil profile
when using a diversified crop rotation. Mono-
culture on the same farmland contributes to the
build-up of pathogens. Plant disease outbreaks Benefits of Diversified Crop Rotation
can worsen if there is no rotation because these  Economic Benefits: Crop rotation has several
pathogens can multiply in the soil and accelerate economic benefits such as managing weeds,
dissemination. The disease cannot infect a plant diseases, insects, and nematodes; reducing soil
that is in a different family, therefore rotations erosion; maintaining and improving soil fertility;
that cause a plant from a different family to grow protecting ecosystem resources; and lowering
interrupt the pathogen cycle. The pathogen market and threat risks (Liebman and Dyck).
population in the soil therefore experiences a  Minimising of risk of production: One of the
sharp reduction. most economical ways to lessen farmers' income
 Physical and chemical properties of soil: In uncertainty, particularly for smallholders in
order to preserve the physicochemical composi- poverty, is through crop diversification. Crop
tion of soil erosion, diverse crop rotation rotation is associated with higher output of
techniques are used, with cover crops planted in different agricultural inputs and a structural
between both types of cash crops to integrate change in the economy where farm contracts
biomass and root exudates. The rhizosphere's make up a larger portion of GDP.
formation and secretion, the interaction between  Increasing Farmers' Income: Crop diversifi-
the root and related hyphal elements, the cation rotations and overall agricultural
breakdown of components that stabilize and productivity have a strong positive connection.
destabilize the soil, and the development of Additionally, integrating many crops in a single
robust biopores - all have the potential to affect place to boost production has the potential to
many aspects of maintaining the quality of the stabilize and increase farmers' income (Hansen et
soil. al., 2019).
 Maintaining soil quality: It is self-evident that  Enhanced crop productivity: The use of a crop
soil with perfect physical, chemical, and rotation strategy can yield greater benefits
biological features improves soil quality in the through a synergistic impact. With crop rotation,
farming system. For instance, rotating crops such all plants receive enough nutrition from the soil

454
because of its availability which guarantees a plant's nutrients and water to take part in a
profitable output. process known as nodulation, which transforms
atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia, which is
subsequently transformed into an organic
compound that the plant can use as a source of
nitrogen. Therefore, it makes logical to rotate
them with cereals in agriculture.
 Control over pathogens and pests: Crop
rotation is also employed to manage pests and
diseases that may gradually establish themselves
in the soil. By disrupting pest life cycles and
interrupting pest habitat, crop rotation reduces
the number of pests in an area.
 Increasing biodiversity: Multiple crops have
 High resilience at native: Multiyear crop positive benefits on the surrounding ecosystem
rotations can assist lessen dependency on and support a wider variety of beneficial
external inputs by using fewer commercial microorganisms in the soil.
fertilizers and agricultural inputs, such as banded  Increased farm productivity: Crop rotation
fertilizer application, crop nutrient recycling, and enhances soil nutrition, which in turn leads to
chemical pest control inputs (Kelly, 2008). higher yields. More area can be farmed with the
 Soil organic matter: Increasing soil organic same amount of labor and machinery if various
matter (SOM), improving soil structure, and crops must be planted and harvested at different
improving the chemical and biological soil times.
environment for crops are all made possible by  Minimises risk level: Various crops rotated
using diverse species in rotation. More SOM together might lessen a farmer's personal risk of
enhances water infiltration and retention, unfavourable weather.
increasing drought tolerance and reducing Challenges
erosion. Crop choice must take into account a variety
 Nitrogen fixation: Rotations can enrich the soil of fixed characteristics, such as soil type, terrain,
with nutrients. Rhizobia, or bacteria that fix climate, and irrigation, in addition to elements that
nitrogen, are found in nodules on the roots of can vary significantly from year to year, such as
legume plants. The rhizobia bacteria use the weather, market, and labour supply. In this way, it is

455
unwise to plan crops years in advance. Crop rotation Kelly, C. (2008). Lower external input farming
plans that are not carried out correctly might result in methods as a more sustainable-olution for
an imbalance in the nutrients in the soil or a build-up small-scale farmers. Thesis, University of
of pathogens affecting a critical crop. Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, South Africa.
Conclusion Khaledian, Y., Kiani, F., Ebrahimi, S., Brevik, E. C.
Growing awareness of the need to provide and Aitkenhead-Peterson, J. (2017).
high-quality food with little negative impact on the Assessment and monitoring of soil
environment has led to an increase in the use of degradation during land use change using
diverse crop rotations as a method for sustaining multivariate analysis. Land Degradation and
sustainable agricultural production. Crop rotation Development, 28(1): 128-141.
interrupts the cycle of disease, promotes the Liebman, M. and Dyck, E. (1993). Crop rotation and
interactions of beneficial soil bacteria, and intercropping strategies for weed manage-
minimizes the amount of weeds. Crop rotation boosts ment. Ecological Applications, 3(1): 92-122.
crop yield and land-use efficiency while also
improving the physical and chemical characteristics
of the soil. It is a useful strategy for sustained
financial success. To meet market needs, farmers
need to implement flexible and cost-effective crop
rotations that are diverse. It is recommended that the
scientific community direct their present and future
research endeavours towards the advancement of
more effective and varied crop rotation techniques.
References
Davis, K. F., Gephart, J. A., Emery, K. A., Leach, A.
M., Galloway, J. N. and Odorico, P. (2016).
Meeting future food demand with current
agricultural resources. Global Environmental
Change, 39: 125-132.
Hansen, J., Hellin, J. and Rosenstock, T. (2019).
Climate risk management and rural poverty
reduction. Agricultural Systems, 172: 28-46.

456
Nanotechnology in Food Packaging

Introduction can create an effective barrier against gases,

Nanotechnology has emerged as a moisture, and UV light, thus extending the shelf
groundbreaking field with vast applications across life of food products.
various industries, including food packaging. The  Antimicrobial Effects: Some nanoparticles,
incorporation of nanomaterials in food packaging such as silver and zinc oxide, possess
offers significant advantages antimicrobial properties that help in preventing
such as enhanced mechani- food spoilage by inhibiting the growth of
cal strength, improved barr- microorganisms.
ier properties and antimicrobial activity. This article  Lightweight and Flexible Materials: Nano-
explores the different nanomaterials used in food technology allows for the development of light-
packaging, highlighting their benefits and potential weight and flexible packaging materials that
implications. maintain their strength and protective qualities.
Benefits of Nanotechnology in Food Packaging  Sustainability: Many nanomaterials are derived
from renewable resources and are biodegradable,
contributing to more sustainable packaging
solutions.
Nanocellulose: Nanocellulose is derived from
cellulose, the most abundant
organic polymer on Earth. It
exhibits excellent mechanical
The use of nanotechnology in food packaging properties, biodegradability
brings numerous advantages: and a high surface area. Nanocellulose can be used
 Enhanced Mechanical Properties: Nano- to enhance the strength and flexibility of packaging
materials can significantly improve the materials while maintaining a lightweight structure.
mechanical strength and durability of packaging Additionally, it provides a barrier to oxygen and
materials, making them more resistant to damage water vapor, prolonging the shelf life of food
during handling and transportation. products.
 Improved Barrier Properties: Nanoparticles Nanostarch: Nanostarch is a modified form of star-
J. K. K. Munirajah College of Agricultural Science, T. N. Palayam, Gobi, Erode, Tamil Nadu

457
ch, consisting of nanoparticles with unique to inhibit the growth of bacteria and fungi. ZnO NPs
properties. It enhances the mechanical strength, can be incorporated into packaging materials to
flexibility, and transparency of packaging materials. provide active protection against microbial
Nanostarch also improves the barrier properties contamination. Additionally, ZnO NPs enhance the
against gases and moisture, making it an ideal mechanical strength and UV-blocking properties of
component for food packaging applications. packaging films, ensuring the preservation of food
Moreover, it is biodegradable and derived from quality and safety.
renewable resources, making it an environmentally Titanium Oxide Nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs):
friendly option. Titanium oxide nanoparticles are widely used in food
Protein Nanoparticles: Protein nanoparticles, packaging due to their photocatalytic and
derived from sources such as soy, whey, and casein, antimicrobial properties. TiO2 NPs can degrade
have gained attention in food packaging due to their organic contaminants and inhibit the growth of
biocompatibility and biodegradability. These nano- harmful microorganisms, extending the shelf life of
particles can be used to create edible coatings and packaged foods. Moreover, TiO2 NPs enhance the
films, providing an additional layer of protection to barrier properties of packaging materials, providing
food products. Protein nanoparticles also exhibit protection against UV light and oxygen.
excellent barrier properties against gases and Silver Nanoparticles (Ag NPs): Silver nano-
Carbon Nanoparticles (CNPs): Carbon nanoparticles are renowned for their potent antimicrobial
particles, including carbon activity against a wide range of bacteria, viruses, and
nanotubes and graphene, fungi. Ag NPs can be incorporated into packaging
possess exceptional mech- materials to create antimicrobial surfaces, reducing
anical strength, electrical the risk of microbial contamination. Additionally,
conductivity, and thermal stability. In food Ag NPs enhance the mechanical and barrier
packaging, CNPs are used to reinforce polymer properties of packaging films, ensuring the safety
matrices, improving the mechanical and barrier and quality of food products.
properties of packaging materials. However, the Conclusion
potential health risks associated with CNPs The integration of nanotechnology in food
necessitate thorough evaluation and regulation packaging offers numerous benefits, including
before widespread application. improved mechanical strength, enhanced barrier
Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles (ZnO NPs): Zinc oxide properties, and antimicrobial activity. Nanocellulose,
nanoparticles are known for their antimicrobial nanostarch, protein nanoparticles, CNPs, ZnO NPs,
properties, making them valuable in food packaging TiO2 NPs and Ag NPs are among the key nanomater-

458
ials used in food packaging. While these advance-

ments hold great promise for extending the shelf life
and safety of food products, it is essential to conduct
thorough evaluations to address potential health and
environmental concerns. As research and
development in this field continue to progress,
nanotechnology is poised to revolutionize the food
packaging industry.
Reference
Subramanian, K. S., Janavi, G. J., Marimuthu, S.,
Kannan, M., Raja, K., Haripriya, S., Jeya
Sundra Sharmila, D. and Moorthy, P. S.
(2018). Fundamentals and Applications of
Nanotechnology. Astral International Pvt.
Ltd., New Delhi.

459
Remote Sensing and GIS in Precision Farming: Revolutionizing

Agriculture
Jigyasa Ninama
Introduction Monitoring Crop Health: The banking system also

Precision farming is a current and progre- means that farmers can monitor crop health through
ssive concept that concerned to the realization of remote sensing. Digital tools in regular multispectral
sophisticated methods for the tracking of activities and hyperspectral imaging offer the possibility to
perform in farms in the most precise manner. Of identify stress factors such as nutrient deficiency,
these technologies, image remote sensing and diseases or water stress at an early stage. This early
geographic information systems are critical in detection enables timely actions which cut short
enhancing production, efficiency and sustainability yields losses as pointed out by (Li, et al., 2021).
of the crop yield. This article aims at revealing the Soil Analysis: That is why it is crucial to examine
potential of remote sensing and GIS for precision the distribution of such characteristics as organic
farming to demonstrate the potential of the matter content and soil moisture as they determine
approached techniques in the area of agriculture. the growth of a crop. Soil maps using satellite
Precision farming is a modern way of imagery and other instruments like the Synthetic
improving crop productivity through fully utilizing Aperture Radar and thermal imaging prove handy in
climate information for effective crop production by describing the variation in soil types that a farmer is
using the technology of remote sensing. likely to encounter on the field. This information is
Remote sensing very important in the management decision
It is the process of taking information from processes with respect to irrigation and application
satellite through aerial photograph or image of the of fertilizers (Gómez-Candón, et al., 2014).
earth’s surface mainly farms. This technology is Precision Irrigation: Irrigation is an essential factor
helpful in assessing various factors in agriculture, in agriculture particularly in areas where water
including moisture levels in the soil and general crop scarce, hence water management is vital in farming.
yield health, as well as pest and disease infestation. It is with assistance from meteorological data and
Different levels of resolution can be captured by a remote sensing data that it is now possible to
remote sensing system which makes it possible to determine the time to irrigate. This not only helps to
observe changes on the vegetation which would not save water but also guarantees that the plants will be
be easily recognizable by visual observation. watered sufficient and timley (Pereira, et al., 2020).
Jigyasa Ninama
Research Scholar, Department of Agronomy, SKRAU, Bikaner, Rajasthan

460
GIS: Using data professionally to make better approach that promotes the overall quality and
decisions quantity of grapes (Bramley and Ouzman, 2019).
Geographic Information System (GIS) Rice Farming in Asia: Besides, in Asia, techniques
combines spatial data of different nature from such as remote sensing enable assessment of rice
different sources in order to generate a map as well growth stages and forecasting of harvest times.
as models of agricultural fields. GIS assist in data Technological techniques improve irrigation
analysis and especially in data visualization which programmes, which translates to appropriate use of
enhances the decision making process. water (Torbick and Chowdhury, 2016).
Field Mapping and Zoning: This has made it easy Smart Farming in the United States: In the US for
to develop field maps which show differences in the example, precision farming strategies apply remote
field in terms of soil or crop nature. It implies that sensing data combined with GIS in large scale
through management of fields into zones, there will farming. This integration has been beneficial in
be minimized use of fertilizers and pesticides hence increasing yields as well as the efficiency of using
minimizing the effects on the environment (Mulla resources to grow crops (Kitchen et al., 2005).
2013). Conclusion
Yield Prediction: By using historical yields, current Precision farming is moving around remote
season yield data, GIS can accurately forecast future sensing and GIS, which provide accurate data to
yields. These predictions assist farmers in fore- improve decision-making. These innovations help in
casting their yields and managing their products in boosting support to sustainable agriculture methods
the market so as to earn the best returns (Gholizadeh, in addition to raising crop yields. The future of
et al., 2017). farming will depend even heavily on the combination
Resource Management: The resource tool in GIS of remote sensing and GIS as technology develops.
aids in the convenient distribution of resources like References
seeds, fertilizers, and labor. It enables farmers to Gómez-Candón, D., De Castro and López-Granados,
locate areas that are more needy in terms of attention F. (2014). Assessing the accuracy of
and therefore address such aspects in order to mosaicked hyperspectral imagery for
enhance farm management in general (Zhang et al., precision agriculture. Remote Sensing, 6(8):
2002). 6863-6883.
Case Studies and Applications Pereira, L. S., Oweis, T. and Zairi, A. (2020).
Vineyard Management in Italy: Italians vineyards Irrigation management under the water
utilize remote sensing of vines for the purposes of scarcity. Agricultural Water Management,
health and ripeness. GIS maps help in the targeted 227: 105810.

461
Li, S., Liu, C. and Yao, X. (2021). Remote sensing

monitoring of crop growth conditions.
Remote Sensing, 13(1): 112.
Gholizadeh, A., Amin, Esfahani, M. and Aimrun, W.
(2017). Temporal variability of soil electrical
conductivity affected by the precipitation and
tillage. Precision Agriculture, 18(2): 200-
217.

462
Nanotechnology in Agronomy: Enhancing Crop Protection and Growth

Jigyasa Ninama
Introduction the consumption and negative influence on the

Nanotechnology is the branch of technology environment (Kah et al., 2013). For example, it is
that deals with making structures that are less than well known that silver nanoparticles possess highly
100 nanometres long. Scientists often build these effective antibacterial properties and, therefore, can
structures using individual molecules of substances. be used for the protection of plants from bacterial and
Agronomy can benefit from novel methods for crop fungal diseases (Choudhary et al., 2017).
care and control through the use of nanotechnology, Nano-Sensors: Nano-sensors are actually small
including improved nutrient delivery, disease and tools that can identify existence of pathogens or pests
insect resistance, and environmental effect. The with high sensitivity at initial stages. These sensors
purpose of this essay is to go over the unique can help farmers to monitor plant health regularly
applications of nanotechnology in agriculture as well and provide relevant data to enable the practice of
as its potential to improve agronomical science. precision agriculture (Kumar et al., 2019). By getting
Enhancing Crop Protection stress signals at early stages, farmers can address
Agriculture is central to both food security issues that lead to stress and avoid spraying broad
and farm production, hence the need to safeguard pesticides all over the farm.
crops to enhance productivity. The conventional Nano-Fertilizers: The nano-fertilizers on the other
techniques of pest and disease management mostly hand sprout their nutrients in phases that is in
include the use of chemical pesticides in huge correspondence to the requirement of the plants.
quantities, which effects the bio-environment These fertilisers improve, nutrient use efficiency and
negatively and also the pests get resistance to the prevent nutrient losses through leaching or
chemicals used. Nanotechnology presents more volatilisation (Liu and Lal, 2015). For instance,
reliable and eco-friendly solutions on the market. macro and micro-fertilizers coated with nano-
Nano-Pesticides: Nano-pesticides are purposely particles can deliver nutrients progressively to plants,
designed at the nanoscale level in the formulation to enhance yield rates, and so on
enhance the delivery and effectiveness of the active Soil Health and Remediation: There is also an
ingredients. These nano formulations enhance the added advantage that application of nanoparticles
ability to adhere to the plant surfaces and gradually will promote better health of the soil by increasing
release a lesser amount of pesticides, hence lowering nutrient solubility and reducing effects of toxic che-
Jigyasa Ninama
Research Scholar, Department of Agronomy, SKRAU, Bikaner, Rajasthan

463
micals. For instance, iron oxide nanoparticles can be ductivity within agriculture but it also helps to reap
used to retrieve extemporaneous contaminated soil the benefits of sustainability in the environment in
from heavy metals and to enhance its safety for the process. Over the next decade, advancements in
farming uses (Khodakovskaya et al., 2012). nanotechnology innovations for agricultural college
Growth Stimulators: Depending on their size and and biochemical technologies will increase,
composition, certain types of nanoparticles have providing potential solutions for addressing global
been found to be effective growth promoters because needs in food production, efficient farming, water
they facilitate seed germination, root formation, and conservation, and soil health.
overall plant health. For example, carbon-based References
nanoparticles like graphene oxide carry out a positive Kah, M., Beulke, S., Tiede, K. and Hofmann, T.
effect consisting of stimulating seed germination and (2013). Nanopesticides: State of knowledge,
enhancing biomas production (Tripathi et al., 2017). environmental fate, and exposure modeling.
They also state that these nanoparticles for plant Critical Reviews in Environmental Science
growth enhancement can be used for seed coatings or and Technology, 43(16): 1823-1867.
applied to the soil to enhance crop yield Choudhary, R. C., Kumaraswamy, R. V., Kumari, S.,
Future Prospects and Challenges Sharma, S. S., Pal, A. and Raliya, R. (2017).
Nano-technology holds a bright future in Copper nanoparticles enhance the fungicidal
agronomy since there are more studies carried out activity of chitosan through surface modi-
and there is efforts that are being taken to design fication. RSC Advances, 7(48): 31316-31329.
more complex nano-materials. However, there are Kumar, V., Guleria, P., Mehta, S. K. and Dhar, A.
several limitations that need to be overcome, as for (2019). An overview of the role of nano-
instance the nanoparticles may present toxicity pesticides in sustainable agriculture. Journal
towards other species and the environment. of Agriculture and Food Research, 1:
Appropriate use of nanotechnology in the 100019.
agricultural sector will entail extensive analyses of Liu, R. and Lal, R. (2015). Potentials of engineered
the possible risks and proper standards formation. nanoparticles as fertilizers for increasing
Conclusion agronomic productions. Science of The Total
It is shocking to learn how nanotechnology is Environment, 514: 131-139.
revolutionizing the scientific field of agronomy Tripathi, S., Sonkar, S. K. and Sarkar, S. (2017).
through the use of new approaches to pest control, Growth stimulation of gram (Cicer
application of fertilizers, and stimulation of plant arietinum) plant by water soluble carbon
growth. Not only does it bring improvements to pro- nanotubes. Nanoscale, 3(3): 1176-1181.

464
The Impact of Agricultural Practices on Plant Disease Incidence

Introduction al organisms, thereby perpetuating a cycle of

Plant diseases pose a significant challenge to chemical dependency.
global food security, affecting crop yields and Organic Agriculture: Nurturing Ecosystem
quality. The interplay between agricultural practices Health
and disease incidence is complex, with human In contrast, organic farming practices
interventions often exacerbating or mitigating prioritize biodiversity, soil health, and ecological
pathogen pressure. In this article, we delve into the balance, thereby fostering resilience against plant
multifaceted relationship between agricultural diseases. Crop rotation, cover cropping, and the
practices and plant disease incidence, exploring integration of diverse plant species create dynamic
innovative approaches to promote resilience in agroecosystems that disrupt disease cycles and
agroecosystems. enhance soil fertility. By promoting beneficial
Conventional Agriculture: A Conduit for Disease organisms and minimizing disturbance, organic
Conventional agricultural practices, charact- farming nurtures a balanced microbial community
erized by monoculture, reliance on agrochemicals, that helps regulate pathogen populations.
and intensive tillage, have historically fueled the The prohibition of synthetic pesticides in
proliferation of plant diseases. Monocropping, the organic agriculture encourages the use of alternative
widespread cultivation of a single crop over vast disease management strategies. Biological control
expanses of land, creates homogeneous environ- agents, such as predatory insects and beneficial
ments ripe for pathogen proliferation. Moreover, the microorganisms, play a pivotal role in suppressing
repeated planting of susceptible crops in the same pathogens while minimizing environmental impact.
location disrupts natural disease suppression Additionally, the application of composts, bio-
mechanisms, allowing pathogens to build up in the fertilizers and plant extracts enriches soil biology and
soil and crop residues. strengthens plant defenses, further reducing
The indiscriminate use of synthetic pesticides susceptibility to diseases.
and fertilizers further exacerbates the problem. Regenerative Agriculture: Restoring Ecosystem
While pesticides may initially suppress pest and Function
disease outbreaks, they often lead to the emergence Regenerative agriculture represents a parad-
of resistant strains and collateral damage to benefici- igm shift towards holistic land management practices

Research Scholar, Department of Plant Pathology, SHUATS, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh

465
that prioritize soil health, biodiversity, and carbon References

sequestration. By mimicking natural ecosystems and Tilman, D., Balzer, C., Hill, J. and Befort, B. L.
leveraging ecological processes, regenerative (2011). Global food demand and the
agriculture aims to restore degraded landscapes sustainable intensification of agriculture.
while enhancing agricultural productivity and Proceedings of the National Academy of
resilience. Sciences, 108(50): 20260-20264.
Key principles of regenerative agriculture, Altieri, M. A. (1999). The ecological role of
such as minimal soil disturbance, diverse crop biodiversity in agroecosystems. Agriculture,
rotations, and integrated livestock grazing, promote Ecosystems & Environment, 74(1-3): 19-31.
soil structure, water retention, and nutrient cycling. Gomiero, T., Pimentel, D. and Paoletti, M. G. (2011).
Healthy soils teeming with microbial life serve as a Environmental impact of different agricul-
bulwark against plant diseases, fostering robust plant tural management practices: Conventional
growth and natural disease suppression. vs. organic agriculture. Critical Reviews in
Conclusion Plant Sciences, 30(1-2): 95-124.
The impact of agricultural practices on plant Lal, R. (2015). Restoring soil quality to mitigate soil
disease incidence underscores the urgent need for degradation. Sustainability, 7(5): 5875-5895.
transformative change in global food systems. Altieri, M. A. and Nicholls, C. I. (2020). Strategies
Conventional agriculture, with its emphasis on for organic agriculture in developing
monoculture and chemical inputs, perpetuates a countries and their potential for enhancing
cycle of vulnerability and dependency. In contrast, food security. Sustainability, 12(3): 1-29.
organic and regenerative agriculture offer alternative
pathways towards resilience, harnessing the power of
biodiversity and ecological balance to mitigate the
threat of plant diseases.
As we confront the challenges of climate
change, environmental degradation, and food
insecurity, embracing innovative agricultural
practices becomes imperative. By cultivating
resilience through diversified cropping systems,
enhanced soil health, and ecological stewardship, we
can build a more sustainable and resilient future for
agriculture and society as a whole.

466
Maintenance of Genetic Purity during Seed Production

Abstract
Genetic purity refers to how genetically pure a seed sample is in terms of seed variety or species
and how true the phenotype is to its mother at all stages of reproduction. Genetic purity is used to
maintain a variety from generation to generation, and in the management of genetic resources e.g. in
genebanks.
Introduction or mechanical mixtures.

The various steps suggested for maintaining  Rouging of seed fields prior to planting.
genetic purity are as follows: Providing adequate  Periodic testing of varieties for genetic purity.
isolation to prevent contamination by natural  Grow in adapted areas only to avoid genetic
crossing or mechanical mixtures. Rouging of seed shifts in the variety.
fields prior to the stage at which they could  Certification of seed crops to maintain genetic
contaminate the seed crop. Periodic testing of purity and quality.
varieties for genetic purity.  Adopting generation system.
Methods for maintenance of genetic purity Safe guards for maintenance of genetic purity
Use of approved seed in seed multiplication The important safe guards for maintaining
 Inspection of seed fields prior to planting. genetic purity during seed production are;
 Field inspection and approval of the Crop at Control of Seed Source
critical stages for verification. The seed used should be of appropriate class
 Genetic purity, detection of mixtures, weeds and from the approved source for raising a seed crop.
seed borne diseases. There are four classes of seed from breeder seed,
 Sampling and sealing of cleaned lots. which are given and defined by Association of
 Growing of samples with authentic stocks or Official Seed Certification agency (AOSCA).
Grow-out test. Nucleus Seed: It is handful of seed maintained by
Various steps suggested for maintaining genetic concerned breeder for further multiplication. The
purity are as follows nucleus seed will have all the characters that he
 Providing isolation to prevent cross fertilization breeder has placed in it and it is of highest genetic
Koteshi Lamani
Subject Matter Specialist (Seed Technology), KVK-Barasin, Sultanpur (ANDUAT, Ayodhya), Uttar Pradesh
V. P. Singh
Senior Scientist and Head, KVK-Barasin, Sultanpur (ANDUAT, Ayodhya), Uttar Pradesh

467
purity. The quantity of nucleus seed is in kilograms. mutations.

Breeder Seed: It is produced by the concerned  Volunteer plants from previous crops or
breeder or sponsoring institute or and which is used  Accidentally planted seeds of other variety
for producing foundation seed. It is of 100% genetic  Diseased plants
purity. The label/tag issued for B/s is golden yellow Off type plants should be rouged out from the
in colour. The quality of breeder seed is assured by seed plots before they shed pollen and pollination
the monitoring team constituted by the govt. occurs. To accomplish this regular supervision of
Foundation Seed: It is produced from breeder seed trained personnel is required.
and maintained with specific genetic identity and Seed Certification: Genetic purity in seed
purity. It is produced on govt. farms or by private productions maintained through a system of seed
seed producers. The quality of foundation seed is certification. The main objective of seed certification
certified by certification agency. It has genetic purity is to make available seeds of good quality to farmers.
of above 98%. The certification tag or label issued To achieve this qualified and trained personnel from
for F/s is white in colour. SCA carry out field inspections at appropriate stages
Preceding Crop requirement of crop growth. They also make seed inspection by
This has been fixed to avoid contamination drawing samples from seed lots after processing. The
through volunteer plants and also the soil borne SCA verifies for both filed and seed standards and
diseases. the seed lot must confirm to get approval as certified
Isolation: Isolation is required to avoid natural seed.
crossing with other undesirable types, off types in the Grow-out Test: Varieties that are grown for seed
fields and mechanical mixtures at the time of sowing, production should be periodically tested for genetic
threshing, processing and contamination due to seed purity by conducting GOT to make sure that they are
borne diseases from nearby fields. Protection from being maintained in true form. GOT test is
these sources of contamination is necessary for compulsory for hybrids produced by manual
maintaining genetic purity and good quality of seed. emasculation and pollination and for testing the
Rouging of Seed Fields: The existence of off type purity of parental lines used in hybrid seed
plants is another source of genetic contamination. production.
Off type plants differing in their characteristics from
that of the seed crop are called as off types. Removal
of off typesis referred to as rouging.
The main sources of off types are
 Segregation of plants for certain characters or

468
General Principles of Seed Production

Abstract
Systemized crop production is known as seed production. In seed production adequate care is
given from the purchase of seeds upto harvest adopting proper seed and crop management techniques.
The benefits of seed production are. Higher income. Higher quality seed for next sowing.
Introduction different soil and fertility conditions, under saline or
Providing adequate isolation to prevent alkaline conditions or under different photo-periods
contamination by natural crossing or mechanical or different elevations or different stress conditions
mixtures. Rouging of seed fields prior to the stage at for several consecutive generations the develop-
which they could contaminate the seed crop. Periodic mental variations may arise as differential growth
testing of varieties for genetic purity. Avoiding response. To avoid or minimize such developmental
genetic shifts by growing crops in areas in their variations the variety should always be grown in
adaptation only. adaptable area or in the area for which it has been
Genetic Principles released. If due to some reasons (for lack of isolation
Deterioration of crop varieties and methods to or to avoid soil born diseases) it is grown in non-
prevent them adaptable areas it should be restricted to one or two
Variety is a group of plants having clear seasons and the basic seed i.e., nucleus and breeder
distinguished characters which when reproduced seed should be multiplied in adaptable areas.
either sexually or asexually retains these characters. Mechanical mixtures: This is the major source of
The main aim of seed production is to produce contamination of the variety during seed production.
genetically pure and good quality seed. But why/how Mechanical mixtures may take place right from
the genetic purity of a variety is lost or deteriorated sowing to harvesting and processing in different
during seed multiplication. The several factors that ways such as;
are responsible for loss of genetic purity during seed  Contamination through field - self-sown seed or
production as listed by Kadam (1942) are: volunteer plants.
Developmental Variation: When a seed crop is  Seed drill - if same seed drill is used for sowing
grown in difficult environmental conditions such as 2 or 3 varieties.
Koteshi Lamani
Subject Matter Specialist (Seed Technology), KVK-Barasin, Sultanpur (ANDUAT, Ayodhya), Uttar Pradesh
V. P. Singh
Senior Scientist and Head, KVK-Barasin, Sultanpur (ANDUAT, Ayodhya), Uttar Pradesh

469
 Carrying 2 different varieties adjacent to each natural crossing isolation distance has to be
other. maintained. Increase in isolation distance decreases
 Growing 2 different varieties adjacent to each the extent of contamination. The extent of
other. contamination depends on the direction of the wind
 Threshing floor flow, number of insects present and their activity.
 Combine or threshers Genetic drift: When seed is multiplied in large
 Bags or seed bins areas only small quantities of seed is taken and
 During seed processing preserved forthe next years sowing. Because of such
To avoid this sort of mechanical sub-sampling all the genotypes will not be
contamination it would be necessary to rogue the represented in the next generation and leads to
seed fields at different stages of crop growth and to change in genetic composition. This is called as
take utmost during seed production, harvesting, genetic drift.
threshing, processing etc. Minor Genetic variation: It is not of much
Mutations: It is not of much importance as the importance however, some minor genetic changes
occurrence of spontaneous mutations is very low may occur during production cycles due to
i.e., 10-7. If any visible mutations are observed they difference in environment. Due to these changes the
should be removed by rouging. In case of yields may be affected. To avoid such minor genetic
vegetatively propagated crops periodic increase of variations periodic testing of the varieties must be
true to type stock would eliminate the mutants. done from breeder’s seed and nucleus seed in self-
Natural Crossing: It is an important source of pollinated crops Minor genetic variation is a
contamination in sexually propagated crops due to common feature in often cross-pollinated species;
introgression of genes from unrelated stocks/ therefore care should be taken during maintenance
genotypes. The extent of contamination depends of nucleus and breeder seed.
upon the amount of natural cross-fertilization, which Selective influence of Disease: Proper plant
is due to natural crossing with undesirable types, off protection measures much be taken against major
types, and diseased plants. On the other hand natural pests and diseases otherwise theplant as well as the
crossing is main source of contamination in cross- seeds get infected.
fertilized or often cross-fertilized crops. The extent  In case of foliar diseases the size of the seed gets
of genetic contamination in seed fields is due to affected due to poor supply of carbohydrates
natural crossing depends on breeding system of the from infected photosynthetic tissue.
species, isolation distance, varietal mass and  In case of seed and soil borne diseases like
pollinating agent. To overcome the problem of downy mildew and ergot of jowar, smut of

470
bajra and bunt of wheat, it is dangerous to use soil borne diseases and same crop should not be
seeds for commercial purpose once the crop gets grown in preceding season.
infected. Isolation of seed crops
 New crop varieties may often become Preparation of land
susceptible to new races of diseases are out of Selection of variety: Adaptable, high yielding and
seed production programmes. other desirable attributes.
Techniques of the Breeder: Instability may occur Selection of seed: Appropriate seed class and
in a variety due to genetic irregularities if it is not authentic source.
properly assessed at the time of release. Premature Seed treatment: Chemical, legume seed inoculation
release of a variety, which has been breed for and to break dormancy.
particular disease, leads to the production of resistant Time of planting: Seasonal based sowing
and susceptible plants which may be an important Seed rate: Lower seed rates for easy roguing
cause of deterioration. When Sonalika and Method of sowing: Female and male parents in
Kalyansona wheat varieties were released in India definite row ratios.
for commercial cultivation the genetic variability in Depth of sowing: Small seeds sown shallow, larger
both the varieties was still in flowing stage and seeds at little deeper.
several secondary selections were made by the Roguing: Vegetative/pre-flowering, flowering and
breeders. maturity stage
Breakdown of male sterility: Generally in hybrid Supplementary pollination: Rearing honey bees in
seed production if there is any breakdown of male hives.
sterility in may lead to a mixture of F1 hybrids and Weed control: Crop rotation, interculture
selfing. operations, hand weeding, use herbicide
Improper Seed Certification: It is not a factor that Plant protection: Disease and insect control
deteriorates the crops varieties, but is there is any Nutrition: N, P and K
lacuna in any of theabove factors and if it has not Irrigation of seed crop: As per requirement of the
been checked it may lead to deterioration of crop crop and stop two weeks before harvest.
varieties. Harvesting of seed crop: Soybean - 13% MC,
Agronomic Principles Wheat - 15-17% MC and Maize - 30-35% MC
Selection of a suitable agro-climatic region: Drying of seeds: Dry seeds to safe moisture limits
Ample sunshine, moderate rainfall and absence of Storage of seed: Stacks should be made on wooden
strong wind. pallets.
Selection of seed plot: Free from volunteer plants,

471
Adaptation of Environment Friendly Technology by Reducing Pesticide use

for Cucumber Insect Pest Management at Farmer’s Level
Nikki Bhardwaj, Manoj Kumar Sharma and Praveen Bhardwaj
Introduction and human health. Therefore, there is a growing need

Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) is a popular to adopt environment-friendly technologies for
and widely grown vegetable all over the country, cucumber insect pest management at the farmer's
reported to have originated in India. Cucumber level.
cultivation has been as old as three thousand years in Environment Friendly Pest Management Techno-
India. (Rai and Yadav, 2005). It is one of the quickest logies
maturing vine vegetable crops and is the second most Biological Control Methods: Biological control
widely cultivated cucurbit after watermelon. involves the use of natural enemies to suppress pest
In cucumber about 20 insect and mite species populations. This approach includes the introduction
have been recorded (Sood et al., 2006). Whitefly, of predators, parasitoids, and pathogens that target
leaf miner, thrips, red pumpkin beetle, flea beetle, specific cucumber pests. For example, the use of
aphids, leafhoppers and fruit flies are dominant ladybird beetles (Coccinellidae) and predatory mites
insects attacking on cucumber as sucking or (e.g., Phytoseiulus persimilis) has shown promise in
defoliator pests. Severe damage occurs due to leaf controlling aphids and spider mites, respectively, in
miner, sucking pests like aphid (Aphis gossypii), cucumber crops (Desneux et al., 2019).
jassid (Amrasca biguttula biguttula), thrips (Thrips
tabaci) and whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) and fruit fly
(Bactocera cucurbitae) (Dhillon et al., 2005).
However, cucumber production faces significant
challenges from insect pests, which can cause
substantial yield losses if not managed effectively.
Traditional pest management strategies often rely Cultural Control Practices: Cultural practices aim
heavily on chemical pesticides, which can have to create unfavorable conditions for pest develop-
detrimental effects on the environment, biodiversity, ment or enhance natural pest suppression. Farmers
Nikki Bhardwaj
Assistant Professor, Faculty of Agriculture, Jagannath University, Chaksu, Jaipur, Rajasthan
Manoj Kumar Sharma
Associate Professor and Head, Department of Plant Physiology, SKNAU, Jobner, Jaipur, Rajasthan
Praveen Bhardwaj
Project Manager, Lok Kalyan Bhumika Samiti, Panna, Madhya Pradesh

472
can implement techniques such as crop rotation, Pheromone Traps: Pheromone traps are devices
intercropping with pest-repellent plants (e.g., that utilize synthetic versions of insect sex
marigolds), and using resistant cucumber varieties to pheromones to attract and trap specific insect pests.
reduce pest pressure (Shelton et al., 2020). By strategically placing pheromone traps around
Mechanical and Physical Control Measures: cucumber fields, farmers can monitor pest
Mechanical and physical controls involve physically populations and implement targeted control
removing or excluding pests from cucumber crops. measures when necessary, reducing the need for
Methods include the use of row covers, sticky traps, broad-spectrum pesticides (Witzgall et al., 2010).
and manual removal of pests by hand. Additionally,
practices like mulching and proper weed
management can create barriers to pest movement
and reduce habitat suitability (Capinera, (Ed.).
2017).
Mass Trapping: Mass trapping involves deploying

a large number of traps to capture a significant
portion of the pest population, thereby reducing
overall pest pressure on cucumber crops. This
Chemical-Free Remedies: Chemical-free remedies method can be particularly effective when used in
include the use of botanical extracts, such as neem conjunction with other integrated pest management
oil, garlic, and pyrethrum, as well as biopesticides (IPM) strategies (El-Sayed, 2019).
derived from naturally occurring microorganisms Community-based IPM Programs: Community-
(e.g., Bacillus thuringiensis). These products offer based IPM programs
effective pest control while minimizing harm to non- involve collaboration
target organisms and the environment (Isman, 2020). among farmers, extension
services, and researchers
to implement sustainable
pest management practices, including the use of
pheromone traps. These programs promote
knowledge sharing and adoption of environmentally
friendly technologies at the local level (Morse and
Buhler, 1997).
473
Adoption Challenges and Solutions ecosystem integrity and ensuring food security for
Despite the numerous benefits of future generations.
environment-friendly pest management technologies References
their adoption at the farmer's level faces several Capinera, J. L. (Ed.). (2017). Encyclopedia of
challenges. These include: Entomology. Springer.
 Limited awareness and knowledge among Desneux, N., et al. (2019). Biological control of plant
farmers regarding alternative pest management pests: Advantages and limitations seen
strategies. through the prism of EPNs. Environmental
 Perceived higher costs and lower efficacy Science and Pollution Research, 26(17):
compared to conventional chemical pesticides. 16964-16971.
 Lack of access to training, extension services, Dhillon, M. K., Naresh, J. S., Singh, R. and Sharma,
and technical support. N. K. (2005). Reaction of different bitter
Solutions to these challenges include gourd (Momordica charantia L.) genotypes
 Providing education and training programs on to melon fruit fly, Bactrocera cucurbitae
integrated pest management (IPM) principles. (Coquillett). Indian Journal of of Plant
 Conducting field demonstrations and farmer Protection, 33(1): 55-59.
participatory trials to showcase the effectiveness El-Sayed, A. M. (2019). The pheromone-mediated
of environment-friendly technologies. behavior and population management of the
 Collaborating with agricultural extension European grapevine moth, Lobesia botrana
services, research institutions and non-govern- (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae). Insects, 10(9):
mental organizations to disseminate information 287.
and provide support to farmers. Isman, M. B. (2020). Botanical insecticides,
Conclusion deterrents, and repellents in modern
The adoption of environment-friendly agriculture and an increasingly regulated
technology for cucumber insect pest management at world. Annual Review of Entomology, 65:
the farmer's level is crucial for promoting sustainable 299-316.
agriculture practices and mitigating the negative Morse, S. and Buhler, W. (1997). Integrated pest
impacts of chemical pesticides on the environment management in developing countries. In Pest
and human health. By embracing biological control management in rice (pp. 27-49). Springer,
methods, cultural practices, mechanical and physical Dordrecht.
controls, and chemical-free remedies, farmers can Rai, N. and Yadav, D. S. (2005). Advances in
effectively manage cucumber pests while preserving Vegetable Production. P: 344-356.

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Shelton, A. M., et al. (2020). Management of insect

pests in cucurbits. Annual Review of
Entomology, 65: 89-106.
Sood, A. K., Sood, S. and Mehta, P. K. (2006).
Development of greenhouse whitefly,
Trialeurodes vaporariorumon summer
vegetable crops. International Journal of
Entomology and Zoology Studies, 68(1): 44-
47.
Witzgall, P., Kirsch, P. and Cork, A. (2010). Sex
pheromones and their impact on pest
management. Journal of Chemical Ecology,
36(1): 80-100.

475
Data-Driven Agriculture: The Power of Regression Models

S. Damodharan
Abstract
Data-driven agriculture has revolutionized modern farming practices, enabling farmers to

optimize their resources and maximize productivity. Among the various tools used in data analytics,
regression models stand out for their ability to identify patterns and predict outcomes based on historical
data. This article explores the power of regression models in agriculture, discussing their applications,
benefits, challenges, and future prospects. By examining real-world case studies, we illustrate how
regression models can enhance decision-making processes, improve crop yields, and promote
sustainable farming practices.
Overview of Data-Driven Agriculture Introduction to Regression Models

Data-driven agriculture represents a para- Regression models are statistical tools used
digm shift in how to understand the relationship between a dependent
farming is approached, variable and one or more independent variables.
moving away from They are widely used in various fields, including
traditional methods to agriculture, due to their ability to predict outcomes
more scientifically grounded practices. The based on historical data. The historical background
integration of data analytics into agriculture allows of regression analysis dates back to the 19th century,
for the collection, analysis, and interpretation of vast with significant contributions from statisticians such
amounts of data, leading to better-informed as Francis Galton and Karl Pearson.
decisions. This transformation is driven by the need
to increase productivity, ensure food security, and
promote sustainable agricultural practices.
The role of predictive modelling in agricul-
ture cannot be overstated. Predictive models,
including regression models, help in forecasting crop
yields, identifying pest and disease outbreaks, and In agriculture, regression models are
optimizing resource use. By leveraging historical particularly valuable for their simplicity and
data, these models can provide insights that enhance interpretability. They can help farmers understand
the efficiency of farming operations. complex relationships between environmental facto-
S. Damodharan
Department of Statistics, Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh

476
rs, management practices, and crop performance.  Example: Predicting complex and non-linear
The following sections will delve deeper into the crop yield relationships.
types of regression models and their applications in Fundamental Concepts
agriculture. Understanding the key concepts of regression
Understanding Regression Models models is crucial for their effective application:
Types of Regression Models Dependent and Independent Variables: The
Linear Regression dependent variable is what you are trying to predict,
 Simple linear regression involves one dependent while the independent variables are the predictors.
and one independent variable, establishing a Regression Coefficients: These values indicate the
straight-line relationship. strength and direction of the relationship between the
 Example: Predicting crop yield based on the dependent variable and each independent variable.
amount of fertilizer used. Goodness of Fit: Measures such as R-squared and
Multiple Linear Regression Adjusted R-squared indicate how well the model
 Involves multiple independent variables. explains the variability of the dependent variable.
 Example: Predicting crop yield based on Assumptions of Regression Models: These include
fertilizer, water usage, and soil type. linearity, independence, homoscedasticity, and
Polynomial Regression normality of residuals.
 Fits a polynomial equation to the data. Applications of Regression Models in Agriculture
 Example: Predicting crop yield with a non-linear Crop Yield Prediction
relationship to the independent variables. One of the most significant applications of
Logistic Regression regression models in agriculture is predicting crop
 Used for binary outcomes. yield. Several factors influence crop yield, including
 Example: Predicting the presence or absence of a soil quality, weather conditions, and farming
particular pest. practices. By using regression models, farmers can
Ridge and Lasso Regression estimate future yields based on historical data,
 Address multicollinearity issues by adding allowing for better planning and resource allocation.
penalties to the regression. Case Study: Predicting Wheat Yields
 Example: Predicting crop yield with many A study conducted in the Midwest United
correlated predictors. States used multiple linear regression models to
Support Vector Regression predict wheat yields. Variables included soil nitrogen
 Uses support vector machines to perform levels, rainfall, temperature, and the previous year’s
regression tasks. yield. The model accurately predicted yields within

477
a 5% margin, enabling farmers to optimize their forecast weather patterns and assess the impact of
fertilizer and water usage. climate change on farming practices. This
Disease and Pest Management information is crucial for developing adaptation
Regression models are also instrumental in strategies.
predicting disease and pest outbreaks. Early Example: Climate Impact on Corn Production
detection is crucial for effective management and A study used multiple linear regression to
minimizing crop damage. By analyzing historical assess the impact of climate variables on corn
data on pest populations, weather conditions, and production in the Corn Belt region. The model
crop health, regression models can forecast potential incorporated temperature, precipitation, and CO2
outbreaks and suggest preventive measures. levels, providing valuable insights into how climate
Example: Predicting Aphid Infestations change might affect future yields.
Researchers developed a logistic regression Precision Agriculture
model to predict aphid infestations in soybean crops. Precision agriculture involves site-specific
The model used variables such as temperature, management practices to optimize crop production.
humidity, and previous infestation levels. The Regression models play a critical role in variable rate
predictions helped farmers implement timely pest applications, ensuring that inputs such as fertilizers
control measures, reducing crop losses by 20%. and water are applied efficiently.
Soil Health Monitoring Example: Variable Rate Fertilization
Maintaining soil health is vital for sustainable A support vector regression model was used
agriculture. Regression models can analyze soil to determine the optimal fertilizer application rates
properties and predict nutrient requirements, helping for different field zones. The model considered soil
farmers make informed decisions about soil fertility, crop growth stages, and environmental
management practices. conditions, resulting in a 15% increase in overall
Example: Soil Nutrient Prediction yield.
A polynomial regression model was used to Benefits of Using Regression Models in
predict soil nitrogen levels based on factors like Agriculture
organic matter content, pH, and moisture. The model Enhanced Decision-Making: Regression models
provided accurate nutrient recommendations, provide data-driven insights that improve decision-
improving crop health and yield. making processes. Farmers can make informed
Weather Forecasting and Climate Impact choices about planting, irrigation, fertilization, and
Weather conditions significantly impact pest control, ultimately enhancing productivity and
agricultural productivity. Regression models can profitability.

478
Increased Efficiency and Productivity: By ve for small-scale farmers. Supportive infrastructure,

optimizing resource use, regression models help such as reliable internet connectivity and data
farmers reduce waste and maximize outputs. management systems, is essential for successful
Efficient use of inputs such as water, fertilizers, and adoption.
pesticides leads to higher crop yields and cost Future Prospects
savings. Advancements in Machine Learning and AI: The
Sustainable Farming Practices: Regression models integration of advanced machine learning and AI
promote sustainable agriculture by minimizing algorithms with regression models holds great
environmental impact. Precision farming techniques potential for real-time analytics and predictive
reduce the overuse of chemicals, promoting soil modelling in agriculture. These advancements can
health and biodiversity. Long-term sustainability is lead to more accurate and dynamic models,
achieved by balancing productivity with environ- enhancing the decision-making process.
mental conservation. Collaboration and Data Sharing: Collaborative
Challenges and Limitations efforts between farmers, researchers, government
Data Quality and Availability: The accuracy of agencies, and private sectors are vital for the success
regression models depends on the quality and of data-driven agriculture. Building a robust data-
availability of data. Inaccurate or incomplete data sharing ecosystem can facilitate the exchange of
can lead to unreliable predictions. Data collection in valuable information and promote innovation in
agriculture can be challenging due to the variability agricultural practices.
of environmental conditions and farming practices. Policy and Regulatory Support: Supportive
Model Complexity and Interpretation: Under- policies and regulations are necessary to encourage
standing and interpreting regression models require the adoption of data-driven agriculture. Addressing
training and expertise. Farmers may find it data privacy concerns and providing incentives for
challenging to comprehend model outputs and make sustainable farming practices can drive the
decisions based on them. Moreover, complex models widespread use of regression models in agriculture.
can be prone to overfitting or under fitting, affecting Conclusion
their reliability. The integration of regression models in
Technological and Infrastructure Barriers: agriculture signifies a transformative step towards
Access to technology and infrastructure is crucial for more efficient, productive, and sustainable farming
implementing data-driven agriculture. Rural areas practices. By leveraging historical data and
may lack the necessary technological resources, and predictive analytics, farmers can optimize their
the cost of advanced analytics tools can be prohibiti- resources, enhance crop yields, and promote long-

479
term sustainability. Despite the challenges, the future Ahmed, L. and Nabi, F. (2021). Data-driven smart
of data-driven agriculture looks promising, with farming. In Agriculture 5.0 (pp. 157-174).
ongoing technological advancements and increased CRC Press.
collaboration across sectors. As the agricultural
landscape continues to evolve, regression models
will undoubtedly play a crucial role in shaping the
future of farming.
References
Smith, J. and Johnson, L. (2023). Data-Driven
Agriculture: Applications and Benefits.
Journal of Agricultural Science.
Doe, A. (2022). Predictive Modelling in Agriculture:
A Review. Agricultural Analytics Review.
USDA. (2021). Advances in Precision Agriculture.
United States Department of Agriculture
Report.
FAO. (2020). Sustainable Agriculture Practices.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations.
Saadane, R., Chehri, A. and Jeon, S. (2022). AI-
based modeling and data-driven evaluation
for smart farming-oriented big data
architecture using IoT with energy harvesting
capabilities. Sustainable Energy Technolo-
gies and Assessments, 52: 102093.
Servia, H., Pareeth, S., Michailovsky, C. I., de
Fraiture, C. and Karimi, P. (2022).
Operational framework to predict field level
crop biomass using remote sensing and data
driven models. International Journal of
Applied Earth Observation and Geo-
information, 108: 102725.

480
The Bionomics and Management of Major Insect Pests of Apple

B. L. Naga and Kiran Kumawat
San jose scale Mark of identification

Introduction: This insect is worldwide and most  The scale which forms a covering on the body of
serious pest in temperate region on nearly 700 insect is black or brown underneath, a lemon-
different species of fruits, shrubs and ornamental yellow insect is visible when the covering is
plants. lifted.
Taxonomy: Kingdom: Animalia  The infested fruits also have a scaly appearance
Phylum: Arthropod and each spot is surrounded by a scarlet or red
Class: Insecta area.
Oder: Hemiptera
Family: Diaspididae
Genus: Quadraspidiotus
Species: perniciosus (Comstock)
Host Plants: It usually prefers plants belonging to Life cycle
the family Rosaceae such as apple, plum, pear,  The pest is active from March to December and
peach, currant and willow rose. winter passes in nymphal stage.
Nature of Damage  Nymphs resume activities in the spring and full
 All parts of the plant above the ground are grown in April-May.
attacked and the injury is due to loss of cell- sap.  They start to reproduce by mid-May. The pest
 At first the growth of the infested plants is gives birth to young ones, which hatch from the
checked, but as the scale increase in number, the eggs develops within the body of the female.
infested plant may die.  The female may give to 200-400 nymphs. The
 The infested region in bark becomes reddish newly-born nymphs crawl out of the parental
pink. scale and lead a free life for 12-24 hours. They
 Purple discoloration on fruits. became full grown in 30-40 days and the female
 Loss of vigor and death of young tree or again start giving birth to young ones within next
branches. 10-14 days.
B. L. Naga
Department of Entomology, SKNAU, Jobner, Jaipur, Rajasthan
Kiran Kumawat
Department of Plant Pathology, RCA, MPUAT, Udaipur, Rajasthan

481
 The life of the male adult is short, hardly 24-34 Oder: Hemiptera
hours during which it fertilizes the non-winged Family: Aphididae
females. The gravid mothers’ lives for about 50- Genus: Eriosoma
54 days. Species: lanigerum (Hausmann)
 4 overlapping generations completed in a year. Nature of damage
 The pest is active from March to September. The
aphids suck cell sap from the bark of twigs and
roots.
 Swelling and nodes appear on the roots which
hinder the normal plant functions. Owing to the
loss of cell sap, the twigs also shrivel and the
young nursery plant, which are affected are
worst, may die quickly.
Management  The infested plants pale green leaves and whitish
 Sanitation of the orchard. cottony patches on the stem and branches.
 Pruned material should be collected immediately Nymphs and adults suck the juice from bark of
and burnt. the trunk or fruits
 Use the parasitoid, Encarsia perniciosi to check  Weakening and death of the smaller plants
the overwintering population on wild host.  Infested twigs shrivel and die
 Spray of 2 liter of chlorpyriphos 20EC or 625 ml  Galls on the roots
of methyl demeton 25 EC in 1250 lit of water per  White, woolly patches on the trunk.
ha. Mark of identification: Purplish aphid covered with
 In nursery, apply carbofuran granules at the rate white cottony mats.
0.75 to 1 g a.i. per plant.
Wooly apple aphid
Host plant: The insect pest is a serious pest of apple,
pear and crab- apple. Also feed on hawthorn,
mountain ash, etc.
Distribution: India and Pakistan
Taxonomy: Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropod
Class: Insecta Life cycle

482
 Active period: The pest is active from march-  Select healthy plant from nursery and before
September. planting treat with chlorpyriphos 0.05%.
 Reproduction: Reproduction is Parthenogenetic-  During leaf fall, spray the plants with 2 lit of
ally and the progeny, thus produced, consists of chlorpyriphos 20EC in 1250 lit water ha-1 against
females only. Each female may produce up to aerial forms.
116 young ones in her life time @ 1-4 nymphs  For controlling the root forms, apply oxydemeton
per day in March - April, 1-5 in May- July, 1-6 in methyl 25EC in 1250 lit of water ha-1 (winters).
August and only 1-2 per week in winter.  Spray 2 lit of Malathion 50 EC in 1250 lit water
 Nymph: There are 4 nymphal instars. Total ha-1 (Summer).
nymphal period is 35-42 in February, 29.5 in  Use parasitoids Aphelinus mali.
August-November and 10.5-19.5 in April-July.  The insecticidal spray should be avoided where
 There may be 13 generation completed in a year. the parasitoid A. mali.
 In December, there is a partial migration from Minor pest
aerial parts to the roots of the infested plant and Apple fruit moth: Argyresthia conjugella (zeller)
the reverse migration from the roots to the aerial Order: Lepidoptera
parts in May. Family: Ypnomeutidae
Apple stem bores: Apriona cinerea (cheverlot)
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Cerambycidae
Apple leaf folder: Archips termikas (Meyrick)
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Tortricidae
Codling moth: Cydia pomonella (Linnaeus)
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Tortricidae
Management Apple root borer: Dorysthenes hugelii
 Its management is a difficult task because of the (Redtenbacher)
waxy covering on the body and reinfestation due Order: Coleoptera
to local migration from roots. Family: Cerambycidae
 Use of resistant root stock e.g. Golden delicious,

Northern Spy and Morton stocks 778, 779, 789
and 793.

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E-ISSN: 2583-1755

International Year of Camelids

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