Journal of Krishi Vigyan Vol 11 Issue 2 Jan-June, 2023

LIST OF SCIENTISTS WHO JOINED AS LIFE MEMBERS
5662022 Savita Kumari, Programme Assistant (Soil Science), Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Dewas,
Madhya Pradesh. [email protected]
5672013 Tasneem Mubarak, Chief Scientist (Agronomy) MRCFC, SKUAST-Kashmir. drtasneem.
[email protected]
5682022 S K Tyagi, SMS, Horticulture, KVK, Khargaon (MP). [email protected]
5692022 Ilakshy Deka, Subject Matter Specialist, Animal Science Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kamrup
AAU, Kahikuchi campus (Assam). [email protected]
5702022 Prem Prakash Gautam, Subject Matter Specialist (Plant Protection) Krishi Vigyan Ken-
dra, Vaishali Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa, (Bihar). ppgau-
[email protected]
5712022 A K Badaya, Principal Scientist and Head, Entomology KVK, Dewas (MP)
5722022 Bhrigu Kumar Neog, Jr. Extension Specialist Directorate of Extension Education, Assam
Agricultural University, Jorhat-13, (Assam.) [email protected]
5732022 Tanuja Banshtu, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, Dr Y S Parmar, UHF,
Nauni, Solan (Himachal Pradesh). [email protected]
5742022 Ashok Kumar Sharma, Professor, G B Pant University of Agriculture and Technology
Pantnagar, KVK Dehradun (Uttarakhand)[email protected]
5752023 Sumiya K V, Programme Coordinator Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Palakkad, (Kerala) 5752023.
[email protected]
5762023 Neethi Baruah Junior Scientist (Plant Pathology) Regional Agricultural Research Station,
Diphu Assam Aggricultural University, (Assam). [email protected]
5772023 Senior Scientist and Head, ICAR-KVK, Hanumanamatti -581 115 Ranebennur (Tq, Haveri
(Dist) ( Karnataka). [email protected]
57820223 Bhakti Bharatkumar Panchal, Scientist, Horticulture Krishi Vigyan Kendra, NAU, Athwa
Farm, Surat, (Gujarat). [email protected]
5792023 Chethan, Ph D Scholar, Department of Veterinary Extension, KVASU (Kerala).
5802023 Alimudeen, M. V. Sc. Scholar, Department of Veterinary and Animal Husbandry Exten-
sion, College of Vety and Anim Sci, Pookode, KVASU, Wayanad ( Kerala)
5812023 Hannah Krujia Asangla, Subject Matter Specialist Agronomy, KVK, Phek (Nagaland).
[email protected]
5822023 Induja T R , M. V. Sc. Scholar, Department of Veterinary and Animal Husbandry Exten-
sion, College of Vety. and Anim Sci, Pookode, KVASU, Wayanad ( Kerala).
5832023 Arul, M. V. Sc. Scholar, Department of Veterinary and Animal Husbandry Extension, Col-
lege of Vety. and Anim Sci, Pookode, KVASU, Wayanad (Kerala)
5842023 Vijaya Nirmala Tammisetti, Scientist, Veterinary Science, KVK, Dr Y S R, Horticultural
University, Venkataramannagudem, West Godavari district (Andhra Pradesh). drnirma-
[email protected]
5852023 Reeta Singh, Senior Scientist & Head,Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Katihar Tingachhiya, Dis-
trict, Katihar (Bihar). [email protected]
5862023 Senior Scientist and Head, Krishi Vigyan Kendra ,East Khasi Hills District 5th Mile, Upper
Shillong (Meghalaya) . [email protected] , [email protected]
5872023 Pragati, Assistant Professor, Home Science (Food & Nutrition), Darbhanga (Bihar). praga-
[email protected]
5882023 G. Sowjanya Roy, Srikakulam/Andhra Pradesh Assistant Professor ANGRAU Agricultural
College, Naira (Andhra Pradesh). [email protected]
408 J Krishi Vigyan 2023, 11 (2)
5892023 Anup Kumar Singh, Subject Matter Specialist Animal Science KVK, Vaishali, DRPCAU,
Pusa (Bihar). [email protected]
5902023 Swapnil Bharti, Subject Matter Specialist Horticulture, KVK, Vaishali, DRPCAU,
Pusa,Samstipur, (Bihar). [email protected]
5912023 Sripriya Das, Subject Matter Specialist Crop Production, KVK, Vaishali (Bihar). sripriya-
[email protected]
5922023 Kavita Verma, Subject Matter Specialist, Home Science, KVK, Vaishali, DRPCAU, Pusa,
Samstipur (Bihar). [email protected]
5932023 R P Sharma, Subject Matter Specialist (Entomology) KVK, Madhepura (Bihar). drram-
[email protected]
5942023 Aparna, Assistant Professor Animal Science, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Ropar (Punjab). apar-
[email protected]
5952023 Mahesh Chandra Jerai, Scientist (Agronomy), KVK, Latehar (Jharkhand). jeraimahesh@
gmail.com

State Coordinators for the year 2023-2025
Name of the State Name of the Scientist
Andhra Pradesh Dr. P Venkata Rao, Scientist (ToT), ANGRAU-DATTC, Srikakulam, Andhra
Pradesh
Dr. K . Sudha Rani ,Subject Matter Specialist (Community Science) Krishi
Vigyan Kendra, Reddipalli , Anantapuram ,Andhra Pradesh.
Arunachal Pradesh Dr Tilling Tayo, SMS (Animal Science),KVK, Longding, Arunachal Pradesh
Dr Girish Chandra Nainwal, SMS, ,Fisheries, KVK, Changklang, Arunachal
Pradesh
Dr. Balakrishna Chintada , Subject Matter Specialist ( Fisheries),Krishi Vigyan
Kendra, Amadalavalasa, Srilakulam, Andhra Pradesh
Assam Dr Monuj Kr Doley, SMS (Animal Science),KVK, Assam Agricultural University,
Karbi Anglong, Assam
Dr Rijusmita Sarma Deka, Head, KVK, Morigaon, Assam Agricultural University,
Assam
Dr Sanjay Borthakur, Senior Scientist and Head, KVK, Jorhat, Assam.
Bihar Er. Nidhi Kumari,SMS ( Soil and Water Engineering) KVK, Turki, Muzarffar-
pur-II, RPCAU,Pusa,Bihar.
Dr. Anuradha Ranjan Kumari, Senior scientist and Head, Krishi Vigyan Kendra,
Siwan , Dr RPCAU, Pusa, Samstipur, Bihar
Ms. Ipsita Biswas, SMS Fishery Science), KVK, Turki, Muzaffarpur-II, RPCAU,
Pusa, Bihar.
Dr. Ravindra Kumar Tiwari, Sr Scientist and Head, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Sa-
mastipur, Bihar
Chhattisgarh Dr. Rajni Dharmendra Agashe, SMS ( Extension Education) , KVK, Sarguja,
Chattisgarh.
Dr. Khoobi Ram Sahu ,Senior Scientist and Head ,Indiara Gandhi Krishi
Vishwavidhyalaya, Raipur,Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Balod , Chhattisgarh
Dr. P D Verma, Subject Matter Specialist (Farm Machinery and Power Engineer-
ing), Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Bhatapara, Chhattisgarh.
Goa Dr. Sanjaykumar Vithalrao Udharwar, Senior Scientist, Animal Science, Krishi
Vigyan Kendra, Goa.
Gujarat Dr Meenaxi V Tiwari, Scientist (Home Science) , KVK, Navsari Agricultural Uni-
versity, Dediapada, Narmada, Gujarat
R. Radha Rani, Scientist (Animal Science), Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Dahod, Anand
Agricultural University, Gujarat.
Dr Rashmikant Anantray Gurjar, Scientist ( Horticulture),KVK, Navsari Agricul-
tural University, Navsari, Gujarat
Dr Minaxi Bariya, Associate Professor ,College of Agriculture, Junagadh Agricul-
tural University, Mota Bhandariya (Amrreli), Gujarat

Haryana Dr.Ramesh Kumar, Subject Matter Specialist Agricultural Extension, KVK, Am-
bala, Haryana.
Dr. Anamika Sharma, Principal Scientist and Head, Krishi Vigyan Kendra
Gurugram, Sector 78 village Shikohpur, Haryana.
Dr. Anju Ahlawat, Assistant Professor,Botany, Hindu Girls College, Sonepat,
Haryana
Himachal Dr Anju Kapoor, Assistant Professor, Department of Extension Education and
Communication Management, College of Community Science, CSKHPKV,
Palampur. HP
Dr. Kehar Singh Thakur, Senior Scientist, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Chamba, Him-
achal Pradesh.
Dr Arti Shukla, Senior Scientist ( Plant Pathology)),HRTS and KVK, Kandaghat,
Dr Y S Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan, HP
Dr Bandana, Scientist, Dr Y S Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry,
Neri,Hamirpur, HP
Jharkhand Er Vinay Kumar, Scientist (Agril. Engineering), KVK, Bokaro, Birsa Agricultural
University, Jharkhand
Dr. Ranjay Kumar Singh, Sr Scientist and Head, KVK, Chatra, Jharkhand
J&K Dr Arvind Kumar Ishar, Sr Scientist and Head, KVK, Rajouri, Jammu & Kashmir
Dr Vishal Mahajan, Sr Scientist and Head, KVK, Kathua, Jammu & Kashmir.
Karnataka Dr. Sunilkumar N M, Senior Scientist & Head, ICAR-Krishi Vigyan Kendra,
P.B.No.58, Janwada Road, Bidar, Karnataka.
Dr. Roopa S Patil, Scientist Agricultural Entomology, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Uttar
Kannada, Karnataka
Dr. Devaraja T.N.,Senior Scientist and Head, ICAR-Tarakabalu Krishi Vigyan
Kendra, Davanagere, Karnataka
Dr. Mallikarjuna B O, Subject Matter Specialist (Agronomy), ICAR-Tarakabalu
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Davanagere, Karnataka.
Dr. Ashoka P, Senior Scientist and Head, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Haveri, UAS,
Dharwad, Karanataka
Kerala Dr Bindu B, Assistant Professor (Horticulture). KAU,Farming System Research
Station, Sadanandapuram, Kerala
Dr Subin K. Mohan, Assistant Professor, Department of Veterinary and AH Exten-
sion, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, Kerala
Madhya Pradesh Dr. Rekha Tiwari, Senior Scientist (Home Science), KVK, Ujjain, Madhya
Pradesh.
Dr. R P S Shaktawat, Senior Scientist (Agronomy) , RVSKVV, Krishi Vigyan
Kendra, Agar, Madhya Pradesh.
Dr. Divakar Singh Tomar, Senior Scientist (Agronomy), KVK, Ujjain, Madhya
Pradesh
Dr. K S Bhargav, Senior Scientist and Head, Krishi Vigyan Kendra , Balgarh
Farm, Dewas ,Madhya Pradesh.

Maharashtra Dr Sandesh V. Patil Associate Professor Dept. of Fisheries Resources Economics,
Statistics and Extension Education College of Fisheries (Dr. B. S. Konkan Krishi
Vidyapeeth), Shirgaon, Ratnagiri, Maharashtra
Dr. Dipti Patgaonkar I/c Senior Scientist and Head, KVK, Khamgaon Beed-II,
Maharashtra.
Dr. Manoj Sudhakar Talathi , Senior Scientist and Head, KVK, Killa-Roha
(Raigad), Maharashtra
Dr. Vikram Parasharam Kad, Associate Professor, Agricultural Process
Engineering, Post Harvest Technology Centre, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth,
Rahuri 413 722, Ahemednagar, Maharashtra.
Manipur Dr Y Prabhavati Devi, SMS ( Home Science) KVK, Chandel, ICAR, Manipur
Center
Dr Sakhen Sorokhaibam Subject Matter specialist , Agronomy, KVK,
Bishnupur,Manipur.
Dr.S. Zeshmarani, Senior Scientist and Head Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Thoubal,
Manipur
Meghalaya Dr Sanjay Swami, Professor, College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural
Sciences, CAU, Umiam (Barapani), Meghalaya
Dr Sagarika Borah, STO ( Animal Science),ICAR- KVK,West Garo Hills,
Meghalaya
Dr.Popiha Bordoloi, Subject Matter Specialist (Soil Science), Krishi Vigyan
Kendra, Ri-Bhoi, Meghalaya.
Dr. Athokpam Haribhushan, Senior Scientist and Head, Krishi Vigyan Kendra,
South Garo Hills, Meghalaya
Mizoram Dr Carolyn Zothansiami,SMS ( Soil science),KVK,Kolasib,Mizoram
Dr.T Vanlalngurzauva, Senior Scientist and Head, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Serchip,
district, North Vanlaiphai, Mizoram
Dr.Senjit Singh Ashem, Subject Matter Specialist (Agronomy), Krishi Vigyan
Kendra, Lunglei, 796571, Mizoram
Dr. Rajat Buragohain, Department of Animal Nutrition, College of Veterinary
Science & Animal Husbandry, CAU (Imphal), Aizawl, Mizoram
Nagaland Dr. T. Esther Longkumer, SMS Soil Science, KVK, NRC on Mithun, Porba,
Phek, Nagaland
Dr. Patu Khate Zeliang, Subject Matter Specialist (Plant Breeding and Genetics),
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Jalukie, Peren District Nagaland.
Dr. Longma Yanger Pongen ACTO, Agricultural Extension, Krishi Vigyan
Kendra, Tuensang, Nagaland

Odisha Dr Jhunilata Bhuyan, Scientist Home Science, KVK, Mayurbhanj-1, Odisha
Dr. Laxmipriya Pradhan, Scientist, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Keonjhar, Orissa Uni-
versity of Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha
Dr Sumita Acharya, Scientist (Home Science), KVK Puri, Odisha
Dr.Jyotirmayee udgata, Associate Professor, P. G. Department of Home Science,
Rama Devi Women’s University. Formerly Senior Scientist and Head, Krishi
Vigyan Kendra, OUAT, Odisha
Punjab Dr. Tejbir Singh, Assistant Professor Animal Science, KVK, Langroya, SBS
Nagar, Punjab
Dr Gagandeep Kaur, Senior Scientist Horticulture, Department of Fruit Science,
PAU, Ludhiana, Punjab
Dr Gur Lal Singh Gill, Assistant Professor Animal Science, KVK, Faridkot, Pun-
jab
Dr Kulveer kaur, Senior Scientist, Home Science, Directorate of Extension Edu-
cation, PAU, Ludhiana, Punjab
Rajasthan Dr Irfan Khan, SMS (Plant Protection), KVK, Jaipur-1,Rajasthan
Dr B L Yadav, SMS(Agronomy), KVK, Jaipur-1, Rajasthan
Dr B R Morwal, SMS ( Horticulture),KVK, Barmer-1,Rajasthan
Dr Shubham Mishra, Assistant Professor Department of Agricultural Extension
BRDPG College, Deoria.
Sikkim Dr. Pallabi Phukan , Subject Matter Specialist (Agricultural Extension), Krishi
Vigyan Kendra, Ranipool ,ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Sikkim
Centre East 737 135,Sikkim.
Dr. Shaon Kumar Das, Scientist (Agril. Chemistry/Soil Science) ICAR-National
Organic Farming Research Institute (formerly ICAR RC for NEH Region, Sikkim
Centre) Tadong, Gangtok -737102, Sikkim.
Tamil Nadu Dr Noorjehan A K A Hanif, Associate Professor ( Agricultural Extension), Agri-
culture College and Research Institute, Karur, Tamil Nadu
Dr. P Kumaravel, Dean, Veterinary College and Research Institute, TNVASU,
Udumalpet, Tamil Nadu
Dr S Srivara, Associate Professor ( Agricultural Extension), Horticultural College
and Research Institute, Jeenur, Krishnagiri district, Tamil Nadu.
Dr. S. Srivara Buddhi Bhuvaneswari, Assistant Professor (Agricultural Extension)
Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University.
Dr. Sharmila Bharathi C, Subject Matter Specialist (Horticulture), KVK, Namak-
kal (Tamil Nadu)

Telangana Dr S Malathi, Principal Scientist ( Entomology) and Program Coordinator ,PJT-
SAU-KVK, Malyal, Telangana
Dr. N Venkateshwar Rao, Senior Scientist and Head ,Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Jam-
mikunta 505 122, Karimnagar, Telangana
Dr D R K Saikanth, SRF, ATARI, Zone X, Hyderabad, Telangana
Dr. Mithun G, Subject Matter Specialist – Animal husbandry, DDS-KVK, Didigi,
Zaheerabad Mandal, Sangareddy, Telangana.
Tripura Dr. Manoj Singh Sachan , Senior Scientist & Head, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Khow-
ai, Tripura.
Dipankar Dey Subject Matter Specialist (Soil Science) Krishi Vigyan Kendra,
Divyodaya, West Tripura P.O. Chebri, Khowai, Tripura
Uttar Pradesh Dr Sumedha Chaudhary, Teaching Faculty, Department of Human Development
and Family Studies, CSA Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh
Dr. Geeta Chauhan , Principal Scientist ( LPT) Division of Livestock Products
Technology , ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar ,Uttar Pradesh.
Dr. Phool Kumari, Scientist, Home Science, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Hamirpur,
Uttar Pradesh.
West Bengal Dr Debojyoti Borkotoky, SMS ( Animal Science), KVK, North 24 Parganas
(Additional),ICAR-CRIJAF, Barrackpore, West Bengal
Dr. Manas Kumar Das, Subject Matter Specialist (Animal Science), Jalpaiguri
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, WBUAFS, P.O. – Ramshai, District, Jalpaiguri, West
Bengal.
Mrs. Snehalata Lama, Subject Matter Specialist (Horticulture) Darjeeling Krishi
Vigyan Kendra Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya Kalimpong, West Bengal.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Sr. No. Title Page No.
A AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS
Marketing Pattern and Price Spread of Berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum ) Seed in
1. Punjab 222-232
Kajal Agnotra, Raj Kumar and Sangeet Ranguwal
Performance of India on Gender Disparity in Health and Survival: A Temporal
2. Analysis 281-287
Shalini Sharma and Mehak Jain
Productivity and Profitability Analysis of Late Sown Wheat under
Paddy-Wheat Cropping System
3. 293-297
R K Bairwa, Roop Singh, Kamla Mahajani, Gunjan Sandhya and Sarita
B. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
Mass Transfer and Quality Attributes of Osmodehydrated Malabar Tamarind
4. (Garcinia gummi-gutta ) 233-238
G S Aparna and P R Geetha Lekshmi
Suitability of a Self-Propelled Pre Germinated Paddy Drum Seeder For Women
5. Farmers 349-354
Bini Sam
Opportunities and Threats of Custom Hiring Centre in Farm Mechanization
6. 252-255
P Venkata Rao, S Neelaveni and G Chitti Babu
Water Activity in Treated and Untreated Traditional Grain Storage
7. Dinesh Rajak, Genitha Immanuel and Rajkumar Jat 393-398
C. AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
Constraints Faced by the Farmers and Researchers about Crisis and its Management
8. Practices in South Gujarat 17-20
S R Kumbhani , R M Bhuva and C K Timbadia
Constraints Faced in Adoption of Yield Maximizing Technologies by Pulse Growers
9. 21-27
Noorjehan A K A Hanif, V Dhanushkodi and N Tamilselvan
Climate Change Vulnerability in Agriculture on Rural Farmers
10. 28-35
Tarun Kumar Das
Determinants of Scientific Knowledge Gain on Goat farming among Schedule Caste
11. Bimal P Bashir Chethan G N, Alimudeen S, Arul Sabareeswaran T A, Induja T 50-56
R, Anjali K Babu and Senthil Murugan S
Estimation of Yield Gap in Rapeseed-Mustard through Cluster Front Line
12. Demonstrations 140-144
L C Verma and Angad Prasad

Effectiveness of Mobile Based SMS in Transfer of Agricultural Technology
13. 93-96
S Neelaveni, P Venkatarao, Ch Balakrishna, B Mounika and K Bhagyalakshmi
Entrepreneurial Units Established by Youth.
14. 133-139
A P S Dhaliwal, Palwinder Singh, Sarvpriya Singh and Vinay Singh
Extension Activities applied for Transfer of Technologies among Farming
15 Community of Lucknow district of Uttar Pradesh 159-164
Deepak Rai, Deep Kumar and Ram Lakhan
Farmers’ Preferences on Acceptance and Adoption of Traditional Rice Production
under Organic Farming
16 165-170
V Dhanushkodi, Noorjehan AKA Hanif, S Sangeetha, R Nageswari and R
Jagadeesan
Impact of Self Help Groups on Psychological Empowerment of Women
17 176-181
Minaxi Bariya, Neha Tiwari,Jiju Vyas and Kiran Chandravadiya
Institutional Support System for Fodder Entrepreneurs in Kerala
18 Subin K Mohan , Anand Raju , Baby Roshni , Anoop E P , Mevin Sabu , Demian 205-210
C Johnson
Knowledge Index on Scientific Poultry Farming among Online Trainees
19 T R Induja, Bimal P Bashir, Anjali K Babu, G N Chethan, S Alimudeen and T 211-216
A Arul Sabareeswaran
Knowledge level of Human-Avian Conflict Affected Farmers.
20 217-221
M Assan Kasim, K Senthilkumar, P Thilagar and SPrathaban
Performance of Soybean variety JS 335 in Phek District of Nagaland
21 265-268
Hannah Krujia Asangla and Engrala Ao
Relationship Between Socio-demographic and Communication Characteristics of
22 the Farmers about All India Radio programme 304-311
A Manoj, A Lalitha, M Venkataramulu and K S Purnima
Strategies for Efficient Use of Natural Resources to Sustain Agricultural Production
23 in Indo-Gangetic plains 337-342
M S Gill, Manoj Sharma and K B Singh
Training Need of Agricultural Input Dealers in Transfer of Agricultural Technology
24 361-366
Rajni Agashe, D R Agashe, S R Dhuware and S L Waskel
Value Chain Mapping of Standardized Milk in Cooperative and Private Dairy Plants
in Andhra Pradesh
25. 388-392
Naresha N and Anil K. Dixit
D AGRONOMY
Bioefficacy of Diclosulam in soybean
26. 11-16
Devendra Patil, Dharmendra Patel, Sandeep Todwal and S R K Singh

Effect of Rice Stubble and Irrigation Scheduling on Growth and Yield of Wheat
Crop
27. 81-88
Hrishikesh Nath, Rajan Kumar, Britan Rahman, Saikat Sarkar, Apurba
Baruah, Pranjeet Kalita and Sonamoni Turi
Impact of Climate Change on Crop Water Requirement of Rice in Central Zone of
28. Kerala : An Assessment Using CROPWAT Model 182-186
Harithalekshmi V and B Ajithkumar
Impact of Farmers’ Participatory Programme on Rice ( Oryza sativa L.) Production
and Economics Under Temperate Hill Ecology
29. 171-175
T Mubarak, S A Bangroo, A Shakoor , Haseeb –ur-Rehman, Shahid A
Sheergojri, Parvez A Sheikh and T A Sofi
Weed Management Strategy for Enhancing Productivity and Profitability of
Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L. Millspaugh)
30. 399-403
Somendra Nath, Sandeep Kumar and Abhishek Yadav
E ANIMAL SCIENCE
Adoption Behaviour of Donkey Rearers on Various Donkey Management Practices
31. 1-4
P Kumaravel, P Athilakshmy and S Saraswathi
Impact of Training on Knowledge Levels of Goat Rearing Farmer’s in Bundi District
of Rajasthan
32. 192-195
G S Meena, Deepak Kumar, K Mahajani1, R K Bairwa, Roop Singh, Anita
Kumari Meena and R K Meena
Nutritional Status of Buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) in Tribal District Mandla of
33. Northern Hills Region of Central India 246-251
Pramod Sharma, Ankur Khare and Anil Kumar Giri
Optimization of Carotene Enriched Functional Yoghurt
34. 256-258
G Rajarajan
Rearing Practices and Performance Attributes of Assam Hill Goat in Assam, India
35. Monuj Kumar Doley, Subal Maibangsa, Manoranjan Neog, Neethi Baruah, 312-321
Bhrigu Kumar Neog, Luit Moni Barkalita, Jupi Talukdar, R. Hazarika and
Prasanna Kumar Pathak
Scenario of Dairy Animals Kept by Different Categories of Farmers in Punjab
36. 322-327
Manoj Sharma and Madhu Shelly
Traditional Method of Mithun Production System in Arunachal Pradesh
37. 371-377
Tilling Tayo and Neeta Longjam
Training Needs of Dairy Farm Women and their Multiple Regression Analysis
38. toward Animal Husbandry Practices 367-370
Kiran Chandravadia and M K Bariya

Use of Bypass Fat for Augmentation of Production during Transition Period in
Cross Bred Cattle
39. 378-381
Aparna and Satbir Singh
F ENTOMOLOGY
Bio-efficacy of different New Insecticidal Molecules and Botanicals against Hadda
40. Beetle, Henosapilachna vigintioctopunctata on Brinjal 5-10
Mahendra, V S Acharya, Rukshana and Bishana Ram
Spiders in Jasmine Ecosystem and their Response to Biopesticides
41. 355-360
Swathy I M and Malini Nilamudeen
Use of Pheromone Lures for the Management of Red hairy Caterpillar Amsacta
Albistriga in Rainfed Groundnut
42. Prasanna Lakshmi Ravuri, Sahaja Deva, P Murali Krishna, M K Jyosthna and 382-387
K Devaki
H FISHERIES
Culture of Striped Catfish Pangasianodon hypophthalmus through Net Cages in
43. Carp Pond under varying Stocking Density 36-44
P P Patel, S C Timbadia, R V Borichangar, J G Vanza and H G Solanki
Efficacy of 17α-methyl testosterone on Growth and Survival of Fry of Swordtail,
44. Xiphophorus helleri 65-69
Ranjeet Singh, Rikhi Singh Chauhan, Anurag Semwal and Neelesh Kumar
Profile of Fisheries Officials of Maharashtra and Information Sources
used by them in Shrimp Farming
45. 298-303
S V Patil and Arpita Sharma
I HOME SCIENCE/COMMUNITY SCIENCE

Effect of Parental Involvement on Childrens’ Adjustment
46. 70-74
Sumedha Chaudhary and Mukta Garg
Development of Beet Greens Incorporated Nutrient-Dense Product
47. 45-49
Priya Yadav and Madhulika Gautam
Effect of Different Dehydration Methods on Organoleptic Attributes and
48. Quality of Pineapple Candy 61-64
Y. Prabhabati Devi, R K Lembisana, Sumati Rajkumari and Y Jamuna Devi
Empowering Hill Women through Promotion of AIPAN Designs’ Based Textile
49. Articles 124-132
Vandana Bhandari Anita Rani, Sudha Jukaria and Pooja Bhatt

Environmental and Ergonomic Risk Factors of Professional Gardeners
50. 101-105
Divya Martolia and Ritu Gupta
Environmental Concerns and Household Purchase Practices of Working and Non-
51. Working Women. 110-114
Shifali Sharma and Amarjit Kaur
Income Generation through Bamboo Baskerty in Haryana
52. 196-200
Lalita Rani, Nisha Arya and Suman Sodhi
Optimization of Process Parameters for Osmotic Dehydration as a Pretreatment for
53. Making Papaya Candy 259-264
Gurpreet Kaur Dhillon and Rajni Goel
Species Diversity and Status of Asia’s largest Dry Fish Market
Puja Debnath, Parag Mani Deka, Hemanta Pokhrel, Rijusmita Sarma Deka ,
54. 328-336
Saurav Baruah and Prasanna Kumar Pathak
J HORTICULTURE
Performance of Bio Fertilizers on Yield of Mango and Sapota in Navsari District of
Gujarat
55. 269-273
R A Gurjar, K A Shah, Prabhu Nayaka, S R Salunkhe and N M Chauhan
K PLANT BREEDING
Evaluation of Different Dahlia (Dahlia variabilis L.) Cultivars for Tuber Yield
56. 150-153
Khiromani Nag and S K Tamrakar
Evaluation of Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) Genotypes for Growth, Yield and
Quality
57. 154-158
M O Pavithra and S K Nisha
L PLANT PATHOLGY
Efficacy of Trichoderma viride against Fusarium wilt of chickpea
58. 97-100
Roop Singh, Rakesh Kumar Bairwa, Irfan Khan, Kamla Mahajani and Sarita
Evaluation of Antagonistic Potential of Fructosphere-Associated Microflora Against
59. Major Crown Rot Pathogen of Robusta variety Banana 115-119
Deepa R Chandran and Susha S Thara
Evaluation of Different Substrates for the Production and Economics of Oyster
60. Mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus). 120-123
Sandeep Kumar, Somendra Nath, Anil Kumar and Amit Kumar Singh
In-vitro Evaluation of Fungicides Against Radial Growth of A. brassicae
61. 187-191
Mohammad Akram and Mujeebur Rahman Khan

M SOIL SCIENCE
Effect of Long-term Application of Manures and Fertilizers on Yield and Soil
62. Nutrient Concentration in Rice Based Cropping System 57-60
Roshni John, Thulasi V and Drishya D S
Effect of Potassium Salt of Active Phosphorous on Growth, Yield and Quality
Contributing Attributes of Soybean
63. 75-80
Savita Kumari, Ashok Kumar Dixit, Manish Kumar, Neerja Patel Mahendra
Singh and K S Bhargav
Influence of Rhizobium Inoculation on Yield, Growth Attributes and Soil Fertility
64. in Garden Pea . 201-204
Ibajanai Kurbah, Bandana and N S Kaith
Performance of Different Levels of NADEP Manure on Nutrient Contents and
65. Quality of Different Organically Grown Crops 274-280
A N Lad, K G Patel, R A Gurjar*, P H Nayaka and K A Shah
Promotion of Low Cost Vermicompost Production for Livelihood Improvement in
Morigaon District of Assam
66. Saurav Baruah, Rijusmita Sarma Deka, Sukanya Gogoi and Prasanna Kumar 288-292
Pathak
P VEGETABLE SCIENCE
Effect of Transplanting Dates and Locations on the Performance of Broccoli under
wet temperate Himalayas
68. 89-92
Rajeev Kumar, Aanchal Chauhan, Reena Kumari, Kumari Shiwani, Priyanka
Thakur and Neha Thakur
Enhancement of Growth and Productivity of Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.)
69. through Calcium Based Fertilizer 106-109
Dharamvir Singh, Narendra Kumawat and Mahender Singh
Evaluation of Biozyme Granule and Liquid Formulation Application on Tuber Yield
70. and Related Characters in Potato 145-149
Munish Sharmaand B S Khadda
Non chemical Methods for Management of Chilli Leaf Curl Disease
71. 239-245
Sujisha C S, Sumiya K V, Raji P, Sible George Varghese and M Sangeeta Kutty
Status of Protected Cultivation of Vegetables in Punjab
72. Ajay Kumar 343-348
O SHORT COMMUNICATION
Effect of Plant Growth Promoting Microbes in Plant Health Management for Black
73. Pepper 404-407
Veerendra Kumar K V and Saju George

J Krishi Vigyan 2023, 11 (2) : 1-4 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2023.00001.6
Adoption Behaviour of Donkey Rearers on

Various Donkey Management Practices
P Kumaravel, P Athilakshmy and S Saraswathi
Veterinary College and Research Institute
Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University
Udumalpet, Tirupur District
ABSTRACT
Donkeys are agile, firm and resilient animals with a great deal of tolerance. Donkeys are most predominantly
used for transporting salt, farm manure and agricultural commodities in hilly areas not accessible by road
transport. A total of 160 donkey rearers were selected as beneficiaries from eight districts of Tamil Nadu
for the project on conservation of donkeys through empowerment of donkey rearers in Tamil Nadu. The
adoption behaviour of donkey rearers on various donkey management practices was elicited through a
pre-tested structured interview schedule before the implementation of the project. With regard to housing,
majority of the donkey rearers (66 %) did not provide shelter for donkeys and were dwelling in open
places. Only 33 per cent of donkey farmers provided some form of shelter for donkeys in the form of
thatched roof sheds, asbestos sheds to protect the donkeys from extreme weather conditions. With regard
to feeding management, more than half of the respondents were feeding bran and ragi and oilcakes to their
donkeys. It was observed that cent per cent of the respondents were allowing their donkeys for grazing
for roughage intake and none of the donkey rearers fed mineral mixture to the donkeys. With regard to
health management, majority of the donkey owners (58.75 %) preferred traditional practices for treating
donkeys and only sixteen per cent of the respondents preferred allopathic treatment by veterinarians for
their donkeys. It was reported that incidence of Tetanus was high leading to considerable mortality in
donkeys. The reason attributed was due to due to harness, saddle and other wounds leading to infection.
It was observed that more than three fourth of donkey rearers were not vaccinating the donkeys against
tetanus and rabies. It was clearly evident that donkey rearers in Tamil Nadu were not provided any training
on various managemental practices Hence, knowledge and skill empowerment of donkey rearers is the need
of the hour to reduce disease incidence and thereby in-situ conservation of donkeys.
Key Words: Adoption Behaviour, Donkeys, Feeding, Housing, Health Management
INTRODUCTION but more lactose, with a concentration close to that

Donkey which is popularly called as beast of of human milk. It has been observed that donkey
burden plays a major role in the livelihood of poorest milk has tremendous medicinal value as curative
of poor. The total donkey population in the country agent for metabolic and allergic diseases along
which was 0.32 million in 2012 has decreased with its use in cosmetics (Anuradha et al 2020).
considerably to 0.12 million during 2019. Likewise, Donkeys are predominantly used for carrying loads
in Tamil Nadu, there were 9183 number of donkeys like sand bags, bricks, clothes and other house
during 2012 which has drastically reduced to 1428 hold items. An average donkey of approximately
as per 2019 livestock census. Donkeys are reared 100 kg can carry up to 30 - 40kg on its back or
both for draught purpose as well as milk. Donkey’s can pull up to twice its bodyweight on level ground.
milk contains less fat, protein and inorganic salts Working donkeys, horses and mules generate direct
Corresponding Author’s Email:[email protected]

Table 1. Housing management and feeding management adopted. N=160

Sr. Parameter Adopters Non-Adopters
No.
A Housing facilities Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
1. Provision of pucca sheds/thatched houses 54 33.75 106 66.25
2. Construction of cement floors in sheds 22 13.75 138 86.25
3. Provision of adequate floor space 16 10.00 144 90.00
4. Provision of feeding/watering troughs/bowls 128 80.00 32 20.00
B Feeding management
5. Provision of Concentrates -Bran, Ragi, 124 77.50
oilcakes 36 22.50
6. Provision of green fodder 08 5.00 152 95.00
7. Free grazing 160 100.00 0 0
8. Mineral mixture supplementation 0 0 160 100.00
income in a number of industries in both urban highest donkey population as per 19th livestock
and rural settings (Delphine, 2015). Donkeys are census. A sample size of 20 donkey farmers were
very friendly in nature, patient and intelligent and selected from each district by simple random
enjoy the company of humans. Unlike food animals sampling and thus a total of 160 beneficiaries were
which are provided minimum care, owing to its selected for the project. An ex post facto research
production performance, the donkeys are neglected design was adopted with an objective to ascertain
in all aspects in the society. In welfare and ethical the various donkey management practices adopted
points of view, the donkeys are the animals in which by the donkey rearers in Tamil Nadu. This scientific
least importance is given. In India the donkeys are study was carried out during 2021. A pre - tested
mostly used for transport of goods and farming well-structured interview schedule was utilized to
purposes. They are also used to carry sand from the collect the data from the donkey rearers. The data
river beds to load vehicles and to transport to other collected were analysed and presented.
places. Many owners felt that donkeys increased
their social status but aspired to stop owning RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
donkeys and own machinery instead in recent years Adoption of various donkey managemental
(Tamlin et al, 2020). Since majority of the donkey practices by donkey rearers
rearers have low level of education and economic The shelter/housing management adopted by
status, scientific rearing of donkeys is not practiced. donkey rearers are presented in Table 1.
Hence, to ascertain the present status of adoption
behaviour of the donkey rearers on various donkey It could be observed that 33.75 per cent of
management practices in Tamil Nadu this study was donkey rearers only were providing pucca sheds /
conducted. thatched houses as shelter for the donkeys to protect
the donkeys from extreme weather conditions.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Majority of the respondents (66.25 %) did not
The study was conducted in eight districts provide shelter for donkeys and the donkeys were
of Tamil Nadu namely Vellore, Krishnagiri, dwelling in open places. The reason attributed by
Tirupathur, Thoothukkudi, Dindigul, Theni, the donkey rearers is that they are hardy animals
Tiruvallur, Tiruchirappalli which were having and there is no need for providing shelter. Likewise,
cement flooring in donkey sheds was adopted by a
meagre 13.75 per cent of farmers. It was observed disease. In addition, it was inferred that only 12.50
that only 10 per cent farmers provided adequate per cent of donkey rearers were deworming their
covered floor space of 50 sq.ft per donkey in the donkeys with dewormers for round worms. Majority
sheds. It was observed that 80 per cent of farmers of the donkey owners (58.75%) preferred traditional
provided some of feeding/watering troughs and herbal treatment practices for treating ailment like
bowls either in the sheds or in the open area. wounds, respiratory infections etc., in donkeys.
Only sixteen per cent of the respondents preferred
Feeding management allopathic treatment by nearby veterinarians for
It was evident that more than three-fourth their donkeys. It was of utmost importance to know
(77.50 %) of the respondents were feeding bran and the constraints which hinder adoption of scientific
ragi and oilcakes to their donkeys. It was observed practices in order to strengthen and follow-up
that cent per cent of the respondents were allowing extension activities (Singh et al, 2016). It was
their donkeys for grazing in and around the farm/ reported that incidence of Tetanus was high leading
shed area for roughage intake. Only 5 per cent of to mortality in donkeys. The reason attributed is due
the donkey rearers were procuring/cultivating green to due to harness, saddle and other wounds leading
fodder and feeding to their donkeys. None of the to infection which needs immediate attention.
donkey rearers fed mineral mixture to the donkeys.
It was observed that donkeys used for loading Utility of donkeys
purpose were fed with bran and oil cake whereas The Utility of donkeys is very significant and
others were maintained only on grazing. Donkeys the various purposes for which donkeys are utilized
are natural browsers and will graze up to 16 hours a are presented in Table 3. It could be observed that,
day on a diet of high fibre plant material. forty per cent of the donkey rearers were purely
owning the donkeys as pack animals for draught
Health management purpose to carry load like salt, manure food items
It could be seen that majority (85.0 %) of donkey etc. The donkeys were used for transporting
rearers were providing special care to pregnant goods and farm manure in hilly and plain terrain,
animals., whereas the remaining 15.0 per cent were respectively. Donkey continue to be increasingly
of the opinion that the mother donkey will take of its important as alternative draught animals in the
own needs during pregnancy. It was observed that small holder sector (Hagmann and Prasad, 1995).
more than three fourth of donkey rearers were not It was revealed and observed that donkey rearers
vaccinating the donkeys against Rabies and tetanus in nearby big towns and cities namely Thiruvallur
Table 2. Health management practices adopted. N=160

Sr. No. Variable Adopters Non-Adopters
A. General Health management Frequency Percent Frequency Percent

1. Health care to pregnant animals 136 85.0 24 15.0
2. Rabies Vaccination 35 21.88 125 78.22
3. Tetanus Vaccination 0 0 160 100.00
4. Deworming 20 12.50 140 87.50
5. Ectoparasitic application 25 15.70 135 84.30
6. Traditional Herbal treatment practices 94 58.75 66 41.25
7. Veterinary Consultancy 26 16.25 134 83.75

Table 3. Utility of donkeys N=160

Sr. No. Utility of donkey Frequency Percentage
1. Pack animals for draught purpose 65 40.63
2. Milch animals for milk 45 28.13
3. Breeding purpose 17 10.63
4. Both breeding and milk purpose 33 20.63
and Trichy were rearing donkeys purely for Majority of the donkey rearers did not vaccinate
milk purpose. Donkey milk has a long history of their donkeys against rabies and tetanus and they
medicinal and cosmetic usage and in recent years, adopted traditional practices for treating wounds
young entrepreneurs are venturing into donkey and other ailments. It was observed that majority
farming with an intention to freeze dry the donkey of the donkey rearers maintained their animals for
milk and incorporate in cosmetics like facial draught purpose to transport goods, food items and
creams, lotions, skin creams, shampoo, ointments manure, while the remaining donkey owners reared
and market the produce. The fastest rate of adoption donkeys for milk and breeding purpose. The donkey
of innovation stems from authority decisions (Seth rearers need to be imparted knowledge on breeding,
et al, 2018) and hence government institutions need feeding, health management and marketing through
to promote the utility value of donkey milk based capacity building programmes.
on their study trials. One tenth of the respondents
especially from Krishnagiri district were donkey REFERENCES
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donkey rearers were maintaining the donkeys, for Sci 90 (6): 837–841.96: 1–14
both breeding and milk purpose. It was observed Singh D, Lal N, Khode N V and Yadav R (2016). Constraints
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at the rate of Rs.150 - 200 per 100 ml of milk to practices in KVK adopted and non-adopted villages in
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administration to infants.
Delphine V (2015). Invisible workers: The economic
contribution of working donkeys, horses and mules to
CONCLUSION livelihoods. Report of the Brooke foundation, London:
The donkey population has decreased 1-23.
considerably in Tamil Nadu due to increase in Hagmann J and Prasad V L (1995).Use of donkeys and
the usage of motor vehicles for transporting their draught performance in smallholder farming in
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various diseases like tetanus, rabies and other 239.https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02250700
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Krishi Vigyan 7(1): 1-3.
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A B (2020). Cultural “Blind Spots,” Social Influence
did not provide adequate shelter to the donkeys, and the Welfare of Working Donkeys in Brick Kilns in
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With regard to the health management, the donkey fvets.2020.00214 PMCID: PMC7201042
rearers provided special care to pregnant animals. Received on 23/12/2022 Accepted on 10/4/2023

J Krishi Vigyan 2023, 11 (2) : 5-10 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2023.00003.X
Bio-efficacy of different New Insecticidal Molecules

and Botanicals against Hadda Beetle, Henosapilachna
vigintioctopunctata on Brinjal
Mahendra1, V S Acharya2, Rukshana3 and Bishana Ram4
Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture,
Swami Keshwanand Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner 334006 (Rajasthan)
ABSTRACT
The present study was conducted to find out the bio-efficacy of different new molecules and botanicals
against Hadda beetle, Henosapilachna vigintioctopunctata on brinjal during Rabi, 2017-18 at Research Farm,
College of Agriculture, Swami Keshwanand Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner. The evaluation of
bioefficacy of nine new molecules and botanicals against Henosapilachna vigintioctopunctata revealed that
the treatment spinosad (0.02%) proved to be most effective in reducing the pest population followed by
indoxacarb (0.001%), emamectin benzoate (0.002%) and quinalphos (0.05%). Cartap hydrochloride (0.1%)
and malathion (0.1%) were in moderate in efficacy. Khimp extract (5%) proved least effective followed by
garlic extract (5%) and NSKE (5%). The decreasing order of efficacy of the tested chemicals was spinosad,
indoxacarb, emamectin benzoate, quinalphos, cartap hydrochloride, malathion, NSKE, garlic extract and
khimp extract.
Key Words: Bio-efficacy, Botanicals, Hadda beetle, Brinjal, Spinosad, Khimp
INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS
Brinjal (Solanum melongena L.) is an important Present investigation on bio-efficacy of new
vegetable crop of tropical and subtropical region. insecticidal molecules / botanical against hadda
It contains good amounts of many essential beetle, H. vigintioctopunctata was conducted on
B-complex groups of vitamins such as pantothenic brinjal (variety Br-112) at the Research farm,
acid (vitamin B5), pyridoxine (vitamin B6), College of Agriculture, Swami Keshwanand
thiamine (vitamin B1) and niacin (B3). The Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner during
management of H. vigintioctopunctata was based Rabi, 2017-18. The experiment was laid out in a
on synthetic pesticides due to their quick and simple randomized block design with ten treatments
knock down action (Jagan Mohan, 1985; Ghosh, including control (untreated), each replicated
1986; Samanta et al, 1999; Liu et al, 2003). The thrice. The seedlings of brinjal were transplanted
frequent and indiscriminate application of these in the field in the last week of November during
pesticides in the vegetable fields has resulted into Rabi, 2017-18 in the plots measuring 3.0 x 3.0 m2
widespread development of resistance, undesirable keeping 0.60 and 0.50m row to row and plant to
effects on non-target organisms, presence of plant distance, respectively. The recommended
toxic residues in food, environmental and health package of practices was followed for raising the
hazards (Subramanyam and Hagstrum, 1995). The crop. The spraying of insecticides was done based
ecological factors existing in the crop eco-system on the status of pest population. A tentative ETL
play an important role in bionomics, distribution of of 3-4 grubs/ adults per plant was taken for spray
the pest and also in its management. decision. Two sprays of each treatment were applied
1
Ph. D (Ag) Scholar, 2Associate Professor, 3M.Sc (Ag) 4M.Sc (Ag)

Bio-efficacy of different New Insecticidal Molecules and Botanicals
Table 1. Bio-efficacy of new insecticidal molecules and botanicals against grubs of hadda beetle, H.
vigintioctopunctata on brinjal during Rabi, 2017-18 (First spray).
Sr. Treatment Conc. Mean per cent reduction in grub population Mean
No. (%) 3 DAS 7 DAS 10 DAS 15 DAS
1 Indoxacarb 14.5 SC 0.001 74.63 83.46 77.57 56.97 73.15
(59.89) (66.34) (61.92) (49.03)
2 Spinosad 45 SC 0.02 76.22 85.14 79.20 58.39 74.73
(61.09) (68.01) (63.22) (49.89)
3 Emamectin benzoate 5 SG 0.002 71.68 80.52 74.63 54.00 70.20
(57.90) (63.93) (59.82) (47.30)
4 Quinalphos 25 EC 0.05 70.98 79.66 73.87 53.64 69.53
(57.45) (63.26) (59.31) (47.10)
5 Cartap hydrochloride 50 SP 0.1 50.96 59.63 53.85 35.94 50.09
(45.62) (50.81) (47.34) (36.59)
6 Malathion 50 EC 0.1 49.70 58.53 52.64 34.39 48.81
(44.79) (50.04) (46.54) (35.49)
7 NSKE* 5.0 31.27 40.01 34.18 15.15 30.15
(33.90) (39.20) (35.70) (22.59)
8 Khimp (Leptadenia 5.0 26.53 35.44 29.50 13.29 26.19
pyrotechnica) Extract (30.77) (36.43) (32.72) (20.90)
9 Garlic cloves Extract 5.0 30.15 38.91 33.07 14.96 29.27
(33.23) (38.56) (35.05) (22.45)
10 Control - 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
S.Em± - 3.23 3.40 3.25 3.29 0.0
CD(0.05) - 9.60 10.13 9.68 9.79 0.0
Figures in parenthesis are angular transformed values, DAS = Days after spray, *Neem Seed Kernel
Extract
for controlling this pest using Knap-sack sprayer, taken for further statistical analysis to determine
second spray was done twenty one days after first and compare the efficacy of pesticides used in
spray. The quantity of water @ 400 l/ha was used these treatments. The data obtained 1- day before
in each spray. Pre- treatment count of hadda beetle and 3-, 7-,10- and 15-days after spray were taken
was done by counting the number of damaging into consideration to find out the per cent reduction
stages of the insect pests viz., grubs/ adults which in grubs and adults of hadda beetle as per method
were recorded on 5 randomly selected plants from given by Henderson and Tilton (1955) referring it
each replication 1-day before spraying. Similarly to be a modification of Abbott’s formula (1925).
post treatment observations were recorded after 3-, The statistical analysis (analysis of variance) of the
7-, 10- and 15-days of spraying from 5 randomly data was carried out by transforming the per cent
selected plants from each treatment including the reduction data into angular transformation values
control. One top, one middle and one bottom leaf (Gomez and Gomez, 1976).
/ plant were randomly selected for counting the The above botanicals locally available in the
population. The average of these 5 observations vicinity were collected in appropriate quantities and
in each replication before and after treatment was brought into the laboratory. Plant sap of collected

Table 2. Bio-efficacy of new insecticidal molecules and botanicals against grubs of hadda beetle, H.
vigintioctopunctata on brinjal during Rabi, 2017-18 (Second Spray).
Sr. No. Treatment C o n c . Mean per cent reduction in grub population Mean
(%) 3 DAS 7 DAS 10 DAS 15 DAS
1 Indoxacarb 14.5 SC 0.001 71.69 79.04 69.33 55.79 68.96
(57.96) (62.97) (56.46) (48.34)
2 Spinosad 45 SC 0.02 73.25 80.68 70.87 57.20 70.5
(59.07) (64.34) (57.51) (49.19)
(56.04) (60.81) (54.59) (46.62)
4 Quinalphos 25 EC 0.05 68.09 75.32 65.78 52.48 65.41
(55.65) (60.27) (54.23) (46.43)
(43.91) (48.20) (42.53) (35.86)
6 Malathion 50 EC 0.1 46.76 54.12 44.40 33.22 44.62
(43.05) (47.41) (41.65) (34.73)
7 NSKE *
5.0 28.35 35.64 26.02 13.98 25.99
(32.06) (36.59) (30.53) (21.59)
8 Khimp (Leptadenia 5.0 23.55 30.99 21.18 12.10 21.95
(31.36) (35.94) (29.82) (21.45)
10 Control - 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 -
S.Em± - 2.226 3.282 3.239 3.344 -
CD(0.05) - 9.59 9.75 9.63 9.94 -
Figures in parenthesis are angular transformed value
DAS = Days after spray
*Neem Seed Kernel Extract
material was extracted with juice extracting and second spray of insecticides and botanicals,
machine by adding water as needed and was soaked respectively. All the treatments were found
overnight in sufficient quantity of water. Then significantly superior over untreated control. The
filtered through muslin cloth and stored in capped minimum reduction was recorded in khimp extract
bottles under room temperature. The volume was (26.53 and 23.55%), garlic extract (30.15 and %
made up by adding the required quantity of water 27.23) and NSKE (31.27 and 28.35%) treated plots
to get 5 per cent solution (Kumar et al, 2000). which were found at par to each other, whereas,
Sandoval at one ml per liter of spray solution was the maximum reduction was recorded in the plots
also used as surfactant. treated with spinosad (76.22 and 73.25%) followed
by indoxacarb (74.63 and 71.69%), emamectin
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION benzoate (71.68 and 68.73%) and quinalphos (70.98
The reduction in H. vigintioctopunctata and 68.09%) after first and second spray, respectively
population ranged from 26.53 to 76.22 and 23.55 however, these treatments formed a non significant
to 73.25 per cent in different treatments after first group. The present results were in conformity with

Table 3. Bio-efficacy of new insecticidal molecules and botanicals against adults of hadda beetle, H.
vigintioctopunctata on brinjal during Rabi, 2017-18 (First spray)
Sr. Treatment Conc. Mean per cent reduction in adult population Mean
No. (%) 3 DAS 7 DAS 10 DAS 15 DAS
1 Indoxacarb 14.5 SC 0.001 78.25 86.40 79.93 53.43 74.50
(62.40) (68.87) (63.61) (46.98)
2 Spinosad 45 SC 0.02 79.88 88.11 81.58 54.82 76.10
(63.73) (70.92) (65.03) (47.80)
(60.28) (66.18) (61.42) (45.27)
4 Quinalphos 25 EC 0.05 74.54 82.55 76.19 50.17 70.86
(59.75) (65.39) (60.85) (45.10)
(47.73) (52.59) (48.72) (34.40)
6 Malathion 50 EC 0.1 53.32 61.48 55.00 30.86 50.16
(46.94) (51.82) (47.93) (33.17)
7 NSKE* 5.0 34.85 42.93 36.52 11.65 31.48
(36.11) (40.91) (37.11) (19.23)
8 Khimp (Leptadenia pyrotechnica) 5.0 30.18 38.42 31.88 9.73 27.55
Extract (33.15) (38.23) (34.23) (17.34)

(35.46) (40.28) (36.47) (19.27)
10 Control - 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 -
S.Em± - 3.26 3.57 3.30 3.48 -
CD(0.05) - 9.71 10.61 9.81 10.34 -
Figures in parenthesis are angular transformed values
that of Singh et al (2009) who found spinosad by indoxacarb (83.46 and 79.04%), emamectin
benzoate (80.52 and 76.10%), quinalphos (79.66 and
and indoxacarb significantly superior over rest of
75.32%) after first and second spray, respectively
the treatments in reducing H. vigintioctopunctata.
The other treatments resulted in the middle order
which was found significantly superior over rest
in exhibiting the H. vigintioctopunctata reduction.
of the treatments. Verma et al (2010) also reported
The decreasing trend of efficacy of the tested spinosad 45 SC to be ineffective against hadda
treatments was found to be in the order of spinosad,
beetle since the population of this insect was at par
indoxacarb, emamectin benzoate, quinalphos, with those in the untreated control. The minimum
cartap hydrochloride, malathion, NSKE, garlic reduction in H. vigintioctopunctata population was
extract and khimp extract (Table 1, 2). recorded in plots treated with khimp extract, garlic
After seven days of first application, the extract and NSKE however, these treatments were
maximum reduction was recorded in plots treated found at par with each other. Similar observations
with spinosad (85.14 and 80.68%) followed have also been recorded by Mane and Kulkami

Table 4 Bio-efficacy of new insecticidal molecules and botanicals against adults of hadda beetle, H.
vigintioctopunctata on brinjal during Rabi, 2017- 18 (Second spray).
Sr. No. Treatment Conc. Mean per cent reduction in adult Mean
(%) population Mean Yield q/
3 DAS 7 DAS 10 DAS 15 DAS ha
1 Indoxacarb 14.5 SC 0.001 77.07 84.93 78.75 53.99 73.68 303

(61.56) (67.57) (62.75) (47.31)
2 Spinosad 45 SC 0.02 78.69 86.63 80.39 55.98 75.42 307*
(62.85) (69.39) (64.11) (48.45)
3 Emamectin benzoate 0.002 74.13 81.99 75.81 51.30 70.80 298
5 SG (59.49) (65.04) (60.61) (45.74)
4 Quinalphos 25 EC 0.05 73.38 81.10 75.03 49.91 69.85 291
(58.99) (64.31) (60.08) (44.95)
5 Cartap hydrochloride 0.1 53.36 61.08 55.01 34.28 50.93 286
50 SP (47.04) (51.70) (48.03) (35.16)
6 Malathion 50 EC 0.1 52.14 60.00 53.82 34.24 50.05 279
(46.24) (50.93) (47.23) (35.74)
7 NSKE* 5.0 33.69 41.47 35.35 16.84 31.83 273
(35.40) (40.05) (36.41) (22.91)
8 Khimp (Leptadenia 5.0 28.99 36.93 30.69 13.88 27.62 268
9 Garlic cloves Extract 5.0 32.57 40.37 34.24 15.98 30.79 270
(34.74) (39.42) (35.76) (23.34)
10 Control - 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 - 261
S.Em± - 3.251 3.479 3.277 3.313 - 2.4
CD(0.05) - 9.66 10.34 9.74 9.85 - 7.3
Figures in parenthesis are angular transformed values
(2010) who reported that NSKE was most effective superiority of emamectin benzoate observed during
treatment against H. vigintioctopunctata. The other the present study was in similar line with the results
treatments of cartap hydrochloride and malathion obtained by Kodandaram et al (2014) who reported
were in the middle order of efficacy. Kodandaram that emamectin benzoate recorded higher efficacy
et al (2014) revealed that cartap hydrochloride was on grubs and adults H. vigintioctopunctata. These
effective treatment in reducing the population of results were in agreement to that of Sharma and
H. vigintioctopunctata. The decreasing pattern of Kaushik (2010) who observed cartap hydrochloride
the efficacy was found to be in order of spinosad, was the most effective treatment for the controlling
indoxacarb, emamectin benzoate, quinalphos, cartap H. vigintioctopunctata. The decreasing order of H.
hydrochloride, malathion, NSKE, garlic extract, vigintioctopunctata reduction was observed in the
and khimp extract (Table1, 2). The efficacy and treatments are spinosad, indoxacarb, emamectin

benzoate, quinalphos, cartap hydrochloride, Ghosh M R (1986). Results of preliminary trial on control of
malathion, NSKE, garlic extract, khimp pest complex of brinjal. Pestology 10(1): 25.
extract(Table 1,2). The present finding were in Gomez K A and Gomez A A (1976). Problem data. Statistical
agreement with the finding of Chandranath and Proc Agric Res (2nd Ed.), John Wiley and Sons, New
Katti (2010) who have mentioned that using NSKE York, 272-315.
for the control of H. vigintioctopunctata in field Henderson C F and Tilton E W (1955). Tests with acaricides
condition were highly effective, and could be a against the brow wheat mite. J Econ Ento 48:157-161.
good alternative to chemical insecticides. Jagan Mohan N (1985). Control of Epilachna and fruit borer
on brinjal. Pesticides 19(7): 32-33.
The data (Table 4) revealed that all the treatments
Kodandarm M H, Haldar J and Rai A B (2014). New
gave significantly higher yield over control. The
insecticides molecules and entomopathogens against
maximum yield of brinjal was obtained from the hadda beetle, Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata (Fab.)
plots treated with spinosad (307 q/ha) followed by infesting vegetable cowpea. Indian J Pl Prot 42(4): 333-
indoxacarb (303 q/ha), emamectin benzoate (298 337.
q/ha) and quinalphos (291 q/ha) and these were Kumar A R V, Jayappa J and Chandrashekra K (2000).
found statistically at par to each other. The next best Relative insecticidal value: An index for identifying
treatments were cartap hydrochloride (286 q/ha) and neem trees with high insecticidal yield. Curr Sci 79 (10):
malathion (279 q/ha). The minimum yield of brinjal 1474-1478.
was obtained from the treatment of khimp extract Liu D Q, Wang S M, Xin S R and Li S Y (2003). A study
(268 q/ha) followed by garlic extract and NSKE on efficacy of different insecticides on control on egg
(273 q/ha) (Table 4). The order of effectiveness of plant, Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata (Fab). Agric
Universitatis Jeangxiensis 25(4): 574-576.
insecticides on the basis of brinjal yield was found
to be spinosad, indoxacarb, emamectin benzoate, Mane P D and Kulkami S N (2010). Bio-efficacy of neem
products against Epilachna vigintioctopuncatata Fab. on
quinalphos, cartap hydrochloride, malathion, brinjal. Green Farming 1(3): 330.
NSKE, garlic extract and khimp extract.
Samanta A, Roy P, Das A K, Majumdar D and Somchoudhary A
CONCLUSION K (1999). Bioefficacy of a new formulation of quinalphos
against insect pests of brinjal. J Interacademicia, 31(1):
The treatment spinosad (0.02%) proved to 49-52.
be most effective in reducing the pest population
Sharma S S and Kaushik H D (2010). Effect of spinosad
followed by indoxacarb (0.001%), emamectin and other insecticides against pest complex and natural
benzoate (0.002%) and quinalphos (0.05%). Khimp enemies on eggplant (Solanum melongena L). J Ento Res
extract (5%) proved least effective followed by 34(1): 39-44.
garlic extract (5%) and NSKE (5%). All the new Singh P K, Singh A K, Singh H M, Kumar P and Yadav C
molecules and botanicals increased the marketable B (2009). Insect pest of spine gourd (Momordica dioica
yield of brinjal significantly over the control. The Roxb.) and efficacy of some insecticides against the
epilachna beetle, Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata
maximum brinjal yield was recorded in the plots
(F.). J Pest Manage Econ Zool 17(1): 85-91.
treated with spinosad.
Subramanyam B and Hagstrum D W (1995). Resistance
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Abdul Afiq M J, Abdul Rahman R, Che Man Y B, AL-Kahtani management of insects in stored products. Marcel Dekker,
H A and Mansor T S T (2013). Date seed and date seed New York, 331-397.
oil. Int Food Res J 20(5): 2035- 2043. Verma K S, Kanwar R, Chandal R S and Kumar S (2010).
Abbott W S (1925). A method of computing the effectiveness Efficacy of Insecticides and biopesticides against
of an insecticide. J Econ Ento 18: 265-267. Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata (F.) on bitter
gourd in Himachal Pradesh. J Pest Manage Econ Zool
Chandranath H T and Katti P (2010). Management of 18(1/2):31-36.
Epilachna beetle on ashwagandha. Karnataka J Agric Sci
23 (1): 171. Received on 25/12/2022 Accepted on 15/3/2023


Devendra Patil, Dharmendra Patel, Sandeep Todwal and S R K Singh*
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Sehore – 466115 (Madhya Pradesh)
ABSTRACT
A farmer’s participatory field experiment was conducted during two consecutive kharif seasons of 2019–20
and 2020-21 at farmer’s fields in Bichhia village of Sehore district of Madhya Pradesh to assess the effect
of pre emergence herbicide diclosulam on weeds and growth and yield of soybean. The application of pre-
emergence diclosulam@26 g/ha gave 22.95 per cent higher seed yield as compared to farmer’s practice.
Further, application of pre-emergence diclosulam @ 26 g /ha treatment gave significantly higher pods per
plant, plant height and straw yield of soybean and significantly reduced the weed count and weed dry matter
as compared to all other treatments tested.
Key Words: Diclosulam, Herbicides, Seed yield, Soybean.
INTRODUCTION reported 90 to 100% yield losses in soybean due

Soybean, a vehicle of socioeconomic to weed competition in Canada and United States,
transformation for millions of small and marginal respectively. Weeds compete directly with soybean
farmers of central India (Dupare et al, 2009; Sharma for light, nutrients and moisture, and may exhibit
et al, 2016), is being commercially cultivated allelopathy to reduce crop growth (Lolas and
by the farmers since last 5 decades. The average Coble, 1982). Anderson and McWhorter (1976)
productivity of soybean in India although, improved reported increased seed moisture content, seed
from 426 kg/ha during early 1970 to 1,219 kg/ha in contamination and seed splits when soybean were
2016-17 (Anonymous, 2017), is stagnated at around grown in high density of weeds. To overcome
1,000 kg/ha since last few years and is a matter the deleterious effects of weeds in soybean, it is
of concern. The ecological condition of Madhya imperative that weeds population be kept below
Pradesh is congenial for soybean production, but the economic threshold level. For this purpose,
the productivity is very low in Madhya Pradesh several pre-emergence and pre-plant incorporated
as compared to national productivity of soybean. herbicides have been recommended to control the
Dhakad et al (2022) reported that the broad bed weeds in soybean crop. Pendimethalin provide
furrow sowing was significantly better in term of effective control of grass weeds, but are less effective
growth, seed index, yield and harvest index when on broad leaf weeds and sedges. Therefore, Malik
compare with normal flatbed sowing of soybean et al (2006) suggested that application of herbicides
crop. Soybean is a rainy season crop and it suffers may provide consisted weed control than single
severely due to excessive weed infestation. Weeds application of herbicide. Therefore, an on farm
are known to compete with cultivated crops for trial was conducted to assess the possibility of pre-
water, light, nutrients, space and quality of the emergence herbicides with management practices
crop produce (Muzik, 1970). For soybeans, Rao for effective weed control in soybean under Sehore
(1987) reported 76% losses in yield due to weed District of Madhya Pradesh
infestation in India. Similarly, Chandler et al (1984)
Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected]

Director , ICAR-Agricultural Technology Application Research Institute, Zone IX, Jabalpur, 466115 (Madhya Pradesh) India,

Table1. Weed species associated with soybean in On Farm Trials

Sr. No. Hindiname Englishname Botanical name Family
A Monocot weeds
1 JanglliSawan Barnyardgrass Echinochloa crus-galli Gramineae
2 JanglliSawan Wild rice Echinochloa colonum Gramineae
3 Samel Indian Crowfoot Grass Dinebra arebica Poaceae
4 Chipkani Foxtail Setaria glauca Poaceae
5 Diwalia Cynotis Cynotisaxillaris Commelinaceae
6 Bokhana Day flower Commelina benghalensis Commelinaceae
7 Motha Prplenut sedge Cyperus rotundus Cyperaceae
8 Toli Crab grass Digitariarestroflexa Poaceae
B Dicot weeds
1 Lehsua Digera Digerarvensis Amaranthaceae
2 Bhangra Mukand Eclipta alba Asteraceae
3 Jngli jute Wild jute Corchorus acutangulus Tilliaceae
4 - - Tridax procumbens Asteraceae
5 Badi dudhi Badi dudhi Euphorbia hirta Euphorbiaceae
6 Gajarghas Congress grass Parthemium hysterophorus Asteraceae
7 Jangli Choulai Prickly chafflower Achyranthes aspera Amaranthaceae
Table 2. Effect of weed management treatments on weeds in soybean.

Treatment Weed density (No/m2) Weed dry matter (g/m2)
2019-20 2020-21 Pooled 2019-20 2020-21 Pooled
T1- Post Emergence herbicide 9.07 8.4 8.74 16.92 16.67 16.79
T2- Pendimethalin 30 EC@ 3.25.l / ha (PE) 13.54 12.65 13.10 40.14 47.23 43.68
T3- Diclosulam 84 % WDG @ 26 g/ha(PE) 4.34 3.43 3.89 11.03 13.14 12.08
CD (P=0.05) 0.79 1.00 0.89 2.79 2.52 2.65
MATERIALS AND METHODS especially Zink (Zn), Sulpher (S) and Boron (B),
The present trial was conducted at 10 farmer’s soil pH rage in the scale of 7.3 to 7.8 making the
fields with soybean variety JS 9560 and JS-2034. soil fit for cultivation of wide range of crops.
Each treatment was laid out in 4000 sqm area The selected field was naturally infested with
having fairly uniform topography. The village location specific weeds. Sehore is situated in sub-
characterized by black vertisols mostly medium in tropical zone of Vindhyan Plateau of Madhya
depth, 60% area comes under medium black soil Pradesh.The average annual rainfall varies from
(30 to 60 cm depth) and about 20% deep black 1000 to 1200 mm, concentrated mostly from June
(more than 60 cm depth) and approximately 20% to September. The mean annual maximum and
shallow black soil (30 cm depth). The soils were minimum temperatures are 42.10Cand 21.20C,
low in nitrogen (N), medium in phosphorus (P2O5) respectively. The weekly meteorological data viz.,
and medium in potash (K2O). About 40 % soils rainfall, temperature, relative humidity and number
of have been reported deficient in micro nutrient of rainy days during crop season were recorded in

Table 3. Effect of weed management treatments on no. of pods/ plant and seeds/pod in soybean.
Treatment No. of pods plant-1 No. of seeds pod -1
2019-20 2020-21 Pooled 2019-20 2020-21 Pooled
T1- Apply Post Emergence herbicide 12.06 10.67 11.37 2.00 1.63 1.82
T2- Pendimethalin 30 EC@ 3.25.liter / ha (PE) 9.12 10.14 9.63 1.98 1.55 1.77
CD (P=0.05) 1.89 0.99 1.44 0.15 0.19 0.17
meteorological observatory of R.A.K. College of emergence treatment found significantly superior

Agriculture, Sehore. The crop was line sown with with respect to lowest weed density and dry
row to row spacing of 35 cm. The treatmets were weight (Table 2). Further, apply post emergence
farmer’s practice (post emergence herbicide twice) herbicide twice under also significantly reduced
viz., Fenoxaprop-p-ethyl 1000 ml+ Chlorimuron the weed count and weed dry matter as compared
ethyl 37g/ha at 15-20 DAS and Quizalofpo to Application of Pendimethalin 30 EC@ 3.25.l/ha
ethyl @ 1000 ml/ha at 35-40 days after sowing, (Singh et al, 2009). The pre-emergence application
pendimethalin@ 1000.ml/ha at pre-emergenceand of Diclosulam 84 % WDG @ 26 g/ ha was responsible
diclosulam@ 26 g/haat pre-emergence. All the for control of target weeds by inhibiting the plant
herbicides were applied manually by knapsack enzyme, Aceto Lactate Synthase (ALS). Inhibition
sprayer fitted with flat fan nozzle using spray volume of ALS stops synthesis of 3 amino acids which are
of 500 litres/ha. Soybean was sown in the last week generally active in meristematic tissue (root/shoot
of June and harvested in last week of September. tip). It is absorbed by roots and to a lesser extent
Recommended package of practices were followed shoots of germinating seedlings of weeds which
to raise the crop. The observation on weed dry matter prevents them from emerging.This affects protein
and weed count were recorded using quadrate (0.5 synthesis and cell division ultimately leading to
m X 0.5 m) at 40 DAS. Quadrate was randomly death of target weeds. Similar results were reported
placed at two places in each plot for record weed by Yadav et al (2017), Shaktawat et al (2017)and
intensity and plant population of soybean Singh et al (2009)
Yield attributes
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
All weed control treatments significantly affect
Weed density (Number/m2) and Weed dry the growth and yield attributes of soybean. It was
matter (g/m2) revealed (Table 3) that all weed control treatments
Different weeds species found during the crop significantly increased the number of pods per plant,
season were identified and were listed (Table Number of seeds per pod as compared to farmer
1). Application of diclosulam @ 26 g/ ha at pre- practice. Application of Diclosulam @ 26 g/ ha was
Table 4. Effect of weed management treatments on test weight (g) soybean.
Treatment Test Weight (g)
2019-20 2020-21 Pooled
T1 -Post Emergence herbicide 103.73 90.69 97.21
T2- Pendimethalin 30 EC@ 3.25.l / ha (PE) 101.40 90.46 95.93
T3- Diclosulam 84 % WDG @ 26 g/ha(PE) 104.20 91.34 97.77
CD (P=0.05) 1.73 0.65 1.19

Table 5. Effect of weed management treatments on Grain yield q ha-1in soybean.

Treatments Grain yield (q/ ha) Straw yield (q/ha)
2019-20 2020-21 Pooled 2019-20 2020-21 Pooled
T1- Apply Post Emergence herbicide 10.42 6.47 8.45 19.79 12.29 16.05
T2- Pendimethalin 30 EC@ 3.25.liter / ha (PE) 7.55 5.79 6.67 13.96 11.00 12.48
CD (P=0.05) 2.37 1.52 1.94 7.06 2.89 4.97
superior over rest of the weed control treatments as Economics

regards all yield attributing traits namely number of Among the weed control treatments, Diclosulam
pods plant-1 (12.82), number of seed/pod (1.99), and 84 % WDG @ 26 g/ ha pre emergence fetches the
1000 seed weight (97.7g) revealing the beneficial significantly highest net return and B: C ratio (Rs.
effect of weed free environment resulting in no 15978/ ha and1.68) followed by Pendimethalin
competition between weed and crop plant at initial 30 EC@ 3.25.l /ha pre emergence treatment. The
stage and vegetative stage of soybean. Similar lowest B:C ratio was observed under farmers
results were reported by Similar results were practice as compared to all other treatments tested.
reported by Thakare et al (2015). Application of Diclosulam 84 % WDG @ 26 g/ha
pre emergencetreatment good economic return of
Yield
yield might be reason for highest net return and B:C
The results of the study indicated that maximum
ratio. Similar findings were also reported by Singh
seed yield (10.39 q/ ha) and straw yield (21.02 q/
et al (2016) and Thakare et al (2015)
ha) were obtained with application of Diclosulam
84 % WDG @ 26 g/ ha as compared to other. Seed
CONCLUSION
yield was increased underapply twice spray of post
On the basis of two years resultsobtained from
emergence herbicide by 18.06 % over the treatment
the present on farm assessment it was concluded
of Pendimethalin 30 EC@ 3.25.l/ ha average of the
that application of Diclosulam 84 % WDG @ 26
both year. The increase in soybean seed yield with
g/ha as pre emergence gave significantly higher
applicatin of pre emergence herbicide Diclosulam
grain yield as compare to Pendimethalin 30 EC@
84 % WDG @ 26 g/ ha can be attributed to the
3.25.l/ ha and apply post emergence herbicide twice
fact that the crop was kept free of competition at
(farmer’s practice). To gain feedback of farmers are
the early critical stages of growth resulting in the
application of Diclosulam 84 % WDG @ 26 g/ha as
crop using the land and climatic resources more
pre emergence is economically as compare to apply
efficiently. Similar results were reported by Natrajan
post emergence herbicide twice (farmer’s practice)
et al (1997) and Nainwal et al (2010)
because increase cost.
Table 6. Effect of weed management treatments on Economics.

Treatments Net return (Rs/ha) B : C Ratio
2019-20 2020-21 Pooled 2019-20 2020-21 Pooled
T1- Post Emergence herbicide 7731 923 4327 1.37 1.04 1.21
T2- Pendimethalin 30 EC@ 3.25.liter / ha (PE) 17159 2150 9655 1.77 1.10 1.44
T3- Diclosulam 84 % WDG @ 26 g/ha(PE) 25104 6851 15978 2.07 1.29 1.68

Prepration of stock solution of Diclosulam Spray of Diclosulam (PE)
Weed count with Qudrate method Pod filling stage of Soybean
REFERENCES Malik R S, Yadav A and Malik R K (2006). Integrated weed

Anonymous (2017). Agricultural Statistics at a Glance. management in soybean. Indian J Weed Sci 38(1&2): 65-
Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Ministry 68.
of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare Department of McWhorter C G and Patterson D T (1979). Ecological factors
Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers Welfare 2017 affecting weed competition in soybeans In: Proceedings
Chandler J M, Hamill A S and Thomas A G (1984). Crop of World Soybean Research Conference II. (Ed.) F. T.
losses due to weeds in Canada and the United States, Corbin Westview Press inc., Colorado, USA 1979; 371-
WSSA, Champaign, IA, USA. 205 392
Dhakad S S, Ambawatia G R and Mahajan K C (2022). Muzik T J (1979). Weed biology and control. McGraw Hill
Effect of broad bed furrow system on growth, yield and Book Company. New York, USA.
economics of rainfed soybean. J Krishi Vigyan 10 (2):78- Nainwal R L, Saxena SC and Singh V P (2010). Effect of pre
81. and post emergence herbicides on weed infestation and
Dupare B U, Billore S D, Joshi O P and Verma S K (2009). productivity of soybean. Indian J Weed Sci 42(1&2): 17-
Transformed post-soybean introduction farming scenario 20
in Madhya Pradesh. Soybean Res 7: 51-56. Natrajan S, Kuppusam G and Panneerselvam S 1997). Effect
Lolas P C and Coble H D (1982). Non-competitive effect of of different weed control practices in irrigated soybean.
Johnson grass on soybean. Weed Sci 30: 588-593. Madras Agri J 84(11-12): 162-165.

Rao J V 1987). Weed management in oil seed crops. In: Singh S P, Singh V P, Nainwal R C, Tripathi N and Kumar
Advances in Weed Science (Ed. RA Shad). Proceedings A (2009). Efficacy of diclosulam on weeds and yield of
of the Pak-IndoUS Weed Control Workshop, NARC, soybean. Indian J Weed Sci 41 (3&4) : 170-173.
Islamabad, March 11- 14, 1987, 213-219 Thakare S S, Deshmukh J P, Shingrup P V and Pawar P M
Shaktawat R P S, Somvanshi S P S, Singh H P, Chundawat G (2015). Efficacy of different new herbicides against weed
S, Singh D and Kulmi G S 2017). Assessment of weed flora in soybean . Ghlop Pl Archives 2015; 15 (1):217-220
management treatments on yield of soybean and its weeds Yadav R, Bhullar M S, Kaur S, Kaur T and Jhala A J 2017).
in malwa plateau zone of Madhya Pradesh. Progressive Weed control in conventional soybean with pendimethalin
Res – An Int J 12 (IV) : 2622-2624 followed by imazethapyr + imazamox/quizalofop-p-
Sharma P, Dupare B U and Patel R M 2016). Soybean ethyl. Canadian J Pl Sci: 2016-0123
improvement through research in India and socio-
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economic changes. Legume Res 39 (6): 935-945
Singh M, Mourya J, Verma A K, Chouhan S S and Gour C L
(2016). Assessment of weed control treatments on yield
of soybean at tribal Jhabua hills zone of Madhya Pradesh.
Int J Agri Sci Res 6 (6): 23-28.

Constraints Faced by the Farmers and Researchers about Crisis

and its Management Practices in South Gujarat
S R Kumbhani , R M Bhuva and C K Timbadia *
Department of Agricultural Extension and Communication,
NMCA, NAU, Navsari, Gujarat, India
ABSTRACT
The present study was carried out in six districts of South Gujarat. Paddy, Mung, Tomato and Banana crops
were taken under the present study. Total 18 talukas and 18 villages which possessed the highest area under
respective crops were selected purposively. A lottery method of randomization was adopted to get 5 growers
of the village for each crop. In this way, 20 farmers from the village and 60 from the district were selected
as respondents. In all, 360 crop growers were selected as respondents for the study. Further, 48 researchers
were randomly selected from six districts. Thus, total sample size was 408 for study. Unavailability of
quality seed at the time of sowing, high price and non-availability of chemical fertilizers, scarcity of labours
during critical operations, high occurrence of pests and diseases in the crop and failure of crop due to heavy
rainfall were the major constrains faced by the farmers and researchers. Therefore, improved and certified
seed should be provided by Government at proper time, provide chemical fertilizer in subsidized rate and in
required quantity, improved implements should be developed for the field operation, crop integration helps
to mitigate pests and diseases problems and formulation of contingency plans well in advance to cope with
the crisis situation were the major suggestions given by the respondents.
Key Words- Constraints, Crisis, Growers, Management, Suggestions.
INTRODUCTION production of crop. It is therefore, expected that

The crisis in Indian agriculture, which has been respondents should have perfect knowledge and
building up for decades, is not one of declining active adoption of advisable crisis management
profitability but of non-viability of the bulk of practices in crop cultivation. Therefore, to increase
landholdings. A crisis is a major, unpredictable the knowledge and adoption of farmers about crisis
event that threatens to harm an individual or management practices in crops, one should know
organization and its stakeholders. Although crisis about the constraints faced by them. Keeping this in
events are unpredictable, they are not unexpected. view, the present study was undertaken to identify
Crisis can affect all segments of society and are the constraints faced by the farmers and researchers
caused by a wide range of reasons. The practice of about crisis and its management practices in South
crisis management involves attempts to eliminate Gujarat.
technological failure to avoid or to manage crisis
situations. Crisis management consists of skills MATERIALS AND METHODS
and techniques required to assess, understand, Ex-post-facto research design was used in the
and cope with any serious situations, especially present investigation. Paddy, Mung, Tomato and
from the moment it first occurs to the point that Banana crops were taken under the present study.
recovery producer start. The men made as well The present study was carried out in six districts
as environmental factors play pivotal role on the of Gujarat state viz, Navsari, Surat, Valsad, Tapi,

*Vice Chancellor, Gujarat Natural Farming & Organic Agricultural University, ATIC, Anand, Gujarat, India

Constraints Faced by the Farmers and Researchers
Table 1. Distribution of the farmers and researchers according to constraints experienced by

them. (n=408)
Sr. No. Constraint F % Rank
1. Unavailability of quality seeds at the time of sowing 329 80.63 I
2. High price and non-availability of chemical fertilizers 311 76.25 II
3. Scarcity of labour during critical operations 297 72.79 III
4. High occurrence of pest and disease in the crops 289 70.83 IV
5. Failure of crop due to heavy rainfall 281 68.87 V
6. Lack of information about future aberrant weather conditions 265 64.95 VI
7. Problem of storage due to pest and disease 258 63.23 VII
8. Non-availability of technical knowledge about crisis situation 233 57.10 VIII
9. Falling prices of Agricultural commodities 224 54.90 IX
10. Yellowing of seedlings in rice at nursery stage 216 52.94 X
11. Reduction in Agricultural subsidies 213 52.20 XI
12. No facilities like farm ponds check dam etc. for storage of the rainwater 185 45.34 XII
13. Unavailability of irrigation water at critical stages of crop 162 39.70 XIII
14. Conversion of agricultural land for alternative uses 148 36.27 XIV
Bharuch and Narmada of South Gujarat region were RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
approached and dominated areas for all four crops
Constraints faced by the farmers and
were identified. Three talukas from each district
researchers about crisis and its management
which possessed highest area under respective crops
practices
were selected purposively. Further, same procedure
The data collected from the respondents
was followed to get one village from each talukas.
were compiled and arranged in light of the stated
In all, 18 talukas and 18 villages were selected
objectives.
from study area. At the end, a lottery method of
randomisation was adopted to get 5 growers of the The data (Table 1) indicated that 80.63 per
village for each crop. The crop wise lists prepared cent of the farmers and researchers reported the
and 8 researchers were randomly selected from the constraint unavailability of quality seed at the time
each district. In all, 48 researchers were selected of sowing and ranked at the first position, followed
as respondents for the present study. In all, 360 by the constraint high price and non-availability of
farmers and 48 researchers, so total sample size chemical fertilizers and scarcity of labours during
were 408 selected as respondents for the study. The critical operations which were faced by 76.25 and
data were collected by using the personal interview 72.79 per cent farmers and researchers ranked at
method. The respondents were asked to mention second and third position respectively. Furthermore,
the constraints and suggestions. The opinions about the constraint, high occurrence of pests and diseases
the constraints and suggestions were summed up in the crop, failure of crop due to heavy rainfall,
and converted into frequency and percentage. The lack of information about future aberrant weather
rank was given to each constraint and suggestion by conditions, the problem of storage due to pest and
putting them in descending order. disease, non-availability of technical knowledge
about crisis situation, falling prices of agricultural

Table 2. Distribution of the farmers and researchers according to their suggestions to overcome the
constraints. (n=408)
Sr. Suggestion F % Rank
No.
1. Improved and certified seed should be provided by Government at proper 315 77.20 I
time
2. Providing chemical fertilizers in subsidized rate and in required quantity 298 73.03 II
3. Improved implements should be developed for the field operation 289 70.83 III
4. Crop integration helps to mitigate pest and disease problems 278 68.13 IV
5. Formulation of contingency plans well in advance to cope with the crisis 272 66.66 V
situation
6. Appropriate and accurate forecasting/ forewarning techniques developed 256 62.74 VI
7. Effective control measures for storage pests should be developed 249 61.02 VII
8. Timely training about improved technology for mitigate crisis 288 55.88 VIII
9. Value addition to crops for ensure higher income 216 52.94 IX
10. Training should be imparted on spraying of FeSO4 to control the yellowing 211 51.71 X
of seedlings
11. Subsidy and concessions given to agriculture sector should be increased 209 51.22 XI
12. More financial support should be made available for farm ponds and water 176 43.13 XII
harvesting
13. Protective irrigation during critical stages 161 39.46 XIII
14. Government should not acquire fertile agricultural land for SEZs 124 30.39 XIV
commodities, yellowing of seedlings in rice at be provided by the Government at the proper

nursery stage, reduction in agricultural subsidies,time and ranked at the first position, followed by
no facilities like farm ponds check dam etc. for providing chemical fertilizers in subsidized rate and
storage of the rainwater, unavailability of irrigation
in required quantity, improved implements should
water at critical stages of crop, and conversion ofbe developed for the field operation and it was faced
agricultural land for alternative uses were faced by 73.03 and 70.83 per cent and ranked at second
by 70.83, 68.87, 64.95, 63.23, 57.10, 54.90, 52.94,and third position, respectively. Furthermore,
52.20, 45.34, 39.70 and 36.27 per cent of the crop integration helps to mitigate pest and disease
farmers and researchers ranked at fourth, fifth, sixth,
problems, formulation of contingency plans well in
seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh, twelfth, advance to cope with the crisis situation, appropriate
thirteenth and fourteenth position, respectively. and accurate forecasting/ forewarning techniques
developed, effective control measures for storage
These results were in line with the findings of Zala
(2008), Trivedi (2009), Gohil (2010) and Tavethiya pests should be developed, timely training about
(2018). improved technology for mitigate crisis, value
addition to crops for ensure higher income, training
Suggestions from the farmers and researchers should be imparted on the spraying of FeSO4 to
to overcome the constraints control the yellowing of seedlings, subsidy and
The data (Table 2) show that the 77.20 per concessions given to agriculture sector should be
cent of the farmers and researchers expressed the increased, more financial support should be made
suggestion that improved and certified seed should available for farm ponds and water harvesting,

protective irrigation during critical stages and REFERENCES

government should not acquire fertile agricultural Durgga R V (2009). Crisis management practices adopted in
land for SEZs were suggested by 68.13, 66.66, dairy farming by the farmers of Anand district of Gujarat.
Thesis Ph.D. Anand Agricultural University, Anand.
62.74, 61.02, 55.88, 52.94, 51.71, 51.22, 43.13,
39.46 and 30.39 per cent and ranked at fourth to Gohil G R (2010). Crisis management adopted by cotton
growers of south Saurashtra agro climatic zone. Thesis
fourteen position, respectively. These results were Ph.D. Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh,
in line with the findings of Durga (2009), Trivedi Gujarat.
(2009), Sonawane and Jyoti (2017) and Tavethiya Sonawane, H. P. and Jyoti, Walke (2017). Constraints faced in
(2018). adoption of recommendations of tomato crop by tomato
growers. Gujrat J Ext Edu 28(1): 189-191.
CONCLUSION Tavethiya B H (2018). Crisis management adopted by castor
Major constrains faced by the farmers and growers of north Saurashtra region of Gujarat. Thesis
researchers about crisis and its management practices Ph.D., Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh,
Gujarat.
in crops were; uunavailability of quality seed at the
time of sowing, high price and non-availability Trivedi M K (2009). Crisis management practices adopted
in cumin cultivation by the farmers of north Gujarat.
of chemical fertilizers, scarcity of labours during
Thesis Ph.D., Yashwant Rao Chavan Maharashtra Open
critical operations, high occurrence of pests and University, Nashik, Maharashtra.
diseases in the crops and failure of crop due to Zala P K (2008). Crisis management practices adopted in con
heavy rainfall were the major constrains reported cultivation by the farmers of Kheda district of Gujarat
by farmers and researchers in relation to crisis and state. Thesis Ph.D., Anand Agricultural University,
its management practices in crops. Whereas major Anand, Gujarat.
suggestions given by the farmers and researchers to Received on 8/2/2023 Accepted on 18/4/2023
overcome constraint were; improved and certified
seed should be provided by Government at proper
time, providing chemical fertilizers in subsidized
rate and in required quantity, improved implements
should be developed for the field operation, crop
integration helps to mitigate pest and disease
problems and formulation of contingency plans
well in advance to cope with the crisis situation.

Constraints Faced in Adoption of Yield Maximizing Technologies

by Pulse Growers
Noorjehan A K A Hanif*, V Dhanushkodi1 and N Tamilselvan2
ICAR- KVK, Vridhachalam, Cuddalore (Tamil Nadu Agricultural University)
ABSTRACT
Pulses in India are considered as poor man’s protein. Pulses contain higher level of vegetable protein
compared to any other grains and vegetables. The net availability of pulses has come down from 60 gm/
day/person in 1951 to 53 gm/day/person in 2017. Therefore, the present study was attempted to assess the
constraints in adoption of yield maximising pulse technologies as perceived by the farmers of Tiruchirappalli
district which would be essential for future planning by the policy makers to meet the farmer needs and
enhance the production and productivity of pulses. A total of 200 farmers @ 50 farmers per category of
pulse crop were surveyed for the study using simple random sampling technique and purposive sampling.
Percentage analysis and Garrett ranking method were used to compute the data. It is evident from the study
that more than 90 per cent of the farmers perceived lack of knowledge on pests and disease management, lack
of guidance on marketing, non-cooperation among farmers, exploitation by input dealers /private agencies
as prime constraints. By Garrett ranking method of analysis, the first five ranked factors of constraints
faced by the pulse growers are pest and diseases (78.465) ranked first followed by poor marketing guidance
(75.385), lack of technical know-how (75.05), low market price/price fluctuation (74.735), exploitation
by input dealers /private agencies (71.255). Conducting a greater number of extension activities, training
programmes, awareness programmes and the use of ICT tools along with mass media will certainly minimise
these constraints thereby reducing the yield gap in pulse production.
Key Words: Constraints, Garrett ranking, Growers, Pulse, Technologies, Yield.
INTRODUCTION the location specific suitable new varieties of seeds

Pulses in India are considered as poor man’s to minimise the gap of requirement and availability
protein. The area under pulses in India was 23 million of pulses in the countries. (Sinha et al, 2019).
hectares (2003-04) with an annual production of Production of pulses and its consumption
15 Mt has been increased to 29.00 mha in the year are important in maintaining food security. They
2017-18 with production of 25.23 Mt. However, occupy an important place in the human diet. Pulses
productivity has been increased from 635Kg/ha to contain higher level of vegetable protein compared
841 Kg/ha over the mentioned period under study to any other grains and vegetables. People of
(DAC & FW, GOI, 2017-18). The net availability different income groups in both rural and urban
of pulses has come down from 60 g/day/person in areas consume pulses at varying levels to fulfil their
1951 to 53 g/day/person (Indian Council of Medical nutrition requirements. Pulses are very popular
Research recommends 65 g/day/capita) in 2017 and important cash crops growing successfully
(DAC & FW, GOI 2017-18). Therefore, there is a throughout the year in India. Cultivation of pulses
need to identify the gaps in the present strategy to helps to maintain soil fertility through nitrogen
increase the area under pulses and also to develop
Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected] *Associate Professor Agricultural Extension KVK, Cuddalore.
1
Asst Professor (Soil Science & Agrl. Chemistry), ADAC & RI, Tiruchirappalli (Tamil Nadu Agricultural University)
2
Prof (Agronomy) and Head, Dept of Agronomy, AC & RI, Thiruvannamalai (Tamil Nadu Agricultural University)

Constraints Faced in Adoption of Yield Maximizing
fixation. Pulses are also a profitable crop for farmers. category of pulse crop were surveyed for the study.
They are cultivated in many parts and consumed in Percentage analysis and Garett ranking method
all parts of the world (Amutha, 2011). were used to compute the data.
The common reason for low productivity is The required data pertaining to the constraints
due to low area coverage (41%). Non-adoption faced in the adoption of yield maximising
of Di Ammonium Phosphate (DAP) spraying and technologies in pulses cultivation by farmers was
excessive weed growth was also reported for low gathered. Constraints were identified and farmers
productivity by equal number (18%) of respondents. were asked to rank the problems proposed to them.
Use of poor quality seeds (farmer-owned seed) was Garrett’s Ranking Technique provides the change of
the problem of 9 per cent of the sampled farmers order of constraints and advantages into numerical
for the low productivity. For improving pulse scores. The prime advantage of this technique over
production, the important techniques adopted simple frequency distribution is that the constraints
by the sampled farmers are maintenance and are arranged based on their severity from the point
evaluation of germ plasm (23%), usage of quality of view of respondents (Zalkuwi et al, 2015).
seeds (21%) and use of organic, inorganic and bio- Hence, the same number of respondents on two
fertilizers (18%) of the farmers while 14% of them or more constraints may have been given different
reported that identification of varieties to suit rice- ranks. Garrett’s formula for converting ranks into
fallow condition, dry land condition, and inter-crop percent is as below:
conditions was adopted by the sampled farmers. Percent position = 100 * (Rij – 0.5)/Nj
(Amutha, 2011). Therefore, the present study was
attempted to assess the constraints in adoption of Where, Rij = rank given for ith constraint by jth
yield maximising pulse technologies as perceived individual;
by the farmers of Tiruchirappalli district, which Nj = number of constraints ranked by jth individual.
would be essential for future planning by policy The per cent position of each rank will be
makers to meet the farmer’s needs and enhance the converted into scores referring to the table given
production and productivity of pulses. by Garrett and Woodworth (1969). For each
factor, the scores of individual respondents will
MATERIALS AND METHODS be added together and divided by the total number
The study was conducted in Tiruchirappalli of respondents to whom scores will be added.
district where Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Sirugamani These mean scores for all the constraints will be
is situated. Simple random sampling technique and arranged in descending order; the constraints will
purposive sampling were employed to draw the be accordingly ranked.
samples for the study. As area of operation of KVK
Sirugamani covers the whole district, all the pulse Constraints in adoption of yield maximizing
(red gram, black gram, green gram and horse gram) pulse technologies
growing 14 blocks were selected for the study. The Garrett ranking technique has been used to
Two villages in each block were selected based on analyse various factors influencing the production
the area under cultivation of pulses and totally 28 of pulses by the respondents. The respondents
villages from the 14 blocks were selected based on were asked to rank the ten factors identified for
Random Sampling method.The major pulse crop the purpose of this study as 1, 2, 3, 4 ...........10
growers viz., Black gram, Red gram, Horse gram in order to know their preference in the selection
and Green gram under marginal and small farmer of constraints. The calculated percentage position
category @ 25 farmers from each category were for the rank 1, 2, 3......10 and their correspondent
selected. A total of 200 farmers @ 50 farmers per Garrett table as shown in Table 1. For factors, the

Table 1. Percentage positions and their corresponding Garrett Table values.

Rank Percentage position Garret table score
1 100 (1-0.5)/10 5 82
2 100 (2-0.5)/10 15 70
3 100 (3-0.5)/10 25 63
4 100 (4-0.5)/10 35 58
5 100 (5-0.5)/10 45 52
6 100 (6-0.5)/10 55 48
7 100 (7-0.5)/10 65 42
8 100 (8-0.5)/10 75 36
9 100 (9-0.5)/10 85 29
10 100 (10-0.5)/10 95 18
total score is calculated by multiplying the number were Problems faced by the sampled farmers in
of respondents ranking that factor as 1, 2, 3,,,,,, and pulses cultivation and marketing by Amutha (2011).
10 Garrett and Woodworth (1969). Lack of knowledge in mechanisation to overcome
a shortage of skilled labour and higher wages is
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION another problem in pulse production. The results
The data (Table 2 and 3), it was evident that are in consonance with the findings of Zalkuwi et
more than 90 per cent of the farmers perceived lack al (2015) and Ginigaddara and Lankapura (2018).
of knowledge on pests and disease management, Among the ten factors of constraints faced by the
lack of guidance on marketing, non-cooperation pulse growers (Table 4), pests and diseases (78.465)
among farmers, exploitation by input dealers/ ranked first followed by poor marketing guidance
private agencies, lack of knowledge on chemicals (75.385), lack of technical know-how (75.05), low
with their doses and method of application, lack market price/price fluctuation (74.735), exploitation
of knowledge on weed management, lack of by input dealers /private agencies (71.255) as the
knowledge on soil health management and lack of fifth rank. Lack of cooperation among farmers
knowledge on scientific method of storage as the (69.00), shortage of labour (59.43), inadequate
major constraints in adoption of yield maximising farm credit (56.89), poor storage facility (41.385)
technologies in pulses. and inadequate research and extension support
The finding coincides with Zalkuwi (2011) who (25.50) were the other ranked factors of constraints
stated that the overall production cost increases as indicated by the sample farmers in the study area.
due to expenses incurred for pest and disease In the study area, the farmers cultivated pulses
management. Price fluctuations by 42 per cent, either as rice fallow or sole crop with limited
inadequate transport facilities and the high cost of investment to reap more profit and hence showed
transport were stated to be the problem by 17 per cent lesser interest in gaining knowledge about pest and
collusion among traders and reduction of prices by disease management technologies or to mitigate
the traders were also reported as a problem (16%)

Table 2. Constraints faced by the Pulse growers in adoption of yield maximising technologies in
Tiruchirappalli district. (n=200)
Sr. No. Constraint Frequency Percentage
1. Ignorance about improved varieties 129 64.5
2. Lack of knowledge on improved cultivation practices 131 65.5
3. Non-availability of suitable varieties seeds 147 73.5
4. Non-availability of Farm Yard Manure 164 82
5. No timely supply of inputs either from Department or Institutions 177 88.5
6. Lack of knowledge on seed treatment 169 84.5
7. Lack of knowledge on soil health management 186 93
8. Lack of knowledge on chemicals with their doses and method of 195 97.5
application
9. Lack of knowledge on weed management 193 96.5
10. Lack of knowledge on pests and disease management 199 99.5
11. Lack of knowledge on crop boosters 163 81.5
12. Lack of knowledge on mechanization in pulses 158 79
13. Lack of knowledge on scientific method of storage 184 92
14. Non-cooperation among farmers 197 98.5
15. Exploitation by input dealers /private agencies 196 98
16. Lack of guidance on marketing 198 99
them. This can be managed by imparting regular of intermediaries and protection from frequent price
training and hands on materials be distributed to the fluctuations would still make the contract growing
farmers on pet and disease management practices system/rented land system more appropriate.
in pulses. This in turn will improve technical Another major constraint was lack of
knowledge on pulses cultivation and enhance their cooperation among farmers in the cultivation of
yield and net income. YMV resistant varieties of black gram, green gram
Farmers also complained of less market price/ or sterility mosaic resistant red gram varieties for
price fluctuations compared to other crops, which the reason that their knowledge level and adoption
resulted in less profit as compared to other crops, rate are low. Shortage of labour was the existing
that is why they prefer other crops which have reality to carry out the cultivation practices in time.
minimum support price in market. However, this The findings are in line with Kumar et al
can be overcome by suitable alterations in the (2010) who revealed that among the technological
sowing/planting time or adjusting sowing time in constraints, lack of knowledge about seed rate,
such a way so that early harvest can be taken and spacing, sowing date was ranked I on the basis
remunerative returns can be fetched. Conversely, of mean percent score (MPS 92.50) followed
few growers believed that non-existence of number by lack of knowledge about seed treatment and

Table 3. Constraints faced by the Pulse growers in adoption of yield maximising technologies in
Tiruchirappalli district. (n=200)
Sr. No. Constraint faced in pulses cultivation Constraints Per cent
1. Lack of knowledge on pests and disease management 99.5
2. Lack of guidance on marketing 99
3. Non-cooperation among farmers 98.5
4. Exploitation by input dealers /private agencies 98
5. Lack of knowledge on chemicals with their doses and method of application 97.5
6. Lack of knowledge on weed management 96.5

7. Lack of knowledge on soil health management 93
8. Lack of knowledge on scientific method of storage 92
9. No timely supply of inputs either from Department or Institutions 88.5
10. Lack of knowledge on seed treatment 84.5
11. Non availability of Farm Yard Manure 82
12. Lack of knowledge on crop boosters 81.5
13. Lack of knowledge on mechanization in pulses 79

14. Non-availability of suitable varieties seeds 73.5
15. Lack of knowledge on improved cultivation practices 65.5
16. Ignorance about improved varieties 64.5
lack of knowledge about insect pest and disease regulated market was ranked I (57.0), weak research-
management were ranked II and III with an overall extension-farmer linkage was ranked II (52.0) and
MPS of 88.75 and 82.75 respectively. the third in order to this was the non-availability
Another study by Sinha et al (2019) found of suitable extension material, leaflets etc (41.1)
that major socio-economic constraints perceived to adopt the better package and practices by the
by the farmers related to their socioeconomic farmers were the Institutional constraints. Among
conditions were low profit, high cost of inputs the infrastructural constraints, non-availability of
followed by the non-availability of credit in time HYV seeds of pulses and non-availability of plant
& high cost of labour ranked I, II, III & IV with an protection chemicals were the two major constraints
overall garret score were 69.8, 65.4, 60.9 & 44.4 perceived by the sample farmers as institutional
respectively. Under technological constraints, lack constraints.
of knowledge about seed rate, spacing and sowing Similar findings of Sharma et al (2020) revealed
date was ranked I on the basis of garret score (66.6) that, the top five major challenges experienced by
whereas lack of knowledge about insect pest and off season vegetable growers in block Majri of
disease management and lack of knowledge about Mohali district are high cost of inputs like seed,
seed treatment were ranked II and III with an fertilizers, sarkanda grass etc. (77.30), high price of
overall score of 62.0 and 54.0 respectively. Lack of rented land (67.06), pest and diseases (62.50), low
26
Table 4. Factors for Constraints in adoption of yield maximizing pulse technologies– Garret ranking method
Sr. No. Factor Rank Total Total Total Rank
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 number score mean
of
farmers
1. Pest and diseases 151 32 17 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 200 15693 78.465 I
2. Lack of technical Know how 104 67 22 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 200 15010 75.05 III
3. Shortage of labour 0 0 96 77 19 8 0 0 0 0 200 11886 59.43 VII
4. Inadequate farm credit 6 5 68 41 34 29 17 0 0 0 200 11378 56.89 VIII
5. Poor marketing guidance 102 82 9 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 200 15077 75.385 II
6. Low market price/price fluctuation 97 72 31 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 200 14947 74.735 IV
7. Poor storage facility 0 0 0 0 48 35 27 51 39 0 200 8277 41.385 IX
8. Lack of cooperation among farmers 0 175 20 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 200 13800 69.00 VI
J Krishi Vigyan 2023, 11 (2)

9. Exploitation by input dealers /private 85 44 31 28 12 0 0 0 0 0 200 14251 71.255 V
agencies
10. Inadequate research and extension 0 0 0 0 0 0 18 19 66 97 200 5100 25.50 X

support
market price/price fluctuation (61.83), shortage of Psychology and Education. Vakils, Feffer and Simons
labour (54.63). Besides these other challenges like Pvt. Ltd., Bombay p329.
stray wild animals (45.06), the perishable nature of Ginigaddara GAS, Lankapura AIY. (2018). Farmer’s
produce/poor storage facility (38.50), damage from Perspective on Importance and Constraints of Seaweed
Farming in Sri Lanka. Curr Investigations in Agric and
frost (34.43), inadequate research and extension Curr Res 3(1):286-290.
support (28.33) and lack of know how (24.33) were
Khuvung Z, P Mishra, B Jaswanth Naik (2022). Constraints
found to be limiting factors for off season vegetable faced by the farmers in adoption of recommended
cultivation. Khuvung et al (2022) revealed that cultivation practices of Maize (Zea mays) in the State of
non-availability of quality seeds (I rank) followed Nagaland. J Krishi Vigyan 11 (1): 35-38
by high pest and disease incidence (II rank), lack of Kumar Parveen, Rajinder Peshin, Nain M S and Manhas J S
proper financial assistance and subsidies (III rank), (2010). Constraints In Pulses Cultivation as Perceived by The
low market value for crops (IV rank), lack of result- Farmers. Rajasthan J Extn Edu 17 & 18: 33-36, 2009 & 2010
oriented training and demonstrations (V rank) were Kwaghe P S, Amaza P S, Jaafaru Furo M R (2014). The
the major problems expressed by the farmers. These relationship Between Social Factors and Poverty
findings are similar to that of the findings of Biswas Experienced by Farming Household in Borno State,
Nigeria. Global J of Agric Sci 8(2):119-126.
et al (2017), Marbaniang and Pasweth (2017) and
Marbaniang E K and Pasweth D (2017). Demographic
Oinam & Sudhakar (2014).
characteristics and constraints faced by farmers in West
Khasi Hills district. J Krishi Vigyan 6(1): 45-49.
CONCLUSION Oinam T and Sudhakar B (2014). Constraints faced by the
It was concluded that pulses cultivation is farmers in adoption of improved paddy practices in
perceived as an essential livelihood option by all Bishnupur district of Manipur state. Int J Econ Business
the farmers throughout the year. Seed production Rev 2(7). e-ISSN: 2347-9671. p-ISSN: 2349-0187.
in pulses fetches a higher market price than other Sharma, Munish, Priyanka Suryavanshi and Yashwant
crops with lesser capital investment possible only Singh. (2020). Garrett’s ranking analysis of constraints
when the farmers are technically expert in the latest influencing off season vegetable growers in District
Mohali. J Pharma and Phytochem Sp 9 (2): 46-49
technologies. There are variations in the type of
constraints that farmers faced related to their ability Sinha, Puja, Meera Kumari, Sandeep Kumar and Ramnath
Kumar Ray. (2019). Constraints in pulse cultivation
to comprehend the problem. To minimise economic perceived by the farmers of Tal Land in Patna District
loss due to these constraints, key stakeholders of Bihar, India. Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci 8(8): 2991-
should take suitable steps to remove the constraints 2997
identified. Conducting a greater number of extension Suryavanshi, Priyanka, Kaur H, Munish Sharma, Yashwant
activities, training programmes, awareness Singh. (2019). Impact of improved production technologies
programmes, use of ICT tools along with mass in greengram through frontline demonstrations. J Pharma
media will certainly minimise these constraints and Phytochem SPI: 118-120.
thereby reducing the yield gap in pulse production. Zalkuwi J. (2011). Comparative analysis of technical
efficiency of sole sorghum and sorghum mixed with
cowpea production systems in Guyuk local Government
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Singh OP, Dayakar Rao. (2015). Analysis of Constraints
Biswas P K, Das R and Sangtam S (2017). Production Influencing Sorghum Farmers Using Garrett’s Ranking
constraints of maize cultivation under Mokokchung Technique; A Comparative Study of India and Nigeria.
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Garret HE and Woodworth RS. (1969). Statistics in


Tarun Kumar Das
Subject Matter Specialist(Agricultural Extension)
KVK, ICAR,West Garo Hills,Meghalaya
ABSTRACT
The impact of climate change in agriculture depends on the level of vulnerability. This study shows the level
of vulnerability in agriculture on rural farmers due to climate change and its variability in the Cooch Behar
district of West Bengal. The approach estimates the vulnerabilities index in terms of exposure, sensitivity
and adaptive capacity. The data are based on a survey of 200 farm households through a personal interview,
complemented with secondary data on temperature, relative humidity and rainfall. Results of the study
showed that relative exposure of the study area was 0.62; whereas the average sensitivity value was 0.33
and the aggregated adaptive capacity was 0.28. As a result, the study area showed a considerable subsistence
level of vulnerability. Results show that Tufanganj block was the most exposed region to climate change
vulnerability in respect of flood than Cooch Behar block.
Key Words: Agriculture, Adaptive capacity Climate, Exposure, Sensitivity, Vulnerability.
INTRODUCTION Exposure’s threats is without delay linked to the

India, being a developing country, is also going fame of human settlements and the ecosystems on
to be majorly impacted by climate change. The which they depend on the ocean and the affected
impact will be more profound because of the heavy regions (Smit and Wandel, 2006). Sensitivity is
dependence on agriculture by a large percentage more or less equivalent to exposure and its depends
of the population. Climate change and variability on the number of people, their infrastructure
pose a serious threat to the agriculture sector as and the ecosystems exposed to the hazard, and
the sector is highly volatile towards any change level of dependendent on natural resources of the
in climatic parameters. Climate change impacts considered population (Tuler et al, 2008). Adaptive
are observed directly on agriculture and indirectly capacity for human populations is dependent on
impacted on social aspects such as poverty, a range of factors related to access to assets. The
education, pollution and health. Morton (2004) capacity danger because of weather trade and
noted that some of the most important impacts of variability does not rely most effective on climatic
climate change in developing countries will be parameters however also varies as according to the
felt by the category of people, mostly referred to inherent vulnerability of the arena itself. The risk
as smallholder farmers. India is predominantly on due to climate change and variability is not best
a smallholder in agriculture and 90 per cent of the a characteristic of climatic variability and change
farmers have their farm holdings being less than 2 however also equally a function of the vulnerability
ha in size and producing under rain-fed conditions. of the elements, which might be uncovered to
Vulnerability to climate change depends on the rate climate exchange threat.
of change of the climate and the extent to which Agriculture is the arena most susceptible to
a system is exposed, its sensitivity, and adaptation climate exchange because of its high dependence on
capacity (IPCC 2007; FAO 2009; UNEP 2009). weather and weather situations. Weather alternate is

the primary challenge for agriculture, meals security village were randomly selected for the present study
and rural livelihoods for hundreds of thousands of to constitute the total 200 numbers of agricultural
human beings in India. Appropriate knowledge producer’s respondents. The approach estimates
application is critical for mitigating the adverse the vulnerabilities index in terms of exposure,
effects of climate change(Saravanan et al, 2021). sensitivity and adaptive capacity.
Agricultural structures which might be currently
problem to intense climatic inter-annual variability Exposure
(drought, flood, storms, and many others.) are It is operationalized as risks that have a
probable to end up even extra prone beneath the probability to impact on assets and livelihoods
maximum usually predicted scenarios of climate and measured by frequency and severity of
alternate (elevated temperatures, increased rainfall natural disasters over the last 10 years based on
variability). This sector is specially susceptible to the perception of the community members; and
gift-day climate variability. Hence, an attempt was variability in climatic parameters over the last 10
made to investigate the vulnerability to climate years or more (Standard deviation was calculated
alternate inside the Cooch Behar district of West on monthly basis). Frequency and severity of
Bengal. natural disasters viz., landslide, earthquake, flood,
drought and cyclone over last 10 years were
MATERIALS AND METHODS measured. Variability in climatic parameters viz.,
To research with a good methodological average monthly minimum temperature, average
perspective multi-stage, purposive and random monthly maximum temperature and average
sampling procedures were followed in the present monthly precipitation over the last 10 years or more
study. The Cooch Behar district of West Bengal was were represented by the standard deviation of these
selected for the study purposively. In the district indicators over the last 10 years or more.
Cooch Behar, the blocks Cooch Behar – II and Sensitivity
Tufanganj –I was purposively selected due to the It is operationalized as the susceptibility of
availability of diversified and innovative farmers assets and household conditions to previous risks.
for accessing the information services related to The assets and household conditions which may be
climate change in agriculture and allied sectors. directly affected by climate extremes like the nature
Four villages namely Chilakhana and Maruganj of housing, sanitation, drinking water facilities
under Tufanganj –I block and Singimari Pachimpar and food access were taken into consideration.
and Pedbhata Chandanchowra villages under Cooch Sensitivity creates a feeling of negative impact,
Behar – II block were randomly selected to carry out measured the contributing variables with a positively
this study. According to the information received directional scale; viz. more the scale value, less the
from the village, Singimari pachimpar has 355 sensitivity(IPCC, 2007). So, the sensitivity score
numbers of households, Pedbhata chandachowra was obtained by deducting the aggregated score
has 357 numbers of households, Chilakhana has from a standard value (1.00 in the present study).
351 households and Maruganj has 365 numbers Percentage of houses made of wood or brick
of the household. An exhaustive list of agricultural concrete, percentage of families having latrines,
producers from each household was prepared with percentage of families having safe drinking water
the help of the local people, local administrators (connected with pipeline or deep tube well) and
(Panchayat Pradhan), block-level agriculture percentage of families having square meal per day
extension officials and Krishi Vigyan Kendra throughout the year was the indicator variables for
(KVK), Cooch Behar. So from the exhaustive list, housing sensitivity, sanitation sensitivity, drinking
50 numbers of agricultural producers from each water sensitivity and food sensitivity respectively.

Adaptive capacity The value of VI varies from -1 (least vulnerable) to

It is the capability and situation of the community +1 (most vulnerable) and is grouped as:
which directly or indirectly resists risks or creates Sustainable (VI ranges from ̶ 1 to ̶ 0.34), Subsistence
resilience to risks. It is represented by the aggregated ((VI ranges from ̶ 0.33 to 0.33) and Vulnerable ((VI
values of the literacy level of the community (per ranges from 0.34 to 1).
cent of household heads having at least primary
education), occupational stability in the community The data were based on a survey of 200
(per cent of families having a stable occupation), farm households through a personal interview,
access to a social organization (per cent of families complemented with secondary data on temperature,
having membership of social organizations like a relative humidity and rainfall for 10 years since
youth club, farmers’ club, self-help groups, etc.), from 2010 to 2019. Different statistical tools such
the economic stability of the community (per cent as frequency, percentage and Chi-square etc are
of families having surplus income i.e. saving after used for analyzed the collected data.
expenditure) and community skill on disaster/
climate risk management (percentage of families of RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
which at least one member has undergone training
on disaster/climate risk management).
Data Processing and Aggregation
The present study used an index-based
approach of measurement of vulnerability which
requires the development of indices with the help
of many sub-indices and variables. This method
required the processing of data. Different variables
were measured with different types of scales (in
percentage, numbers, or scores). So, different scale
values were transformed to unitary values, wherever
necessary by the following formula
Fig 1. Variation of maximum and minimum

So, the transformed value will lie between 0 and 1. temperature, relative humidity and rainfall of
Value of exposure, sensitivity and adaptive Cooch Behar district (last 10 years)
capacity was taken as the average of transformed Source: Deputy Director of Agriculture, Cooch Behar
values of all the indicator variables under each The above figure 1. shows that there is a little
component. rise in average maximum temperature in the year
Climate change vulnerability was calculated by 2014 and 2017, whereas the average minimum
Vulnerability Index (VI). The VI was measured as: temperature rises in the year 2012. The average
VI = (E-AC) × S maximum relative humidity rises in the year 2010,
2011 and 2018, whereas the minimum relative
Where E = Exposure; AC = Adaptive Capacity and humidity risen in the years 2016 and 2017. There
S = Sensitivity. is a lot of fluctuation in the rainfall and the highest
rainfall was observed in 2013.

Table 1. Variability in climatic parameters (Monthly) of exposure to vulnerability for last 10 years
since from 2010-2019 of a selected block of Cooch Behar district
Actual Value Transformed Value
Month Max. Min. Max. Min. Rainfall Max. Min. Max. Min. Rainfall
Temp Temp Humid Humid. Temp Temp Humid Humid.
January 1.36 0.67 2.54 10.31 0.22 1.00 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.02
February 1.05 4.07 5.23 7.95 0.26 0.66 1.00 0.46 0.68 0.02
March 0.69 0.84 8.34 5.34 1.22 0.25 0.05 1.00 0.33 0.13
April 1.09 0.92 5.80 7.37 2.28 0.70 0.07 0.56 0.61 0.24
May 0.46 1.52 3.16 2.84 2.68 0.00 0.25 0.11 0.00 0.29
June 0.79 2.02 2.82 3.06 8.12 0.37 0.40 0.05 0.03 0.89
July 0.71 2.27 2.87 3.11 9.10 0.28 0.47 0.06 0.04 1.00
August 0.92 2.25 3.34 3.82 7.23 0.51 0.47 0.14 0.13 0.79
September 1.10 2.51 4.77 3.79 4.05 0.71 0.54 0.38 0.13 0.44
October 0.74 1.24 7.28 4.26 3.42 0.31 0.17 0.82 0.19 0.37
November 0.68 2.23 7.43 7.76 0.12 0.24 0.46 0.84 0.66 0.01
December 1.17 2.41 7.79 8.35 0.07 0.79 0.51 0.91 0.74 0.00
Average 0.85 2.02 5.35 5.24 3.50 0.58 0.44 0.53 0.45 0.42
Table 1 indicates the variability climatic The different indicators of sensitivity to

indicators to exposure of the study site. The above vulnerability and its transformed value. Aggregating
tables show the actual value and transformed values all the sensitivity factors, it was seen that the
of different indicators under exposure related to sensitivity value is 0.33 which indicates that the
climate change vulnerability. study area has a medium level of climate change
The data (Table 2) show different indicators of vulnerability in terms of exposure.
exposure to vulnerability and its transformed value. The Vulnerability Index (VI) advocated by Hann
Aggregating all the exposure factors, it was seen et al.(2009) and aggregating of all the components
that the exposure value is 0.62 which indicates that such as exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity,
the study area has a high level of climate change it was found that the vulnerability index of the study
vulnerability in terms of exposure. A study was area is 0.11 which indicates a subsistence level of
conducted by Botero D G and Salinas A B(2013) on vulnerability. Awolala and Ajibefun (2015) was
assessing farmers’ vulnerability to climate change: conducted a study at Nigeria on rice farmers and
a case study in Karnataka, India and recorded that the results of vulnerability index was found is 0.11
the vulnerability exposure contributing factor is
0.69. Blockwise distribution of vulnerability
component
The values( Table 3) show the different The above (Table 6) shows that 96 per cent of
indicators of adaptive capacity to vulnerability and the respondent have a low level of vulnerability
its transformed value. Aggregating all the adaptive to exposure due to climate change followed by 90
capacity factors, it was seen that the adaptive per cent of the respondent having a high level of
capacity value is 0.28 which indicates that the vulnerability to exposure. The results also indicate
study area has a medium level of climate change that block Tufanganj is high-level exposure than
vulnerability in terms of adaptive capacity.

Table 2. Various components of exposure to vulnerability and its transformed value

Component Actual value Transformed
Value
Monthly average maximum temperature variability (°C) during last 10 0.85 0.58
years
Monthly average minimum temperature variability (°C) during last 10 2.02 0.44
years
Monthly average maximum Humid variability(%)during last 10 years 5.35 0.53
Monthly average minimum humid variability(%)during last 10 years 5.24 0.45
Monthly average rainfall variability(mm) during last 10 years 3.50 0.42
Occurred number of flood, drought and hailstorm during last 10 years 6.50 0.5
Occurred land degradation by climate-related extremes and disaster 7.75 0.55
during past 10 years
The fertility status of the soil is poor 0.96 0.96
Do not have a consistent water supply 0.98 0.98
Having dependent members in family (age < 14 yrs and >65yrs) 2.90 0.41
Water scarcity experienced in a productive season 0.99 0.99
Vulnerability exposure based on the transformed value 0.62
Cooch Behar due to climate change. From the that block Tufanganj is high-level sensitivity than
value of the Pearson chi-square test (ϰ2 = 188.571 Cooch Behar due to climate change. From the
and P=0.00), it shows that it shows that exposure is value of the Pearson chi-square test (ϰ2 = 5.001 and
significant at a 1% level of significance in respect of P=0.082), it shows that it shows that sensitivity is
vulnerability to exposure significant at a 5% level of significance in respect of
The above table 7 shows that 78 per cent of vulnerability to sensitivity.
the respondent have a low level of vulnerability to
adaptive capacity due to climate change followed CONCLUSION
by 68 per cent of the respondent having a high The study exhibits that the look at area is under
level of vulnerability to adaptive capacity. The subsistence stage of vulnerability magnificence,
results also indicate that block Cooch Behar has this means that any minor alternate within the
is high-level adaptive capacity than Tufanganj due strength of exposure or sensitivity or weak point
to climate change. The value of the Pearson chi- in adaptive capacity may force the rural farmers to
square test ( ϰ2 = 78.86 and P=0.00), shows that be susceptible. Even though the village Maruganj
adaptive capacities are significant at a 1% level of is slightly more vulnerable in comparison with the
significance in respect of vulnerability to adaptive opposite three villages. Based at the findings of the
capacity. prevailing look at, it is able to be said that the study
region has a fine stage of adaptive ability but extra
The above table 8 shows that majority of the impetus must take delivery of to reduce sensitivity
respondent(104) has a medium level of vulnerability by secure housing infrastructural development,
to sensitivity due to climate change followed by 49 food safety and sanitation improvement.Efforts
per cent of the respondent having a high level of to reduce livelihood vulnerability in rural farmers
vulnerability to sensitivity. The results also indicate

Table 3. Different indicators of the component adaptive capacity to vulnerability and its transformed
value.
S r . Indicator Actual value Tr a n s f o r m e d
No. (in per cent) value
1. Access to input subsidies 87.5 0.44
2. Access to good road 86.0 0.43
3. Access to public transport 98.5 0.49
4. Owned livestock or poultry 70.0 0.35
5. Owned farming cultivated lands 95.5 0.48
6. Owned grain cribs 62.5 0.31
7. Access to radio/TV services 77.5 0.39
8. Access to cooking stove 81.5 0.41
9. Use of rainwater harvesting structure 25.5 0.13
10. Access to improved seeds/ HYV 92.0 0.46
11. A family member has taken any kind of vocational training 11.5 0.06
12. Family members are members of any cooperative society 7.0 0.04
13. Practice crop rotation 93.0 0.47
14. Practice crop diversification 54.0 0.27
15. Access to financial services to any financial institution 36.5 0.18
16. Family member working outside the village 16.0 0.08
17. Access to the nearest health center 99.0 0.50
18. Had higher education facility nearby 97.0 0.49
19. Access to mobile service 92.5 0.46
20. Access to climate change information 30.0 0.15
21. Use of drought/ flood tolerant variety 74.0 0.37
22. Use of pest/disease resistance variety 37.5 0.19
23. The practice of Soil testing 34.0 0.17
24. Application of limited dose of fertilizers 44.0 0.22
25. Good linkage with extension personal 38.5 0.19
26. Access to market information 85.5 0.43
27. Access to veterinary clinic 77.0 0.39
28. Owned improved farm power 29.0 0.15
29. Having sufficient savings to cope with an adverse situation 42.5 0.21
30. Participated in demonstration programmes 44.0 0.22
31. Participated in training programmes 65.5 0.33
32. Received good price of produce 33.0 0.17
33. Use of crop insurance 9.5 0.05
34. Use of livestock insurance 8.5 0.04
35. Vulnerability adaptive capacity based on the transformed value 0.28

Table 4. Various indicators of the component of sensitivity and its transformed value.
Sr. No. Indicator Actual value Transformed
( %) value
1. Practicing rain-fed rice farming 97 0.49
2. Productive resources i.e. land/water /animals affected by adverse 99.5 0.50
climate in last 10 years
3. No access to safe drinking water 92.5 0.46
4. Do not have a pucca housing system 45.5 0.23
5. Do not have pucca sanitation/toilet facility 49.5 0.25
6. A family member had an absence from work or school due to illness 66 0.33
in the past 6 month
7. Family members is infected by a communicable disease in the past 59.5 0.30
6 month
8. Face the problems of firewood scarcity in around the year 78.5 0.39
9. Collect water directly from rivers, streams, ponds etc. 67 0.34
10. Had loan/debt from financial institution/ friend etc. 30 0.15
11. Conflict on water (irrigation/ drinking) in the village last year. 41.5 0.21
12. Death/ injury of a family member due to climate-related disaster i.e. 1 0.01
cyclone, earthquake etc. last year.
13. Change in yield of crops 92 0.46
14. More infestation of pests and diseases 96.5 0.48
15. Vulnerability sensitivity based on the transformed value 0.33
Table 5. Climate change Vulnerability Index of the study area.

Exposure Adaptive capacity Sensitivity Vulnerability Index
0.62 0.28 0.33 0.11
Table 6. Block-wise categorization of the extent of Exposure. (Exponent is in percent)

Category Blocks Total respondent Statistical hypothesis
Tufanganj-1 Cooch Behar-2
Low 0.00 96.00 96.00 ϰ2 = 188.571* (P=0.000)
Medium 10.00 4.00 14.00
High 90.00 0.00 90.00
Table 7. Block-wise categorization of the extent of adaptive capacity. (Exponent is in percent)

Categories Blocks Total respondent Statistical hypothesis
Low 68 10 78 ϰ2 =78.862* (P=0.000)
Medium 22 32 54
High 10 58 68

Table 8. Block-wise categorization of the extent of Sensitivity. (Exponent is in per cent)

Categories Blocks Total respondent Statistical hypothesis
Low 17 30 47 ϰ2 =5.001* (P=0.082)
Medium 58 46 104
High 25 24 49
Total 100.00 100.00 200
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Saravanan K P, Manivannan A, Sivakumar T, Sakthivel K M
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Report. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

Culture of Striped Catfish Pangasianodon hypophthalmus

through Net Cages in Carp Pond under varying Stocking Density
P P Patel2; S C Timbadia1; R V Borichangar2; J G Vanza2 and H G Solanki2
College of Fisheries Science, Kamdhenu University, Navsari (Gujarat)
ABSTRACT
This study was conducted to determine optimum stocking density of Pangasianodon hypophthalmus
(Pangasius) for cage culture system installed in carp pond and evaluate its impact on carp pond productivity.
Pangasius fingerlings (weight 5.90 ± 0.26 g; length 85.9 ± 0.45 mm) were stocked in PVC net cages of size
2 m x 2 m x 1 m using varying stocking density viz., T1- 80 fishes/ m2, T2- 100 fishes/ m2, T3- 120 fishes/
m2 and T4-140 fishes/ m2 in five replicates. After 180d of culture period significantly (p<0.05) higher final
weight 613.06 ±5.684 g; length 374.8 ±3.26 mm; net gain in length 288.9±3.139 mm; ADG (Aggregate
daily weight gain) 3.36 ±0.032 g was observed in T1-80 fishes/ m2. However higher net gain in weight of
607.16 ±5.602 and SGR (specific growth rate) 2.58 ±0.009 were observed in T1- 80 fishes/m2 but there
was no significant difference (P>0.05) among T1, T2 and T3. Although higher FCE (Food conversion
efficiency) 64.43 ±0.565 % and PER (Protein efficiency ratio) 2.15±0.019 and lower FCR (Food conversion
ratio) of 1.55 ±0.014 were estimated in T1- 80 fishes/m2 but there was no significant difference among the
treatments. No significant effect was observed on survival. Significantly higher (p<0.05) yield of 136.26
±1.033 kg was obtained in T4 - 140 fishes/m2 but there was no significant difference with the yield (134.9
±1.251) kg recorded in T3 (120 fishes m-2). Significantly higher B:C ratio 1.42 ±0.013 was recorded in T3.
So, looking to the growth, yield and B:C ratio stocking density T3(120 fishes/m2) is an optimum density
level for higher economic returns. As far as nutrients and primary productivity is concerned significantly
higher NO3-N of 2.23 ± 0.288 mg/L, PO4-P of 0.26 ±0.032 mg/ L, GPP (Gross primary productivity)
of 8.48 ±1.07 g C m2 /d, NPP (Net primary productivity) of 5.71 ±0.776 g C m2 /d and CR (Community
respiration) of 2.76 ±0.353 g C m2/d were recorded in carp pond when pangasius culture through net cages
was carried out. Consequently, carp fish production about 2480 kg /0.4 ha with lower FCR of 1.23 and
higher B:C ratio of 2.06 was recorded which is about 30.60 per cent higher than the carp production of
previous years when pangasius cultured were not accompanied.
Key Words: Carp, Fish, Pond, Productivity, Stocking density.
INTRODUCTION portions, steaks, and its value-added products (Thi

Pangasiadon hypophthalmus synonym et al, 2013). Many values added products of the fish
Pangasius sutchi is familiar as tra, swai, sutchi have been accepted worldwide and are having huge
catfish, striped catfish or iridescent shark belongs to commercial importance (Lakshman et al, 2015).
family pangasidae and order siluriform. It is found It grows rapidly to 1.2 to 1.3 kg within 6-8 m of
in Chao Phraya River in Thailand and lower basin culture period but usually harvested at higher sizes
of Mekong River (Vidthayanon and Hogan, 2013). as per market availability (Gurung et al, 2016).
Now a days it is traded over 100 countries worldwide Pangasius was introduced in India during 1995-
as skinless and bone less fillets, popularly along with 96 from Thailand (Ahmed and Hasan, 2007; Rao,

2
College of Fisheries Science, Kamdhenu University, Navsari (Gujarat)
1
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari

Culture of Striped Catfish Pangasianodon hypophthalmus through Net Cages
2010) and now it is cultured extensively through for a period of 180 days in carp pond. The pond
pond culture system (Rao, 2010). Commonly, was stocked with 3000 yearlings (average size 140
monoculture of pangasius is carried out in pond and ± 5.6 mm and weight 60 ± 2.80 g) of carps’ fishes,
cages with high stocking density (FAO, 2010). In Catla, Rohu, Mrigal and Grass carp with species
pond culture system, higher yield 200-300 Mt /ha ratio of 2:4.5:2.5:1 respectively. Initially pangasius
is achieved through stocking density 20-40 fish/m2 fish were fed with standard commercial floating
(FAO, 2010). Cage culture is an intensive culture pelleted feed of 30% protein and 4-5% fat content
system operated with very high fish stocking at the satiation level of 8% of their body weight
densities (100 -150 fish /m3) and yields around 100- and subsequently the feed quantum was reduced to
120 kg/m3 using extruded pelleted feed. (Hung and 0.75% of its body weight. Growth of the pangasius
Cacot, 2000). fish in terms of total length (mm) and weight(g)
Although higher yield of pangasius is possible were estimated every month. Growth performance
in monoculture system with high stocking density parameters i.e., net weight gain, net length gain,
but net profit could be achieved through polyculture specific growth rate (SGR), aggregate daily weight
with silver carp (Sarkar et al, 2007). As a voracious gain (ADG), food conversion ratio (FCR), feed
feeder pangasius can establish dominancy over efficiency ratio (FER) and protein efficiency ratio
feeding and compete for feed with major carps in (PER) were calculated using following formulas (
polyculture system. So pangasius culture through Tok et al, 2016; Labh et al, 2017).
cages in carp pond will restrict the area of feeding In order to distinguish the effect of pangasius
for pangasius. Fecal matter and ammonia excreted culture through cage farming on carp production
by pangasius serves as manure and will have the previous two years data of carp fish production
potential to increase the natural productivity of carp along with nutrients level and primary productivity
pond. The primary productivity and its regulating of carp pond’s water were used to compare the
components are very important to consider in fish effect on carp pond productivity and production due
culture system (Sivakumar and Karuppasamy, to pangasius integration using cages. The pond was
2008). So, optimum stocking density of pangasius completely drained and dried before commencing the
fish for net cages to be installed in carp pond and crop. Sampling and analysis for physico-chemical
impact on carp production need to be evaluated. parameters and nutrients (Nitrate- nitrogen and
Phosphates-phosphorus) content of pond water was
MATERIALS AND METHODS carried out periodically on monthly basis following
The study of pangasius culture in varying standard methods (Trivedi and Goel 1986; APHA,
stocking density in carp pond was conducted for 180 1985). Primary productivity parameters viz; Gross
d during August 2019 to January 2020 in the earthen primary productivity (GPP), Net photosynthesis
carp fish pond of size 0.3 ha. and depth 7 ft. at Krishi productivity (NPP) and community respiration
Vigyan Kendra, Navsari Agricultural University, (CR) were determined through estimating dissolved
Navsari (Gujarat). Fingerlings of pangasius with oxygen using the dark-light bottle methods with 3
mean weight 5.90 ± 0.26 g and length 85.9 ± 0.45 hr of incubation period during (10:00 a.m. -1:00
mm were stocked in fabricated PVC net cages (2m x p. m.). Primary productivity was calculated based
2m x 1m) using varying stocking density viz., T1- 80 on the changing value in dissolved oxygen level in
fishes m-3, T2- 100 fishes m-3, T3- 120 fishes m-3 and initial bottle (IB), light bottle (LB) and dark bottle
T4-140 fishes m-3. The experiment was conducted (DB). The multiplication factor 0.375 was used to
in twenty experimental cages using five replicates derive carbon value from oxygen concentration
of each treatment following CRD statistical design (Sreenivasan, 1964). The gross and net productions

were calculated with the following equations significant difference (p>0.05) in SGR was recorded
outlined in Britton and Greeson (1987) among T1, T2 and T3 but significantly lower
GPP (Gross primary productivity) (O2 mg/L/hr) (p<0.05) SGR was observed in T4. As far as weight
= (Dissolved oxygen of light bottle – Dissolved gain is concerned higher value of 607.16±5.602g
oxygen in dark bottle) ÷ Incubation period× 0.375 was recorded in T1 followed by 588.36 ±5.186,
= g C/ m2 /hr. 586.84 ±4.883 and 525.12±3.467g in T3, T2 and
T4 , respectively. However, there was no significant
NPP (Net primary productivity) (O2 mg/L/hr) difference in net weight gain in T1, T2 and T3 but
= (Dissolved oxygen of light bottle - Dissolved significantly lower (p<0.05%) net weight gain
oxygen of initial bottle) ÷ Incubation period × was recorded in higher stocking density T4 (140
0.375= g C/ m2 /hr. numbers/ m3).
CR (Community respiration) (O2 mg/L/hr) = Significantly lower (p<0.05%) survival rate was
(Dissolved oxygen of initial bottle – Dissolved observed in T4. Although higher survival rate 94.58
oxygen of dark bottle) ÷ Incubation period × 0.375 ±0.0.228% was observed in T3 followed by 94.25
=g C/ m2 /hr. ±0.306, 93.7 ±0.436 % in T1 and T2, respectively.
Statistical analysis: SPSS software version- 16 There was no significant difference in survival rate
using one way ANOVA and Duncan’s multiple up to stocking density 120 numbers/m3. Similarly,
range test (P≤0.05). Jiwyam (2011) recorded more than 90% survival
rate in Pangasius bocourti under the stocking
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION density 12, 25, 50, 100 and 200 fish/ m3 indicate
Water quality parameters that pangasius fish can tolerate crowding. With
Water quality parameters viz; DO (Dissolved increasing stocking density viz; 40, 50 and up to 60
oxygen), water temperature, light penetration, pH numbers/ m . Similar to present study Azimuddin
3
and total alkalinity ranged from 3.95 to 5.50 mg/l et al. (1999) also did not find any significant effect
; 20.5 to 28.95 °C; 22-44 cm; 7.95 -8.50 and 154.5 of stocking density on survival of P. sutchi. But
-221 mg/ l , respectively and presented in Table with too much less density of 30 numbers per cubic
1. There was no significant difference (p<0.05) in meter. Datta et al (2017) also estimated 100 percent
mean value of DO, Temperature, light penetration, survival rate in Pangasius fish up to stocking density
pH and total alkalinity during three years. The 30 numbers/m . So, it may be concluded that there
3
parameters are almost observed within the range will be no significant difference in survival rate
suitable for fish culture as suggested by Bhatnagar in stocking density up to 120 numbers/m . Higher
3
and Devi (2013) for aquaculture. Light penetration weight gain, ADG and SGR in low stocking density
can be correlated with nutrient status and affected by in the present study are in agreement with Vaishnav
algal growth and turbidity. Higher light penetration et al (2017) who observed significantly higher
shows low primary productivity of phytoplankton net weight gain, SGR (specific growth rate) in P.
and results into lower fish production from the pond hypophthalmus reared in the net cage of size 3.65
(Olah et al, 1986) m X 3.65 m X 5.18 m with stocking density 2600
number (38 numbers/m3) for 60 days of culture
Growth and survival of Pangasius experiment conducted in reservoir.
Significantly higher (p<0.05) final length of
The trend of higher SGR at low density in the
374.8 ±3.26 mm; net gain in length of 288.9 ±3.139
present study may be comparable with Chowdhary
mm; ADG (aggregate daily weight gain) of 3.36
et al (2020) who observed higher SGR, weight
±0.032 g and SGR (specific growth rate) of 2.58 gain in cage farming installed in flood plains
±0.009 were recorded in T1(80 numbers/ m3). No

39
Table 1. Physico-Chemical Parameters, Nutrients Status And Primary Productivity Of Carp Pond
YEAR
June 2017- May 2018 June 2018- May 2019 June 2019- May 2020
(Without pangasius) (Without pangasius) (With pangasius in cages)
Parameters Mean± Sem Range Mean ±Sem Range Mean ±Sem Range
a a a
Dissolved oxygen (mg L-) 4.89 ± 0.117 4.15 - 5.5 4.83 ± 0.117 3.95- 5.4 4.89 ± 0.098 4.30- 5.30
a a a
Temperature (°C) 25.42 ± 0.682 21.00 - 28.95 25.53 ± 0.776 20.50- 28.85 25.71 ± 0.617 21.5-28.00
a a a
Light penetration (cm) 31.75 ± 1.632 22.00 - 40.00 32.80 ± 1.576 24.00- 42.50 31.38 ±1.728 22.00- 44.00
pH 8.27 ± 0.044 7.95 - 8.50 8.31 ± 0.031 8.15- 8.50 8.24 ±0.026 8.15-8.40
a a a
Total Alkalinity (mg L-) 181.58 ± 4.853 161 – 221 178.54 ± 4.78 154.5- 205 182.17 ±3.339 168-209
Nitrate (mg L-) 1.13b ± 0.099 0.42 - 1.57 1.14 b ±0.098 0.48- 1.59 2.23a ± 0.288 0.39-3.35
Phosphate (mg L-) 0.12 b ± 0.014 0.05 - 0.19 0.11 b ±0.01 0.07-0.19 0.26 a ±0.032 0.06-0.39
GPP g C m-2 day- 5.10 b ± 0.561 2.4 - 8.33 5.62 b ±0.608 2.48-8.85 8.48 a ±1.074 2.55-14.10
NPP g C m-2 day- 3.26 b ± 0.408 1.05 - 5.55 3.78 b ±0.447 1.65-6.00 5.71 a ±0.776 1.80-10.35
CR g g C m-2 day- 1.84 b ± 0.177 0.75 - 2.78 1.85 b ±0.184 0.68-2.85 2.76 a ±0.353 0.75-4.65
GPP- Gross primary productivity; NPP- Net primary productivity, CR- community respiration.
Mean ±S.E. superscript with same letters is not significantly different at P<0.05
Mean ±S.E. superscript with different letters is significantly different at P<0.05

Table 2. Pangasius fish growth performance in net cages under different stocking density
Growth parameters (Mean T1 (80 numbers / T2 (100 numbers T3 (120 numbers T4 (140 numbers /
±S.E.) cubic meter) /cubic meter) /cubic meter) cubic meter)
Initial length (mm) 85.90 ±0.20 85.90 ±0.20 85.90 ±0.20 85.90 ±0.20
Initial weight (g) 5.90±0.118 5.90 ±0.118 5.90 ±0.118 5.90 ±0.118
Final length (mm) 374.8a ±3.26 363b ±3.318 369.8ab ±3.171 332.8c ±2.518
Final weight (g) 613.06a ±5.684 592.74b ±4.833 594.26b ±5.223 531.02c ±3.421
Net gain in length (mm) 288.9a ±3.139 277.1b ±3.35 283.9ab ±3.171 246.9c ±2.643
Net gain in weight (g) 607.16a ±5.602 586.84a ±4.883 588.36a ±5.186 525.12 b±3.467
ADG (g) 3.36a ±0.032 3.26b ±0.029 3.27b ±0.029 2.92c ±0.09
SGR (%) 2.58a ±0.009 2.56a ±0.014 2.57a ±0.011 2.50b ±0.013
FCR 1.55a ±0.014 1.56a ±0.011 1.57a ±0.016 1.59a ±0.012
FCE (%) 64.43a ±0.565 64.07a ±0.48 63.80a ±0.625 62.71a ±0.449
PER 2.15a ±0.019 2.13a ±0.008 2.14a ±0.016 2.09a ±0.015
Survival (%) 94.25a ±0.306 93.7a ±0.436 94.58a ±0.0.228 91.64b ±0.0.268
Fish production (kg per cage) 92.46c ±1.063 111.07b ±0.814 134.9a ±1.251 136.26a ±1.033
Yield (kg per m-3) 46.23c ±1.063 55.54b ±0.814 67.45a ±1.251 68.13a ±1.033
Benefit cost ratio (BCR) 1.25 ±0.013d 1.33 ±0.009c 1.42±0.013a 1.37 ±0.09b
ADG- Aggregate daily weight gain, FCR-Food conversion ratio, FCE- Food conversion efficiency, SGR- Specific
growth rate, PER- Protein efficiency ratio
Mean ±S.E. superscript with same letters or not is not significantly different at P<0.05
Mean ±S.E. superscript with different letters is significantly different at P<0.05
at low stocking density 17 and 22 numbers/m3 with stocking density 140000 fish/ha. but there
than 25numbers/m3. Azimuddin et al (1999) also was no significant difference in growth parameters
observed significantly higher weight gain, specific in various stocking density from 80000 to 140000
growth rate in the treatment of stocking density numbers/ha.
40 fishes/m3. In the present study no significant In the present study low FCR 1.55 ±0.014 was
difference in SGR was observed among stocking recorded in T1 followed by 1.56 ±0.011, 1.57 ±0.016
density 80,100 and 120 number of fish/m3. Similar and 1.59 ±0.012 in T2, T3 and T4 respectively. But
to present study Jiwyam (2011) did not observe any significant influence of stocking density was not
significant difference in SGR of P. bocourti under observed on FCR (Food conversion ratio), FCE
higher stocking densities (50, 100, and 200 fish/ (Feed conversion efficiency) and PER (Protein
m3). But in contrast to the present study Islam et efficiency rate) may be due to similar content and
a. (2018) observed higher growth performance and type of feed. Whereas Azimuddin et a. (1999)
survival of P. hypophthalmus fry (0.19 ±0.007g) in observed significantly lower (p<0.05) FCR (Food
stocking density of 200/ m3 in net cage (4.6 x 1.5 conversion ratio) and higher (p<0.05) PER (Protein
x 1.4 m3). efficiency rate) in low stocking density (40 fishes/
Similar to the present study highest yield , Mehta m3). Vaishnav et al (2017) also recorded the effect
et al, (2018) concluded highest yield 64.4 ton /ha of stocking density over FCR and gross conversion
in cage (5 m x 5 m x 1.25 m) culture experiment efficiency. In India FCR varies from 1.1 to 1.3 under

pond culture system of P. hypophthalmus (Singh

and lakra, 2012).
conversion
GPP×100)
efficiency
(%) (FP/
2.71
3.20
3.33
Fish yield and benefit cost ratio
Higher fish production 136.26 ±1.033 kg per
cage was recorded from T4 followed by 134.9
m-2 day-)
±1.251, 111.07 ±0.814 and 92.46 ±1.063 kg from

FP (g C
0.23
0.18
0.17
T3, T2 and T1 respectively (Table 2). Fish yield

increases with increase in stocking density. About
20.13, 47.37 and 45.90% higher fish yield was
GPP (g C
FCR- Food conversion ratio; B:C ratio- Benefit cost ratio; GPP- Gross primary productivity; FP- Fish production
m-2 day-)
recorded in T2 (55.54b ±0.814 kg/m3), T3 (67.45a

8.48
5.62
5.1
±1.251 kg/m3) and T4 (68.13a ±1.033 kg/m3) than T1

(46.23c ±1.063 kg/m3) respectively. Thus, T3 and T4
were significantly high (p<0.05) yielding stocking
ratio
density but there was no significant difference

3.06
2.32
2.41
B:C
(p>0.05) between them. It may be concluded that

pangasius can thrive well in crowding condition.
FCR
1.23
1.67
1.52
Fish yield recorded in the present study is much

higher than the yield 9.080 kg/m3 recorded by
Vaishnav et al (2017) in the stocking density of 44
Catla Rohu Mrigal Grass
carp
300
190
204
numbers/m3 and 15.01 ± 0.20 kg/m3with stocking

density 25 numbers/m3 by Chowdhary et al (2020).
Species wise yield (kg)
As per Table 2 higher B:C ratio (benefit cost ratio)

466
510
435
of 1.42±0.013 was observed in T3 followed by T4,

T2 and T1 with 1.37 ±0.09, 1.33 ±0.009 and 1.25
±0.013 respectively. There was significant difference
1086
967
911
(p<0.05) in B:C ratio among the treatments.

Table 3. Carp production in 0.30 ha. earther pond
Carp pond productivity

628
260
320
Nutrients (Nitrate-nitrogen and Phosphate-

phosphorus) level of carp pond
Monthly variations in Nitrate-nitrogen and
yield
2480
1810
1987
Fish
(kg)
Phosphate-phosphorus of the carp pond’s water are

presented in table1. Nitrate-nitrogen ranged from
2:4.5:2.5:1
2:4.5:2.5:1
2:4.5:2.5:1
0.42-1.57, 0.48- 1.59 and 0.39-3.35 mg/L in the

Species
ratio
year 2017-18, 2018-19 and 2019-20, respectively.

Significantly higher (p<0.05) NO3-N of 2.23 ±
0.288 mg/L was estimated in the pond water during
the year 2019-20 followed by 1.14 ±0.098 mg/L in
Stocking
number
of fish
3000
3000
3000
2018-19 and 1.13 ± 0.099 mg/L in 2017-18. There

was no significant difference in the nitrate content
during 2017-18 and 2018-19. Similarly, Phosphate-
2019-20
2017-18
2018-19
phosphorus ranged from 0.05 - 0.39 mg/L during the

Year
study period of three years with significantly higher

(p<0.05) of 0.26 ±0.032 mg/L in 2019-20. Thus, it matter and excreta products fertilize the pond for
is estimated that about 126.09% higher phosphate higher productivity.
and 96.48% higher nitrate content were recorded
during 2019-20 than average of previous two years. Carp fish production
The increased content of nitrate and phosphate can As per Table 3 higher carp production 2480 kg
be directly associated with cage culture activities was recorded from 0.3 ha pond in the year 2019-
of pangasius in carp pond during 2019-20 since 20 followed by 1987kg in 2018-19 and 1810 kg
pangasius eat the supplementary feed voraciously in 2017-18. About 30.60 per cent higher carp
and excrete large amount of fecal and ammonia in production was observed in 2019-20 compared to
pond water mean production of previous two years. It shows
that pangasius culture system through cages in carp
Similarly, Sarkar et al (2007) observed culture pond could certainly accelerate primary
increased level of inorganic nitrate nitrogen and productivity. Higher primary productivity always
phosphate-phosphorus with increase in number of enhances the growth of planktivorous fish. Such
pangasius catfish in polyculture system. Verma and integration of fish farming would not only increase
Srivastava (2016) observed almost double quantity the carp fish production but it can also reduce FCR
of nutrients in village eutrophic pond. But P:N ratio (Food conversion ratio) 1.23 during 2019-20 from
in the present study during pangasius farming is 1.52 and 1.67 FCR of previous two years. Higher
about 1:8.5 which is ideal for primary production. benefit cost ratio 3.06 also recorded during the year
Primary productivity 2019-20 compare to 2.41 and 2.32 B:C ratio in 2017-
The data (Table 1) about GPP and NPP ranged 18 and 2018-19 respectively. Higher conversion
from 2.4 to 14.10 and 1.05 to 10.35 g C /m2 /d during efficiency 3.33 per cent was estimated in 2017-18
June-2017 to May -2020 respectively. Significantly followed by 3.20 per cent in 2018-19 and lower
higher (p<0.05) GPP 8.48 ±1.074 g C /m2 /d recorded 2.71 per cent in 2019-20. It shows that very small
in 2019-20 followed by 5.62 ±0.608 in 2018-19 portion of GPP was converted into fish production.
and 5.10 ± 0.561 g C /m2 /d in 2017-18. There was It could be increased by stocking more numbers of
no significant difference in GPP in the previous carp fish when pangasius cage culture is integrated
two years. Similarly, higher (p<0.05) NPP of 5.71 with carp culture pond. Higher production of carp
±0.776 g C /m2 /d was estimated during 2019-20. No was positively correlated with higher productivity
significant difference (p<0.05) in mean value of NPP and trophic level of pond. Sarkar et al (2007) also
in carp pond during previous two years (2017-18 & recorded positive correlation among inorganic
2018-19) of pangasius cage farming was observed. nutrients (NO3-N and PO4-P) primary productivity
Significantly higher (p<0.05) CR of 2.76 ±0.353 and fish production in pangasius and silver carp
g C /m2 /d recorded during 2019-20 of pangasius polyculture system. They also observed that when
cage farming followed by 1.85 ±0.184 and 1.84 ± fraction of pangasius fish is increased in polyculture
0.177 g C /m2 /d 2017-18 and 2018-19 respectively. system level of mean inorganic NO3-N and PO4-P
About 58.21, 62.22 and 49.19 per cent higher GPP, along with primary productivity and fish production
NPP and CR recorded respectively of pond water were also increased.
during pangasius cage farming (2019-20) than the
previous two years of without pangasius. Higher CONCLUSION
value of primary productivity directly associated Stocking density 120 numbers /m3 could be
higher value of with inorganic nutrients (Nitrate the most suitable for higher production with
and Phosphate). It shows that Pangasius fish feeds higher economic return. Moreover, integration of
voraciously on floating feeds and its faecal organic pangasius culture through cages in carp pond not

only enhance carp fish production of 30.60 per cent Pangasius_hypophthalmus/en).

higher but also lowers FCR up to 1.23 with higher Ferdoushi Z and Haque F (2006). Effect of different stocking
benefit cost ratio 3.06 of carp production system. ratio of pangasi catfish (Pangasius hypophthalmus) and
Thus, more research needs to be conducted by silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) on better water
quality maintenance in catfish farming. Pak J Biol Sci
adding inorganic nutrients (Nitrate and phosphate) 9(9):1732-1737.
extracting Azolla algal culture component through
Gurung S, Shrestha S, Karki J (2016). Value chain of
cages or pens around or between pangasius cage Pangasius (Pangasius hypopthalmus) in Rupandehi and
culture units in carp pond for maximization of carp Nawalparasi districts of Nepal. Int J Life Sci Scienti Res
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Development of Beet Greens Incorporated

Nutrient-Dense Product
Priya Yadav and Madhulika Gautam
Research Scholar, 2Associate Professor
1
Department of Home Science, Faculty of Arts, Dayalbagh Educational Institute (Deemed University),
Agra- 282005, Uttar Pradesh, India
ABSTRACT
The present study was undertaken to develop a nutrient-dense product (ladoo) using beet greens. It was
prepared with the addition of other ingredients such as Whole wheat, Bengal gram, Finger millet, White
soybean, Beet greens, and Groundnut. All ingredients were procured from the local market. Whole wheat
(25%), Bengal gram (20%), Finger millet (15%), White soybean (15%), groundnut (2%), and Beet greens
(5%) were taken for the development of ladoo. Sensory evaluation of the prepared product was done by
ten panels of judges. The prepared product with five grams of beet greens powder was highly acceptable.
Nutritional analysis of the developed product found that energy (344.4kcal), carbohydrate (58.91g), protein
(13.50g), fat (6.90 g), crude fiber (3.80g), iron (11.61mg) and calcium (652.14 mg). It can be concluded
that Nutrient dense ladoo being good sources of energy, protein, iron and calcium should be included in the
daily diet of vulnerable sections of the population. As per the sensory parameters of the developed product,
the overall product score was significantly high and acceptable for consumption.
Key Words: Beet, Children, Greens, Nutrient, Population.
INTRODUCTION and also neutralization of free radicles (Zheng and

Malnutrition is a major health issue in India. Wang, 2001), rich a source of iron than spinach
It silently destroys the future productivity of the (Joshi and Mathur, 2010). They are underutilized
nation. Thirty-six percent of children under the age due to a lack of awareness of the nutritive value of
of five years are stunted, nineteen percent are wasted, their leaves (Biondo et al, 2014). The cultivation
thirty-two percent are underweight and sixty-seven and consumption of underutilized vegetables help to
percent are anemic (NFHS-5, 2019-20). Beetroot reduce the nutritional deficiencies of the community
(Beta vulgaris L.) belongs to the Chenopodiaceae and also help to improve the socio-economic status
family and is cultivated in the south and southeast of the community. The present study was conducted
regions (77% of the total produce). The annual to develop the beet greens incorporated nutrient
yield is 30-40 t/ha, which accounts for an average dense product and compare the sensory parameters
production of 280 t (Amaral et al, 2004; Mello et al, of the developed nutrient dense product (ladoo).
2008). Beet greens are more nutritious than their
roots. They are rich in carbohydrates, protein, MATERIALS AND METHODS
fiber, iron, potassium, magnesium, copper, calcium, An experimental research design was used for
vitamin A, vitamin B6, vitamin E, and vitamin C. the present study. The research was carried out in
They contain natural antioxidants (Biondo et al, the Food and Nutrition laboratory of Dayalbagh
2014). Antioxidants inhibit the oxidation of fats Educational Institute, Agra.
Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected] and [email protected]

Table 1. Preparation of control and experimental samples of Nutrient Dense Product.

Sr. No. Ingredient Control Experimental sample
T0 T1 T2 T3
Whole wheat flour (gm) 30 25 25 30
Bengal gram flour (gm) 20 20 25 30
Finger millet flour (gm) 20 15 20 10
Soybean (white) flour (gm) 20 15 15 10
Groundnut (gm) 10 20 12.5 15
Beet greens powder (gm) - 5 2.5 5
Total 100 100 100 100
Procurements of Ingredients Preparation of Groundnut powder

Nutrient-dense product was prepared by using Groundnuts were cleaned and removed the
whole wheat, finger millet, soybean white, bengal foreign particles, roasted for till the groundnut
gram, jaggery, cardamom and refined oil which become brown, ground in the electric grinder to
were procured from the local market of Agra. The make fine flour and sieved. The flour was kept in
fresh beet greens were collected from Dayalbagh airtight container.
Sabji Mandi, Agra without any cost. They were
discarded and used for animal fodder. Preparation of Nutrient Dense Product (ladoo)
Prepared grains flour, beet greens powder and
Preparation of grains flour groundnut flour was added in required proportion.
The grains of whole wheat, finger millet, Jaggery and cardamom was added in the
soybean (white), and Bengal gram (whole) were preparation of ladoo. Four samples were prepared
sorted, cleaned, washed and soaked. After soaking, to standardize the nutrient dense product . Three
all grains were kept for germination. Germinated samples formulated with a combination of cereals,
grains and legumes were allowed for sun drying pulses, millets, and beet greens as experimental
for 4-5 d. Dried ingredients were roasted for 5-10 samples T1, T2, T3. One sample treated as control
minutes to reduce the moisture content. Roasting (T0) which was developed without incorporation of
increases the aroma of the product. Roasted grains beet greens.
were ground to a fine powder in a stainless steel
electric grinder. They were sieved and stored in air- Sensory Evaluation
tight containers for further use. Sensory evaluation is a scientific method that
helps to measure the human response to developed
Preparation of beet greens powder products. All the samples were tested by the ten
Beet greens were sorted and cleaned, thoroughly panels of trained judges. Nutrient-dense product was
washed in running water to remove adhering evaluated for various sensory quality characteristics
dirt, spread on a cotton cloth for sun drying for such as colour, flavour, taste, texture, appearance,
5-7 d, ground to a fine powder in a stainless steel and overall acceptability. Evaluation of the ladoo
electric grinder and sieved by using thin mesh. The was done on the basis of 9 points hedonic scale.
dried leaves were packed in airtight container to
incorporate into the nutrient dense product (ladoo).

Table 2. Hedonic scale and scores for organoleptic contained more ash than the control sample (1.09g).
evaluation. The energy value in the experimental sample
Sr. Rating Scores
(344.45kcal) was higher than the control sample
No. (323.02kcal). The experimental sample (58.91g)
Liked extremely 9
had more carbohydrate value than the control sample
(58.91g). The protein percentage in the control
Liked very much 8
sample was 11.25 g, whereas, in the experimental
Liked moderately 7
sample, it was 13.50 g. The fat in the control sample
Liked slightly 6 was less (5.72g whereas in the experimental sample
Neither like nor dislike 5 (6.90 g). The calcium content in the prepared
Dislike slightly 4 experimental sample (652.14mg) was more than
Dislike moderately 3 the control sample (423.22mg). The Iron content of
Dislike very much 2 the control and experimental samples were 5.04 mg
Dislike extremely 1 and 6.90 mg, respectively. When compared to the
control sample, the iron content was slightly more
Nutrient Analysis of developed product in the experimental sample, because of the addition
Nutrient analysis, i.e., total ash, moisture, of beet greens which are rich in iron. Kakade et
energy, protein, fat, carbohydrate, iron and calcium al (2015) developed the beet greens incorporated
were analyzed for both control and experimental product and found that beet greens enhanced the
samples were determined by (A.O.A.C, 2007). nutritive value of the product. Protein percentage is
Statistical Analysis increased in the beet greens incorporated products.
Statistical analysis was carried out using The above table depicted the sensory parameters
appropriate statistical methods. Mean, standard of the developed nutrient-dense product. According
deviation and ‘t’ test were used. to appearance, the experimental sample (8.10)
had more mean score than the control sample
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION (5.10). It was evident by the t value (11.81) which
The data (Table 3) in the table show the analyzed was significant at (<0.05) level. This shows that
nutritive values per 100 g of sample. developed nutrient dense product was highly
The moisture content in the control sample was acceptable with respect to appearance. The mean
less (16.32g) when compared with the experimental value of color in experimental sample (8.00) was
sample (19.05g). The experimental sample (2.45g) high than the control sample (4.90) and obtained
Table 3. Nutrient analysis of Nutrient dense product.

Sr. No. Test Parameter Units of measurement Control (T0) Experimental (T1)
Moisture g/100g 16.32 19.05
Total ash g/100g 1.09 2.45
Energy Kcal/100g 323.02 344.45
Carbohydrate g/100g 55.62 58.91
Protein g/100g 11.25 13.50
Total fat g/100g 5.72 6.90
Calcium mg/100g 423.22 652.14
Iron mg/100g 5.04 11.61

Table 4. Sensory evaluation of Nutrient product (ladoo)

Sr. No. Sensory Parameter Mean SD t value Significance level
1. Appearance Control 5.10 0.56 11.81 < 0.05
Experimental 8.10 0.56
2. Color Control 5.70 0.48 5.81 < 0.05
3. Texture Control 4.90 0.56 6.66 < 0.05
4. Aroma Control 5.60 1.34 2.49 . < 0.05
5. Taste Control 4.90 0.73 7.61 < 0.05
6. Overall acceptability Control 5.30 0.67 8.83 < 0.05
t-value (5.81) was significant (<0.05). This proves aroma,, taste and overall product sensory score
that developed nutrient-dense product (ladoo) was nutrient dense product was remarkable in the
highly acceptable by its color. As per the texture of experimental sample. Hence, the product proved
the nutrient-dense product (ladoo), the experimental to be highly acceptable for consumer consumption.
sample (7.10) had more mean score than the control This was similar to the study which was carried out
sample (4.90) which revealed the obtained t value by Gautham et al (2014), who analyzed the sensory
(6.66) was significant (<0.05). This reveals the qualities of the developed product sample by using
developed product is good in texture. According the nine point hedonic scale. The result revealed
to the sensory score of aroma, the experimental that the processed composite flour (foxtail millet,
sample (7.00) obtained more mean value than the wheat, chick pea) based products were significantly
control sample (5.60) which is evident by the t accepted at the level of <0.05 level.
value and found significant at (<0.05). This reveals
the developed product is good and acceptable CONCLUSION
with respect to aroma. Taste of the nutrient-dense It can be concluded that Nutrient dense product
product scored high mean score in the experimental being good sources of energy, protein, iron and
sample (8.00) than the control sample (4.90), calcium should be included in the daily diet of
obtained t value (7.61) indicated the findings which vulnerable sections of the population. It fulfills the
was significant at (<0.05) level. This proves that 3/4th nutritional requirement of children. As per the
the developed product is highly acceptable by its sensory parameters of the developed product, the
taste. The overall acceptability of nutrient-dense overall product score was significantly high which
product , the experimental sample (8.20) had is highly acceptable for consumption.
more mean value than the control sample (5.30). It
was evident by the t value which is significant at REFERENCES
(<0.05). The overall product score was significantly Amaral A S, Anghinoni I and Deschamps F C (2004). Resíduo
high which is highly acceptable for consumption. de plantas de cobertura e mobilidade dos produtos da
dissolução do calcário aplicado na superfície do solo.
It was observed that appearance, texture, colour, Revista Brasileira de Ciência do Solo, 28(1), 115-123.

A.O.A.C. (2007). Official Methods of Analysis of the Kakade S B, Hathan B S and Vs N (2015). Utilization of
Association of Analytical Chemists. 16th Edition, Beetroot (Beta vulgaris L .) leaves powder in cereals
Washington DC. based extruded product . Int Res J Engineer and Technol
Biondo P B F, Boeing J S, Barizão É O, de Souza N E, 2(3), 2153–2161.
Matsushita M, de Oliveira C C, Visentainer J V (2014). Mello D F, Franzolini R, Fernandes L B, Franco A V M and
Evaluation of beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.) leaves during Alves T C (2008). Avaliação do resíduo de nabo forrageiro
its developmental stages: A chemical composition extraído da produção de biodiesel como suplemento para
study. Food Sci and Technol 34(1), 94–101. bovinos de corte em pastagens. Revista Brasileira de
Gautham L, Chaturvedi N and Gupta A (2014). Development Saúde e Produção Animal 9(1), 45-56.
of micronutrients rich homemade extruded food products National Family Health Survey- 5, 2019-20 (2020, 4 January)
with the incorporated of processed foxtail millet, wheat International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai,
and chickpea. Indian J Community Health 26(02). Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of
Joshi P and Mathur B (2010). Bioavailability of iron from India. Retrieved from http://rchiips.org/NFHS/factsheet_
the leaf powders of dehydrated less utilized green leafy NFHS-4.shtml.
vegetables. Asian J Experi and Biological Sci 1(4), 845- Zheng W and Wang S Y (2001). Antioxidant activity and
854. phenolic compounds in selected herbs. J Agric and Food
Chem 49(11), 5165-5170.

Determinants of Scientific Knowledge Gain on

Goat farming among Schedule Caste
Bimal P Bashir1*, Chethan G N2, Alimudeen S3, Arul Sabareeswaran T A3, Induja T R3,
Anjali K Babu1 and Senthil Murugan S4
Department of Veterinary and Animal Husbandry Extension Education and Department of Animal
Nutrition, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Pookode, Wayanad.
Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Wayanad – 673576
ABSTRACT
Goat farming forms a vital enterprise among rural socio-economic weaker section. Training on goat
farming imparts knowledge on improved practices and also aid in building new entrepreneurs. The study
was conducted at department of Veterinary Extension Education in connection with the training organized
under ICAR-SC sub-plan in the year 2021-2022 at Department of Animal Nutrition, College of Veterinary
and Animal Sciences, Pookode, for the goat farmers and aspirant entrepreneur among scheduled caste
people of Wayanad. The objective of the study was to find out the determinants of scientific knowledge
gain on goat farming among schedule castes of Wayanad district. An ex-post facto research design was
adopted for the study and altogether, 123 respondents who undergone training were selected for the study.
The overall knowledge score were identified by using teacher-made knowledge test with specific questions
on breeds, housing, breeding, common disease, health, feed and nutrition of goats. The findings were, more
than one half of the respondents (53.66%) were in between the age of 36 yr to 50 yr, more than 60 per cent
of the respondents were women, most of the respondents (42.28 %) were educated up to high school and
majority (63.41%) of the respondents belonged to agricultural labourer category having up to 0.04 ha. of
land. Large majority (94.31%) of the respondents were not attended any training so far and among them
majority (76.42) of the respondents were inexperienced in goat farming. Among various socio-economic
variables, age, education, flock size, experience, mass media exposure and cosmopolites were found to be
significantly correlated with knowledge gain. These identified determinants must be given due consideration
while conducting trainings for goat farmers in future.
Key Words: Entrepreneur, Farming, Goat, Knowledge, Schedule Caste, Training.
INTRODUCTION one hand and the feed resources for large ruminants
The demand for meat, milk and fiber is are decreasing due to shrinkage of grazing lands on
increasing progressively and expected to further the other. This demand can, therefore, be met with
rise in future in view of sizable increase in per capita by increasing population of goats. Moreover, goat
income and health consciousness of people. Goats rearing in India are mainly done by the economic
contribute milk, meat, fiber, skins and manure to weaker and rural poor.
the subsistence of small holders and landless rural The goat population in India according to 2019
poor. Importance of goats lies in the fact that human livestock census were 148.88 million, showed an
population is increasing very rapidly creating increase of 10.10 per cent over the previous census.
increasing demands for animal protein foods on the
*Corresponding author email: [email protected]
1,4
Assistant Professor
2
Ph.D Scholar
3
M.V.Sc. Scholar

Determinants of Scientific Knowledge Gain on Goat farming
The goat populations in Kerala according to 2019 possible impact of training. Keeping this in view,
livestock census were 1.36 million, of which a study was conducted to find the determinants of
District of Wayanad holds 45,365 goats which is scientific knowledge gain on goat farming among
about 3.33 per cent of the goat in the state. The best Schedule Caste of Wayanad District of Kerala.
way for empowering rural poor and weak factors
are by encouraging goat husbandry. The present MATERIALS AND METHODS
study was conducted at Wayanad district of Kerala. An ex-post facto research design was adopted
Scheduled castes are sub-communities that for the current study. During the financial year
have traditionally endured adversity, persecution, 2021-2022, Department of Animal Nutrition,
and considerable social isolation in India due to College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences,
their perceived ‘poor status’. According to the 2011 Pookode, Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences
census, scheduled castes account for 16.6 per cent University organized 5 training programmes for
of the total population in India. Whereas, scheduled the scheduled caste people of Wayanad who
caste account for 9.1 per cent of the total population engaged actively in goat farming and budding
of Kerala. In case of Wayanad district, 3.99 per cent entrepreneurs. All the beneficiaries (participants)
of the population in the district is of scheduled caste were selected purposively for the present study
(SC). A study has been mentioned that among the which makes a total of 123 (N=123) respondents.
goat keeping farmers of northern Kerala (Kannur, It was pretested among non-sampling population
Malappuram and Kozhikode) only 6.90 per cent and necessary modifications were made before
were belongs to Scheduled caste (Bashir and actual data collection. The data were collected by
Venkatachalapathy, 2017). Hence, introducing the researcher through personal interview from the
goat rearing practice among scheduled caste of the beneficiaries of the training programme.
region was suggested for economic empowerment Profile of the trainees including family
in the region. details and possession of land were collected and
The training is systematized tailor made descriptive statistical analysis was done to describe
programme to suit the needs of a particular group the socio-personal profile. The overall knowledge
for developing certain knowledge, attitudes, actions, score were identified by using teacher-made
skills and abilities in individuals irrespective of their knowledge test. The test was developed to measure
functional level (Shelly, 2020). For introducing goat the knowledge level on various aspects like breeds,
rearing among scheduled caste, need based training housing, breeding, common diseases, health, feed
programmes were very essential at field conditions and nutrition of goats. Questions on knowledge
(Bashir et al, 2017c and Bashir et al, 2019). Since about goat rearing practices were formulated based
training programme should start from knowledge on the package of practices published by Kerala
level of the farmers, the first step would be to Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Kerala
understand where the farmers stand with respect and considering the training curriculum. The
to any concerned enterprise or practice. Moreover, knowledge statements were pre-tested in a non-
scientific knowledge gain on goat farming sampling area and finalized based on the experience
among the trainees needs to be assessed and the gained in pre-testing. One mark was given for every
determinants which influence the knowledge gain correct answer. Score obtained from each area of
need to be identified. Identifying the determinant of expertise were summed up to the total knowledge
knowledge gain also will help the training organizers score of the participants. The pre and post training
in improving quality of future trainings, setting knowledge scores were utilised to analyse the
criteria for selection of trainees and also to predict overall knowledge gain. On the basis of score
obtained, the trainees were categorised as highly

Table 1. Distribution of respondents according to the selected characteristics (N=123).

Variable Category F Percentage
Gender Male 49 39.84
Female 74 60.16
Age Old (50 and above yr) 38 30.89
Middle (between 35 to 50 yr) 66 53.66
Young (below 35 yr) 19 15.45
Educational Illiterate 17 13.82
qualification Primary 33 26.83
High school 52 42.28
College 21 17.07
Experience in years Least (No experience) 94 76.42
Less (1 to 5 yr) 26 21.14
Experienced (5 to 10 yr) 2 1.63
Highly experienced (above 10 yr) 1 0.81
Occupation Agricultural labourer 83 67.48
Agriculture and AH 7 5.69
Employed in organized Sector 6 4.88
Employed in unorganized sector 5 4.07
Unemployed 22 17.89
Family type Nuclear family 84 68.29
Joint family 39 31.71
Family size Below 5 84 68.29
Above 5 39 31.71
Whether rearing goat? Yes 29 23.58
No 94 76.42
Land holding Landless 2 1.63
Agricultural labourer (Up to 0.04 ha) 78 63.41
Marginal (0.04 ha – 0.40 ha) 34 27.64
Small (0.40 ha– 0.81 ha) 2 1.63
Large (above 0.81 acres) 7 5.69
Organisation Cooperative Society 7 5.69
participation Gram Panchayath 8 6.50
Swayam Sahakarana Sangam 6 4.88
Women self-help group 9 7.32
Youvaganasahgam Member 1 0.81
Nil 92 74.80

Use of media for Radio 19 15.45

knowledge gain* Tv 85 69.11
Magazine 12 9.76
Newspaper 43 34.96
Internet 22 17.89
Nil 32 26.02
Cosmopolite Whether consulting Veterinary Doctor for treating animals? 34 27.64
Nil 89 72.36
Marketing of goats By own 7 5.69
Middle man 19 15.45
Nil 97 78.86
Financial source for Commercial bank 33 26.83
business cooperative bank 12 9.76
money lenders 1 0.81
Nil 77 62.60
No of trainings 0 116 94.31
attended 1 5 4.07
>1 2 1.63
From where you came Block SC/ST officer, Kalpetta 1 0.81
to know about the Peers 19 15.45
programme Veterinary doctor 6 4.88
Veterinary college 56 45.53
Promotor 41 33.33
*Multiple responses not to total
knowledgeable, moderately knowledgeable and Involvement of more farmers between 36 to 50 yrs
less knowledgeable applying Dalenius and Hodges of age in training programme is due to the fact that
Cumulative Square root Frequency (DH-CSRF) majority of the respondent had their occupation as
method. The relationship between knowledge farming and willing to establish or extend the goat
gain and profile characteristics of respondents farm. More than 60 per cent of the respondents were
was analysed by using Karl Pearson’s correlation women. It may due to the fact that the small scale
coefficient (r). goat farming activities carried out by rural women
for the additional income. Present findings were
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION conformity with Shelly (2020) found that among
Trainee characteristics the trainees majority (55.83 %) of them were under
The data depicted the personal and socio- the age group of 31 – 45 yr.
economic characteristics of the trainees. It was It was found that most of the respondents were
evident that more than one half of the respondents educated up to a considerable level as 42.28 per
(53.66%) were in between the age of 36 yr to 50 yr cent of them were high school passed, followed
followed by the age group of above 51 yr (30.89%) by primary (26.83%) and graduate (17.07%) while
and belonged 21 to 35 yr of age group (15.45%). only 13.82 per cent of the respondents were found

to be illiterate. More than two-thirds (68.29%) of al (2008) who reported that majority, 75.34 per cent
them belonged to nuclear family and had less than respondents had medium level of knowledge gained
five members in the family. In terms of land holding, about the KVK training programme and Sangma
majority (63.41%) of the respondents belonged to et al (2022) who found that the effectiveness of
agricultural labourer category having up to 0.04 ha training in the terms of overall knowledge gained
followed by marginal farmer having 0.04 ha to 0.40 was medium. A study conducted by Arya (2021) and
ha (27.64%) and only 7.32 per cent of the farmers Bashir et al (2017) revealed that among trainees of
were having more than 0.40 ha land. About three- goat farming, and found that training had impacted
fourths of the respondents had no organizational highly significant gain in knowledge. Another study
participation. Ravi et al (2022) reported similar findings of Saravanan et al (2021) mentioned that
findings that majority of goat farmers who attended majority of goat farmers (85.04%) had a medium
training were female (86.10%), and had completed to low level of knowledge about climate change
high school education (75.00%), their family size in southern region of Tamil Nadu. Gadekar and
was below 5 (44.4%) and possess land holding less Kalal, 2022 reported that 95.00 per cent of men and
than 10 cents (58.30%). In contrast to present study women sheep farmers possessed medium level of
women participation was very merger (9.68%) at knowledge.
state level on-campus training, simultaneously Table 2. Distribution of respondents according
the same study had documented more women to their gained knowledge through training
participation (66.39%) in off-campus training (N=123)
Bashir et al (2017a).
Sr. Level of frequency Percentage
Majority (76.42%) of the respondents were No. Knowledge gain
inexperienced in goat farming followed by less 1 Low 32 26.02
experienced (up to 5 yrs). Since the training is
organized for budding entrepreneurs most of them 2 Medium 69 56.10
were new to this enterprise. Most (67.48%) of the
3 High 22 17.89
respondents were agricultural labourer and nearly
five per cent of the respondents were employed in Table 3. Correlation of socio-personal
organized sector. Television was most commonly characteristics with Knowledge gain (N=123)
used media for knowledge gain followed by Independent variable r value
newspaper but nearly one-fourths of the respondents
were not used any media for knowledge gain in Age -0.204*
livestock field. Nearly one-thirds of the respondents Education 0.321**
were contacted either commercial or co-operative Family members 0.037NS
bank for financial assistance. Large majority
(94.31%) of the respondents were not attended any Flock size 0.274**
training so far. It was their first training programme. Experience in goat rearing 0.210*
Knowledge Gain Land holding -0.022NS
Regarding the effectiveness of the training
Mass media exposure 0.370**
programme and the knowledge gained in the training
programme, it was found to be medium. More than Cosmopolitan 0.246**
one half of the respondents had medium level of
knowledge gain followed by low and high. This * significant at 5 % level; ** significant at 1 % level
finding is in the line with the findings of Dubey et NS Not significant

Factors contributing to knowledge gain knowledge gained. Such assessment helps us to

The relationship between knowledge gain and identify the determinants of knowledge gain and it
socio-personal characteristics of respondents are will help us to formulate the training method for
indicated in Table 3. Eight independent variables different category of farmers and thus provides
were selected for correlation analysis with the training to be more effective and meaningful.
dependent variables viz., knowledge gain. Among Among the trainees more than one half of the
various socio-economic variables, Age, education, respondents had medium level of knowledge gain.
flock size, experience, mass media exposure Socio-economic variables such as age, education,
and cosmopolites were found to be significantly flock size, experience, mass media exposure
correlated with knowledge gain (Table 3). Other and cosmopolites were found to be significantly
variables viz., family members and land holding correlated with knowledge gain. This gives a
were found to be not correlated with the perceived clear indication regarding the determinants which
knowledge. influence training outcome and these aspect must
Out of 8 variables studied 4 important be kept in mind while designing and formulating
variables namely, education, flock size, mass training programmes in future.
media exposure and cosmopolites were highly
significant (P<0.01) with knowledge gain while a REFERENCES
Arya V, poonma, Yadav S C, Yada, M P, Khandelwal S and
significant relationship (P<0.05) was observed with Mali H R (2021). Impact analysis of trainings on goat
age, experience. The highly significant positive production technology. J Krishi Vigyan 10 (1). 142-145.
correlation coefficient of education, flock size, mass Bashir B P, Venkatachalapathy T R, Valsalan J and Rout P
media exposure, cosmopolites and only significant (2017a). Impact of trainings on knowledge level of goat
positive correlation of experience in goat farming keepers and new entrepreneurs in Kerala. Indian Res J
and negative significant correlation of age with Ext Edu 17 (1). 67-70.
knowledge gain of trainees may lead to conclusion Bashir B P, Venkatachalapathy T R, Valsalan J and Rout P
that these socio-economic independent variables K (2017b). A study on knowledge level of malabari goat
influencing the knowledge gain in the training. The keepers on scientific goat rearing practices in Kerala.
Proceedings of ISSGPU Seminar. Pp 259.
results were in agreement with Sangma et al (2022)
and Bashir et al (2017b) who found that there was Bashir B P, Venkatachalapathy T R and Rojan P M (2017c).
Constraints and suggestions expressed by goat keepers on
a significant association between the knowledge commercial goat farming in northern region of Kerala.
gained with age, education, extension agency Indian J Social Res 58 (2): 213-220.
contact, education, flock size and mass media Bashir B P and Venkatachalapathy T R (2017). Rearing
contacts. The current finding was in conformity with systems of Malabari goats in Northern Kerala, India.
Shelly (2020) who found that starting goat farming Indian J Small Ruminants 23 (2): 248-252.
venture and its adoption had direct relationship Bashir B P, Mohan S K, Gourikrishna K M, Krishna N M
with educational qualification among the trainees. R, Joseph A and Shajni S (2019). Gender studies in
Another study (Gadekar and Kalal, 2022) revealed participation, decision making and time allocation on
farm activities among goat farmers of Wayanad district,
that among the socio-economic variables age and
Kerala. Indian J Social Res 60 (5): 635-643.
flock size had positively and significantly correlated
Dubey A, Shrivastava J P and Sharma V K (2008). Impact of
with knowledge level.
KVK training programme on socio economic status and
knowledge of trainees in Allahabad district. Indian Res J
CONCLUSION Ext Edu 8 (2&3): 60-61.
As trainings are being used as a method of Gadekar G and Kalal A (2022). Level of sheep rearing
educating the farmers, the effectiveness of the knowledge among migratory families rearing deccani
training imparted should be assessed in terms of sheep. Indian J Small Ruminants 28 (1): 185-189.

Ravi S, Muralidharan P and Arathy J (2022). Impact of
adoption of climatic resilient practices in goat farming in
Kuttanad region of Kerala. J Krishi Vigyan 10 (1): 198-
203.
Sangma N, Das P and Bora P (2022). Effectiveness of
the Training Programme on the Trainees: A Study in
Assam. Indian Res J Ext Edu 22 (2): 96-100.
Saravanan K P, Manivannan A, Sivakumar T, Sakthivel K M
and Ramachandran M (2021). Knowledge level of Kanni
Adu goat farmers towards climate change in southern
region of Tamil Nadu. J Krishi Vigyan 9 (2): 114-119.
Shelly M (2020). Effectiveness of training programme on the
adoption behaviour of goat farmers in Punjab. J Krishi
Vigyan 9 (1): 109-113.

Effect of Long-term Application of Manures and

Fertilizers on Yield and Soil Nutrient Concentration in Rice
Based Cropping System
Roshni John1, Thulasi V2 and Drishya D S3
Regional Agricultural Research Station, Pattambi, Mele Pattambi,
Kerala Agricultural University, 679306 (Kerala)
ABSTRACT
All India co-ordinated research project on long term fertilizer experiment was set up at Regional Agricultural
Research Station, Pattambi, Kerala during 1997. Research finding on yield and yield attributes as well as
soil nutrient concentration as affected by the continuous application of manures and fertilizers on rice-rice
cropping system was given in the paper. T10 (100% NPK + in-situ green manuring) recorded the maximum
number of tillers per hill (12.37). The number of panicles per hill was highest in T10 and T3 (150% NPK)
with 11.37 and 11.07, respectively. Treatment, T8 (100% NPK+FYM) recorded the highest number of seeds
per hill (1149.3) and yield (4650 kg/ha). The available nutrient concentration in the soil varies depending
on the individual nutrients. Organic carbon (1.96%) and available nitrogen (246.54 kg/ha) was found to be
higher in T8. Available phosphorus was highest in T3 (19.39 kg/ha) followed by T8 (19.34 kg/ha) and T4,
100% NPK+lime (18.92 kg/ha). Highest available potassium was recorded in T3 (84.83 kg/ha) where super
optimal dose (150%) of NPK was applied.
Key Words: Green manure, Nitrogen, Organic carbon, Phosphorus, Potassium,Yield.
INTRODUCTION with rice-rice cropping system, recommended NPK

The Long Term Fertilizer Experiments (LTFE) along with FYM and lime recorded highest value
are key tools in comprehending the alterations in soil of organic carbon. In the FYM with lime treated
parameters brought on by intensive cropping and plot, an elevation in organic carbon decreased the
persistent fertilizer/manure application. It is widely bulk density of soil and boosted aggregate stability
believed that long-term fertilizer studies hold troves (Garnaik et al, 2022). The physical, chemical, and
of important knowledge on the viability of intensive biological characteristics of soil are changed by
agriculture. The results obtained from a 44 year repeated use of chemical fertilizers and manures.
old permanent manurial trial experiment showed a The objective of the current study was to evaluate
positive impact of integrated nutrient management the effect of LTFE on yield and soil nutrient status
on yield and yield attributes of rice-rice cropping of rice-rice cropping system.
system in the central laterites of Kerala (Thulasi et
al, 2022). A potential option for maintaining greater MATERIALS AND METHODS
productivity as well as for stabilising the crop The LTFE was started during 1997 with 12
production is the integrated use of both chemical different nutrient management practices. It consisted
fertilizers and soil amendments. In a 16 years LTFE of 12 treatments with 4 replications laid out in
randomized block design. The treatments were: T1:
1
Research Scholar, College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, Kerala Agricultural University.
2
Associate Professor, Regional Agricultural Research Station, Pattambi
3
M.Sc Soil Science

Effect of Long-term Application of Manures and Fertilizers
Table 1. Effect of treatments on yield and yield attributes.

Treatment No. of No. of No. of Yield
tillers/hill panicles/ hill seeds/hill (Kg/ha)
T1(50 % NPK) 10.56 10.50 830.00 2811
T2 (100 % NPK) 10.53 10.07 950.00 3472
T3 (150 % NPK) 11.50 11.07 1075.70 4104
T4 (100 % NPK + lime @ 600 kg ha-1) 10.83 10.40 1019.30 3770
T5 (100 % NPK) 10.53 9.77 941.30 3515
T6 (100 % NP) 9.90 9.20 706.70 2974
T7 (100 % N) 8.16 6.97 699.70 2175
T8 (100 % NPK + FYM @ 5 t ha-1) 11.73 10.77 1149.30 4650
T9 (50 % NPK + FYM @ 5 t ha -1) 10.86 10.00 856.70 3713
T10 (100 % NPK + in situ growing of Sesbania aculeata) 12.36 11.37 1054.70 4256
T11 (50 % NPK + in situ growing of Sesbania aculeata) 10.83 10.37 896.00 3453
T12 (Absolute control) 7.96 7.60 548.70 2141
CD (0.05) 0.941 0.73 128.80 493.6
50 per cent NPK, T2 : 100 percent NPK, T3 : 150 observed in treatment, T10 receiving 100% NPK
percent NPK, T4 : 100 percent NPK + 600 kg/ha along with green manuring (12.37), which was
CaCO3, T5 : 100 percent NPK, T6 : 100 percent NP, significantly different from all other treatments. It
T7 : 100 percent N, T8: 100 percent NPK + FYM @ was followed by 100% NPK+FYM (T8) and 150%
5 t/ha , T9: 50 per cent NPK + FYM @ 5 t/ha,T10 NPK (T3) with values 11.73 and 11.50 respectively.
: 100 percent NPK + in situ growing of Sesbania The control, T12 recorded the least value (7.96).
aculeate, T11 : 50 percent NPK + in situ growing of The number of panicles per hill ranged from 6.97
Sesbania aculeate) and T12 : Absolute control (No to 11.37 with T10 and T3 recorded the highest value
fertilizers or manures). as 11.37 and 11.07 respectively. The results were
The surface soil samples were analyzed for significantly different from all other treatments. It
estimating the nutrient status of the soil. Soil samples was followed by T8 (10.77). Treatment T7 (100% N)
were dried, sieved and organic carbon, nitrogen, recorded the lowest value (6.97). The application of
phosphorus, potassium were analyzed using the green manure alone and in integration with green
standard procedures. Organic carbon was estimated manure with NPK fertilizers showed a significant
by chromic acid wet digestion method (Walkley and enhancement in the yield attributes of rice cropping
Black, 1934). Available N in soil was estimated by system (Saravanapandian and Haroon, 2012).
alkaline permanganate method (Subbiah and Asija, The average number of seeds per hill ranged
1956), available P by Colorimetry method (Olsen et al, between 548.70 to 1149.30. The maximum number
1954) and available K by Neutral Normal Ammonium of seeds per hill was recorded in T8 (1149.30),
Acetate method (Stanford and English, 1949). significantly higher from all other treatments. It was
followed by T3 (1075.70) and T10 (1054.70) which
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION were statistically at par with T8. The unfertilized
Yield and yield attributes control recorded the least with a value of 548.70. The
The mean value of tillers per hill ranges from grain yield ranges between the mean values of 2141
7.96 to 12.37. The maximum number of tillers were to 4650 kg/ha. The integrated nutrient management

Table 2. Effect of treatments on soil nutrient concentration

Treatment Organic Available N Available P Available K
carbon (%) (Kg/ha) (Kg/ha) (Kg/ha)
T1(50 % NPK) 1.56 216.44 16.78 68.68
T2 (100 % NPK) 1.59 206.55 18.63 70.57
T3 (150 % NPK) 1.68 217.35 19.39 84.83
T4 (100 % NPK + lime @ 600 kg ha )
-1
1.49 236.34 18.92 73.83
T5 (100 % NPK) 1.57 205.23 18.61 69.73
T6 (100 % NP) 1.51 200.69 16.94 49.89
T7 (100 % N) 1.41 183.42 9.89 46.97
T8 (100 % NPK + FYM @ 5 t ha )
-1
1.96 246.54 19.34 78.69
T9 (50 % NPK + FYM @ 5 t ha )
-1
1.71 213.21 17.45 67.51
T10 (100 % NPK + in situ growing of Sesbania 1.82 227.45 18.65 69.93
aculeata)
T11 (50 % NPK + in situ growing of Sesbania 1.73 227.55 18.15 66.55
aculeata)
T12 (Absolute control) 1.19 179.78 12.70 48.30
CD (0.05) 0.065 8.435 0.689 2.838
(INM) treatments recorded the highest value with T8 applied and it was found to be on par with treatment
(4650 kg/ha ) recording the maximum yield which where 100% NPK along with green manure (1.82%)
was on par with T10 (4256 kg/ha ) where fertilizer was applied. The lowest value was registered in T12
along with green manure was applied. The treatments (1.19%). The content of organic carbon in various
T7 (100% N) and T12 registered the lowest yield with soils and crop management was significantly raised
values 2175 and 2141 kg/ha, respectively. The higher by the continual administration of FYM and green
availability of macro and micronutrients, which are manure. It also improved the organic matter content
necessary for starch production, photosynthesis, of soil. It was also observed that when the fertilizer
and the transportation of photosynthates, may be dosage was increased from 50 to 150 % NPK, the
the cause of the increased yield. The findings of the amount of OC increased.
current study showed that INM practices among the The average value of available nitrogen content
LTFE enhanced the soils physical, chemical and varied from 179.78 to 246.54 kg/ha . Available
biological qualities and increased yield. The FYM nitrogen content was recorded highest in T8 (246.54
supplied to the soil the issue of the build-up of kg/ha ) with integrated nutrient management
autotoxins released by rice roots and thus contributes administered. It was followed by T4 (236.34 kg/ha
to a favourable impact on yield characteristics ) where 100% NPK+lime was applied. Available
(Ranjini, 2002). Similar results were reported by nitrogen was found to be the lowest in treatments
Sumayya (2017) and Esther Longkumer (2021). T7 (183.42 kg/ha) followed by T12 (179.78 kg/ha).
Soil nutrient status The administration of inorganic nitrogen fertilizers
The mean value of organic carbon (OC) content in combination with organic sources were found to
in soil ranges from 1.19 to 1.96 per cent. The highest increase the available nitrogen content in soil than
organic carbon content, 1.96% was recorded in solely application of inorganic fertlilizers (Alok
treatment where 100% NPK along with FYM was kumar and Yadav, 1993).

The mean value of available phosphorus content REFERENCES

in the soil varied between 9.88 to 19.39 kg/ha . The Alokkumar and Yadav D S (1993). Effect of long term
phosphorus content in soil was found to be highest fertilization on sol fertility and yield under rice- wheat
cropping system J Indian Soc Soil Sci 41 (1): 178- 180.
in T3 (19.39 kg/ha ) which was on par with T8
(19.34 kg/ha ) and T4 (18.92 kg/ha ). The least value Esther Longkumer T (2021). Integrated nutrient management
in Rajmash (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) affects soil chemical
was recorded in treatment T7 (9.88 kg/ha ). Little properties J Krishi Vigyan 9 (2): 104-107.
or no incorporation of phosphorus fertilizers in a
Garnaik S, Samant P K, Mandal M, Mohanty T R, Dwibedi S
continuous cropping field might be the reason the K, Patra R K, Mohapatra K K, Wanjari R H, Sethi D, Sena
least value of available phosphorus in T7. According D R, Sapkota T B, Nayak J, Patra S, Parihar C M, and
to Goyal et al (1999) when 100% NPK was applied Nayak H S (2022). Untangling the effect of soil quality
continuously, either by itself or in combination with on rice productivity under a 16-years long-term fertilizer
organics, available P content rose in comparison to experiment using conditional random forest. Computers
Electronics Agric 197: 106965.
the preliminary available P status.
Goyal S, Chander K, Mundra M C and Kapoor K K (1999).
The average potassium content in LTFE soils Influence of inorganic fertilizers and organic amendments
ranges from 46.96 to 84.83 kg/ha. Highest available on soil organic matter and soil microbial properties under
potassium was recorded in T3 (84.83 kg/ha ), where tropical conditions. Biol Fert Soils 29: 196– 200.
super optimal dose (150%) of NPK was applied. The Olsen S R, Cole C V, Watanabe P S and Dean L A (1954).
application of a larger quantity of NPK compared to Estimation of available phosphorus in soils by extraction
with sodium bicarbonate. U.S.D.A. Circ. 939.
the recommended dosage might be the reason for
increased potassium in T3 which was significantly Ranjini P R (2002). Integrated Nutrient Management for
Upland Rice (Oryza sativa L.) M.Sc.(Ag) thesis, Kerala
different from the rest of the treatments. It was then
Agricultural University, Thrissur, Kerala, 106 p.
followed by T8 (78.69 kg/ha ) where a balanced
dosage of chemical and organic amendments Saravanapandian P and Haroon M A R (2012). Influence of
continuous application of organic manures and inorganic
enhanced the nutrient status of soils. This could be fertilizers on rice yield. International Symposium on 100
explained by the higher ability of organic colloids Years of Rice Science and Looking Beyond, 9-12 January
to store K+ ions on the exchange complexes. 2012. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, India, pp.557-
561.
CONCLUSION Stanford S and English L (1949). Use of Flame photometer in
The present study emphasizes the adoption rapid soil test for K and Ca. Agron J 41: 446-447.
of integrated nutrient management practices as a Subbiah B V and Asija G L (1956). A rapid procedure for
powerful technique to improve yield of crop and estimation of available nitrogen in soils. Curr Sci 65:
477-480
the soil characteristics in a long run. Although the
application of inorganic fertilizers increases the yield, Sumayya Sulaiman (2017). Sequestration of carbon as
influenced by nutrient management practices under Long
it might deplete the indigenous soil properties due Term Fertilizer Experiments. M.Sc.(Ag) Thesis, Kerala
to its injudicious application over time. The finding Agricultural University, Thrissur.
from the study showed that treatment T8 (100% Thulasi V, Moossa P P and Sumayya S (2022). Effect of
NPK + FYM) was found to be the best management continuous application of nutrient management options
technique in a rice based cropping system in the on crop yields in rice-rice cropping system J Krishi
central laterites of Kerala followed by T10 (100% Vigyan 10 (2): 88-93.
NPK + in-situ growing of Sesbania aculeate). Walkley A and Black C A (1934). An examination of
Thus, practicing an integrated approach on nutrient Degitijareff method for determining the organic matter
and proposed modification of the chromic acid titration
management strategies strengthens the physical,
method. Soil Sci 37: 29-38.
chemical and biological properties of soil and thereby
increases crop production and productivity. Received on 24/1/2023 Accepted on 16/4/2023

Effect of Different Dehydration Methods on Organoleptic

Attributes and Quality of Pineapple Candy
Y. Prabhabati Devi,* R K Lembisana, Sumati Rajkumari and Y Jamuna Devi
G .P Womens College, Imphal, Manipur
ABSTRACT
Drying is one of the dehydration methods used for preservation of fruits and vegetables from ancient time.
In the recent years osmotic dehydration has been gaining popularity due to its effectiveness in enhancing the
quality of the product and consumer acceptability. The main aim of the present study was to assess the effect
of different dehydration methods on organoleptic attributes and shelf life of osmotic dehydrated pineapple
candy. After soaking the 1.5 cm thickness pineapple slices in the 600brix sugar syrup for 24 hr. the slices
were dried by following 2 treatments namely T1- solar dehydration under solar dryer and T2- sun drying.
The Hedonic rating scale was administered to 30 panellists to assess the sensory attributes of dehydrated
pineapple slices. The results indicated that dehydrated pineapple slices under solar dryer scored high in all
six organoleptic attributes i.e., colour, flavour, taste, texture, appearance and overall acceptability. From the
study it was found that T1 have longer shelf life than T2.
Key Words: Organoleptic, Osmo-dehydration, Pineapple, Quality, Shelf life.
INTRODUCTION processing fruits in a relatively simple preservation

The pineapple (Ananas comosus L. Merr) is technique that does not require any sophisticated
one of the most popular tropical fruits of the world equipment (Ozdemir et al , 2008) and it is also one of
belongs to family Bromeliaceae, grown in hilly the potential preservation techniques for producing
regions of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Manipur, high quality products (Rahman et al, 1990). Osmo-
west Bengal, Kerala, Karnataka , Goa, Andhra dehydrated pineapple pieces using 60° Brix sugar
Pradesh, Gujarat , Maharashtra. Pineapple is syrup concentration with 60°C drying temperature
low in fat or cholesterol and rich in dietary fibre. produced better quality product with respect to
It also contains phosphorus and minerals like physico-chemical as well as sensory quality up to
calcium, magnesium, potassium and iron (Ahmed six months of storage period (Rosa et al, 2001). The
et al, 1995) It is highly relished by majority due product with low moisture content can be stored
its unique aroma taste and health benefits. But for longer period of time due to a considerable
the shelf life of pineapple after harvesting is very decrease in the water activity of the material with
less, hence to reduce post-harvest losses, pineapple reduced microbial activity minimized physical and
was preserved in the form of dehydrated osmotic chemical changes (Vaidya et al ,2016; Chaudhary et
pineapple candy. Pineapple candy was prepared al, 2019 ). It has received greater attention in recent
by dissolving pineapple slices in osmotic solution years as intermediate step for drying of several
for 24 hr. and dehydrated in solar dryer. Osmotic fruits and vegetables (Kumar et al ,2009). Osmotic
dehydration of pineapple candy is one ways of dehydration is a useful technique for the production
1
KVK, Chandel, ICAR, Manipur Centre.
2
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Thoubal, Manipur
3
G .P Womens College, Imphal, Manipur
4
Standard College, Kongba Imphal, Manipur

Effect of Different Dehydration Methods on Organoleptic Attribute
Table 1. Recipe for the formulation of dehydrated pineapple candy.

Ingredients Pineapple Sugar Citric acid Water Steeping time
Quantity 1kg 600gm 5gm 1 litre 24 hr.
Fig. 1 . Flow chart for the preparation of dehydrated pineapple

TREATMENT – 1
Select fresh and healthy pineapple
Wash with clean water to remove dust and dirt
Peel, remove core and cut pineapple slices in to 1.5cm thickness slices
Prepare sugar syrup of 60o brix
Soak pineapple slices in to sugar syrup for 24 hrs
Strained the extracted sugar syrup and spread on stainless steel tray
Dry in solar dryer for 72 hrs till it gets 6-8 % moiture content
Fill in sterilized jar and store in cool dry place
of safe, stable, nutritious, tasty, economical and MATERIALS AND METHODS

concentrated food obtained by placing the solid Collection of materials
food, whole or in pieces in sugar or salt solution of Matured, fresh and good quality pineapple were
high osmotic pressure (Gurumeenakshi et al, 2005; collected from local market Imphal, Manipur. Sugar,
Dhingra et al, 2013). After that the pineapple slices citric acid and packaging material were purchased
were dehydrated by using solar dryer and open from Imphal market.
sun drying methods. Among dehydration methods,
osmotic dehydration of pineapple candy is gaining Preparation of pineapple candy
popularity due to its easy and simple process. The Pineapples were washed thoroughly with tap
present study focuses to see the effect of different water to remove dust and dirt. Peeled, remove core
dehydration methods on organoleptic attributes and and cut pineapple into 1.5 cm thickness slices.
quality of pineapple candy. Osmotic solution (Sugar syrup) of 60o brix was
prepared by dissolving 600g of sugar and 5g citric
acid in 1L water. Boiled the pineapples in 600brix

sugar syrup for 10 minutes and let it soak overnight. and T2 -sun drying was evaluated by a taste testing
After that the pineapple slices were dehydrated panel. The mean score of performance of dehydrated
by using solar dryer and sun drying methods. For pineapple candy were presented graphically in fig.2.
maintaining proper moisture content dry the candy It was evident that the score observed for the colour
by turning upside down and continue the process attribute was high (8.2) in T1-solar dehydrated
till properly dried When cooled, fill in the sterilized pineapple candy and 6.9 for T2- sun dried pineapple
packaging material and seal properly to maintain candy. The reason might be due to the fact that the
the proper moisture level. Flow chart for the colour of pineapple candy dehydrated by solar dryer
preparation of dehydrated pineapple is shown in fig was controlled by uniform drying temperature.
1.and formulation of dehydrated pineapple is given In appearance sun dried pineapple candy
in table1. scored less (7.0) as compared with dehydration of
Sensory evaluation pineapple candy with solar dryer (8.3). It may be
Sensory evaluation of dehydrated pineapple due to time of harvesting pineapple as pineapples
candy by using 2 types of dehydration methods were harvested during rainy season (July and
namely solar dehydration and sun drying method August), hence unavailability of proper sunlight for
was evaluated by following nine points hedonic drying was the major constraint in sun drying which
rating scale (Joshy, 2006) to assess the consumer resulted in the shrinking of the dehydrated pineapple
acceptability of the product. A total number of candy. The Score of texture (8.4), flavour (8.3) and
30 panellists who were expert in testing of food taste (8.5) of treatment - 1 was high when compared
products were selected from women entrepreneur to treatment 2 dehydration of pineapple candy by
of Imphal, Manipur to evaluate the dehydrated sun drying. The overall acceptability score of solar
pineapple products on six attributes namely, colour, dehydrated pineapple samples was 8.3 followed by
appearance., flavour, taste, texture and acceptability. dehydration of pineapple candy by sun drying (7.6).
The rate of scores represented 1 - dislike extremely,
2- dislike very much, 3- dislike moderately, 4-
dislike slightly, 5- neither like nor dislike, 6 - like
slightly, 7-like moderately, 8- like very much and
9- like extremely.
Shelf life study
Visual observation was conducted for a period
of 6 months to see any change in colour and fungal
growth of the dehydrated pineapple candy.
Statistical analysis
Means of three replicates of the sensory score of
30 panellists werecalculated for all the six sensory
Shelf life studies of dehydrated pineapple candy
parameters.
Pineapple candy dehydrated by solar dryer
and sun drying were stored at room temperature.
The deterioration of the product was observed at a
Sensory Evaluation of dehydrated pineapple regular interval of 15days up to 60 days and 30days
candy interval for a period up to 180days. The change
The consumer’s acceptability of the dehydrated in colour, flavour and texture were observed for
pineapple candy with 2 treatments T1 -solar drying a period of 180 days. In case of treatment -1, no

months of storage period than pineapple candy

dried under open sunlight.
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Ahmed J and Choudhary D R (1995). Osmotic dehydration of
papaya. Indian Food Packer 49: 5-11.
Chaudhary Vipul, Vivak Kumar, Sunil, Vaishali, Kavindra
Singh, Ratnesh Kumar and Vikrant Kumar (2019).
Pineapple (Ananas cosmosus) product processing: A
review, J Pharmacogn and Phytochem 8(3):4642-4652
Dhingra D, Kadam D M, Singh J and Patil R T (2013).
Osmotic dehydration of pineapple with sucrose: Mass
transfer kinetics. J Agril Eng 50: 14-18.
change in colour, flavour, texture and taste up to Gurumeenakshi G, G Mani Megalai, S Maragatham and
180 days. In case of T-2, change in colour, flavour S Jeberaj (2005). Ascorbic acid and KMS as new food
and texture started from 85 days onwards. This additives for osmo dried foods. Beverage Food World
may be due to improper drying which resulted in 32(7):50-51
softening of candy due to accumulation of moisture Joshi V K (2006). Sensory Science: Principles and Applications
in sundried pineapple candy. The results were in in Evaluation of Food. Agro-Tech Publishers, Udaipur,
p. 527.
agreement to Ssemwanga et al (2020).
Kumar S P and Sagar V R (2009) Effect of osmosis on
chemical parameters and sensory attributes of mango,
CONCLUSION guava slices and aonla segments. Indian J Hort 66: 53-
Osmo dehydration is one of the simple 57.
preservation techniques for processing of Ozdemir M, Ozen B, Dock L and Floros J (2008). Optimization
fruits which does not require any sophisticated of osmotic dehydration of diced green peppers by
equipment. So, the pineapple growers can use such response surface methodology. LTW. Food Sci
type of technique and can convert pineapples into Technol 41: 2044-2050.
dehydrated form during the excess production
Rahman M S and Lamb J (1990). Osmotic dehydration of
during glut season and can reduce huge post-harvest pineapple. J Food Sci Technol 27: 150-152.
losses. In the osmotic dehydration process, partial
Rosa M D and Giroux F (2001). Osmotic treatments and
dehydration of the fruit pieces is accomplished by problems related to the solution management. J Food Eng
dipping in concentrated sugar syrup solution 60° 49: 223-236.
Brix followed by dehydration under solar dryer and Ssemwanga M, Makule Edna and S Kayonda (2020). The
open sunlight. It is a useful technique for producing effect of traditional and improved solar drying methods
safe, stable, nutritious, tasty, economical and on the sensory quality and nutritional composition of
concentrated fruit products. The products prepared fruits: A case of mangoes and pineapples. Heliyon 6 (6):
from pineapple by osmo-dehydration process e04163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.
e04163
possess high sensory score and remain good up to
six months of storage at room temperature. Osmo- Vaidya D, Sharma A, Abrol G S S and Vaidya M K (20016).
Evaluation technology for low cost drying of banana
dehydrated pineapple candy drying under solar slices. Indian J Natural Prod and Resources 7:176
dryer produced better quality product with respect
to sensory quality as well as shelf life up to six

Efficacy of 17α-methyl testosterone on Growth and Survival of

Fry of Swordtail, Xiphophorus helleri
Ranjeet Singh, Rikhi Singh Chauhan, Anurag Semwal and Neelesh Kumar
Department of Aquaculture, College of Fisheries,
Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar,
Udham Singh Nagar, Uttarakhand, India, 263145
ABSTRACT
The experiment was carried out in the wet lab at the College of Fisheries, G.B.P.U.A. & T, Pantnagar,
India, to compare the effectiveness of 17 α -methyl testosterone on Swordtail (Xiphophorus helleri) fry
administered at various dose rates by oral feed administration. Fish fry was fed at 5% of body weight twice
a day. In addition, the commercial feed was added with various doses of 17α-methyl testosterone i.e., 30
mg/kg, 60 mg/kg, and 90 mg/kg, and one control aquarium tank (T0) was installed for the comparative
study with treatment aquarium tanks like H1, H2, and H3, respectively. The effectiveness of 17α-methyl
testosterone on the growth and survival of swordtail fish fry was observed after 90 days of this experiment.
In 90 mg/kg (H3) feed minimum growth (weight and length) was observed as compared to H2, H1 and T0
respectively. Mortality of 16.67 % was also observed with 90 mg/kg (H3) feed as compared to H2, H1 and T0
respectively. The results showed that 17α-methyl testosterone has significantly negative effects on swordtail
than the control experimental aquarium tank.
Key Words: Sword tail, 17α-methyl testosterone, Growth, Mortality.
INTRODUCTION fish exported from India are wild-caught species.

The habit of keeping ornamental fish in The decorative fish industry provides rural and
aquariums for display and entertainment dates urban communities with an excellent opportunity
back (Ayyappan et al, 2011). People kept vibrant to increase their income and connects them to
tropical fish as a hobby in aquariums and garden international trade. The vast majority of ornamental
ponds. Because of the vibrant body colours, unique fish raised in tanks are from small-scale or backyard
morphologies, and eating habits, ornamental fish breeding operations.
are living jewels. The practise of keeping fish Sword tails are small freshwater fish that
in aquariums in India began during the British are indigenous to Central and North America
era and is still practiced (Ayyappan et al, 2011). (Xiphophorus helleri). Swordtails are omnivores
Additionally, India is blessed with a favourable in natural water bodies and consume a variety
climate, an abundance of water resources, a diverse of invertebrates, insects, plant material, and
variety of flora and fauna, and a large pool of skilled algae for food. As an ornamental fish, sword tail
labourers spread out across the entire nation. (Xiphophorus helleri) is valuable commercially
Ornamental fish breeding and culture are (Moghaddam et al, 2010). This fish is a live-bearer.
expanding as a business in India. However, India The value of phenotypic males—those with caudal
only contributes a little amount to the ornamental fins that have sword extensions can be up to twice
fish market, and at the moment, the majority of the that of phenotypic females (i.e., fish lacking swords)
Corresponding email: [email protected]

Efficacy of 17α-methyl testosterone on Growth and Survival
(Yanong et al, 2006). Male swordtail fish have a 290ºN latitude, 79.30ºE longitudes. Pantnagar’s
more pronounced sword-like protrusion on the humid subtropical climate is characterised by a
caudal fin and are smaller and thinner than females. dry, summer and a relatively chilly winter, with
Swordtails range in length from 6-7 cm for males to the mist often appearing at the last of December
7-9 cm for females. Temperatures between 23 to 28 and through the end of February. The study was
°C and water hardness levels between 50 and 100 conducted for a period of 90d i.e. February to
mg of CaCO3 per liter (moderately soft water) are May. This experiment aims, were to determine the
ideal for swordtail breeding (Ayyappan et al, 2011). effectiveness of 17-Methyltestosterone (MT) on
The effects of androgenic steroids on increasing swordtail fish growth when applied to fish fry. For
growth have been extensively studied in salmonid the experiment, 120 fries in total were taken. There
fish, which includes both trout and salmon. Using were 12 groups of 10 fries each. Each aquarium
the naturally occurring androgens testosterone contained 10 swordtail (Xiphophorus helleri) fries
and ll-ketotestosterone, Younis et al, (2023) and triplicates of each treatment were made.
discovered considerable weight gains in juvenile Fish fry source and experimental aquariums
coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). Following Around 200 fish fry (Xiphophorus helleri)
the introduction of two synthetic androgens, were collected from College of Fisheries available
dimethazine and norethandrolone resulted in brooders of swordtail fish, and others were
increases in the growth rate of young rainbow trout purchased from nearby market. On the other hand,
(Salmo gairdneri) (Nynca et al, 2023). According aquariums made up of glass for our experiment
to studies conducted on salmonids, the synthetic since ornamental fishes fall within that category.
androgen 17α -methyltestosterone (MT) causes
significant weight gain (Zhu et al, 2020; Liu et Experimental design
al, 2023). The study of androgens did not always Twelve fabricated aquariums measuring
result in weight gain. When the synthetic steroid 4.0×1×1 foot was installed for the duration of this
stanozolol was tested by Suseno et al (2020) for 90-day experiment, with an approximate water
its effects on channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), depth of 0.65 foot (approx. Capacity of 80 litres).
they discovered no discernible variations in growth The experimental aquarium was initially cleaned
between the various treatment doses. Using the and sterilised with lime and KMnO4, then filled
synthetic androgen methandrostenolone, Zhu et with tap water and continuously aerated using
al (2022) also gave channel catfish the treatment. aerators, respectively. Throughout the course of the
They discovered no changes in total weight gain study, siphoning with a 25% water exchange were
between the treated and untreated fish. used to clean the aquarium and remove residual
feed and excreta. The aquarium was continuously
MATERIALS AND METHODS aerated and refilled with fresh tap water from a bore
Experimental site well. Water heaters were used to keep water at a
The experiment was conducted in the Wet consistent temperature during the winter. According
Laboratory of the College of Fisheries, Govind to the experimental plan, the control tanks were
Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and designated “T0A, T0B, T0C” whereas the treatment
Technology in Pantnagar. It is located in the Tarai belt tanks were designated “H1A, H1B, H1C” for 30 mg
of the Himalayan foothills at a 243.3 metres height of hormone per kg of feed, “H2A, H2B, H2C” for
above mean sea level (MSL) and has the coordinates 60 mg of hormone per kg of feed, and “H3A, H3B,
H3C” for 90 mg of hormone per kg of feed.

17-α methyl testosterone stock solution Survival percentage

preparation and hormone infused feed The survival rate of the fry was determined as
The hormone was diluted in 96% ethanol to a number of fishes stocked divided by number of
concentration of 1 mg/ml to create a stock solution of fishes survived.
17- α methyl testosterone, which was then stored at 4
°C in the refrigerator. Dried pelleted aquarium feed Statistical analysis
(Brand- Pacific green) was extracted and pulverised The rate of growth performance and survival
into powdered form to prepare hormonal mixed feed rate of fry were statistically analysed (ANOVA) by
for fry. On three disposable plates, 100 g of feed was using the Microsoft Excel (2013).
taken. Following the alcohol evaporation process,
the stock solution of MT was then added to the feed RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
stored in the plates in various amounts to obtain Hormones and their effect on growth
the hormone concentration of 30, 60, and 90 mg/ For the purpose of masculinization and growth
kg of feed (Guerrero et al, 1975). As a control, one in a number of fish species, the androgen 17
plate of feed was made without hormone. Different α-methyltestosterone (MT), an anabolic steroid,
doses of hormone-mixed feed were kept apart in an is frequently utilized (Moghaddam et al, 2010).
airtight zip plastic bag and kept in the refrigerator. Widespread use of 17 α -Methyltestosterone today
Feed was utilised after it had been brought to room due to its ease of absorption, lack of accumulation
temperature. To avoid confusion, feeding was done in fish bodies, and ease of excretion (Al-Ansari et
with specialised plastic made spoons for various al, 2013).
hormone-mixed feed concentrations. The effect of residual hormone on growth
Feeding schedule performance of fry was determined by comparing
Fish were given the hormone-mixed meal the average length and weight of the fry between
twice daily at a rate of 5% of the fry body weight. treatment groups and control group at different
Following 15 d, sampling was carried out to time intervals. The average length of fry was
determine the amount of feed to use in accordance found day wise significantly (P<0.05) decreasing
with the fish recorded weights. in all treatment groups (H1, H2 and H3) except the
control group (T0) (Fig.1). When the length of
Growth measurement treatment groups compared among themselves and
Growth performance of fry was determined for with control group found significantly different
a period of 90 d with an interval of 15 d sampling (P<0.05). Similar observation was noted for the
(Initial, 15th, 30 th , 45 th, 60 th, 75 th & 90 th day). Periodic average weight of the fry. The weight of treatment
sampling was done fortnightly for monitoring the groups (H1, H2 and H3) was found significantly
growth performance. Growth rate was recorded by different (P<0.05) (Fig.2).
determining the mean length (cm) and mean weight Feeding MT suppressed growth rate and caused
(g) of fry of different treatment groups. Body morphological anomalies in fish at different dietary
weight was taken by electronic balance and length concentrations. Control fish had the highest weight
was taken by centimetre scales. Special care was gain, followed by the fish fed 30 mg of MT/kg of
taken while handling those tiny fries. diet (P< 0.05) (Fig.2). The fish fed 90 mg of MT/kg
of diet had less gain than those fed 30 mg of MT/kg
(P< 0.05). During the study period mortality of the
fry was observed in control group T0 and treatment
groups H1, H2 and H3 respectively (Fig.3).

study’s decreased growth rate (Liu et al, 2023),

and certain salmonids. High dietary doses of MT
inhibited the growth of carp (Marjani et al, 2009).
T0: Control
H1, H2 and H3: Feed with different hormone
concentration
Fig. 1: Mean length (cm) of sword tail fry in different
tanks with hormone Fig. 3: Survival percentage of fry reared in different
tanks with hormonal feed
A negative correlation between hormone dose

and growth response was also found by Manosroi
et al (2004) in fish given MT. The present study
indicated lower growth suppression as less doses of
hormone were fed. There were negative effects of
hormone on survival due to increasing of hormone
concentration recorded by (Manosroi et al, 2004;
Gullu et al, 2005; Somrudee and Powapol (2008).
The findings of the present study were in agreement
with Ismihan et al (2006) that survival percentage
reduces when more amount of hormone is added to
T0: Control feed.
H1, H2 and H3: Feed with different hormone
CONCLUSION
concentration
These findings demonstrate that feeding
Fig. 2: Mean weight (gm) of sword tail fry in different swordtail MT at higher levels of food was ineffective.
tanks with hormone feed
The dose level employed or the length of the feeding
period may be responsible for the unfavourable
MT was fed to fish at dosages close to the lowest
reactions seen. Because MT is physiologically
concentration employed in previous research,
transformed into substances that are not anabolic,
particularly with cold water fishes (Othman et al,
swordtail may react to MT differently than some of
2022; Farias et al, 2023), they suggested that MT
the other species investigated. It might be necessary
generally boosted growth. The amount of food
to do more research using other feeding regimens
given with hormone or how long it was given to
for swordtail or lower dietary levels of MT.
the fish could be contributing factors in the current

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Sumedha Chaudhary and Mukta Garg
College of Community Science,
CSA University of Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh (208002)
ABSTRACT
The study, entitled A study to assess the effect of parental involvement on children’s adjustment was conducted
in Bilari, a town near Moradabad district in Uttar Pradesh to assess the level of parental involvement in
children home based and school based activities, find out the adjustment of children at home and in school,
the effect of parental involvement on children adjustment. The sample of 90 students of class VI from two
schools was selected randomly. A standardized children’s adjustment scale was used to find out the level of
adjustment, and a self-prepared questionnaire was used to assess the level of parental involvement in home
and school based activities. It was found that the majority of parents showed a high level of involvement
in home and school-based activities of their children. It was found that the children of highly-involved
parents had good adjustment in home. The children of low involved parents had very poor adjustment. The
positive significant correlation was found between highly and medium involved parents with the adjustment
of children. It was found that the parents’ active involvement in children activities affect their children
adjustment in home and in school.
Key Words: Adjustment, Children, Home, Involvement, School.
INTRODUCTION find themselves, even when the situation is not of
Parental involvement in school has long been their liking. Adjustment may be of various types
heralded as an important and positive variable such as school adjustment, home adjustment, peer
on children’s academic and socioemotional adjustment, family adjustment etc. Home and
development. Empirical findings have school are two most important institutions, which
demonstrated a positive association between determines the success in life. School adjustment
parental involvement in education and academic indicates how well the child has been able to make
achievement (Pérez Sánchez et al, 2013; Tárraga peace internally and with the school environment.
et al, 2017), improving children’s self-esteem and From the beginning of late childhood children spend
their academic performance (Garbacz et al, 2017) their most of time in school and related activities.
as well as school retention and attendance (Ross, Parents involvement help to bridge the continuity
2016). Family involvement has also been found to gap that exists between school and home which
be associated with positive school attachment on helps in the better adjustment of a child in school
the part of children (Alcalay et al, 2005) as welland at home. Parents involvement emphasizes an
as positive school climates (Cowan et al, 2012). active and meaningful participation by parents in
Research has also evidenced that programs focused child’s education program; it can be largely defined
on increasing parental involvement in education as parent’s work with school and with their children
have positive impacts on children, families, and to benefit their children’s educational outcomes and
school communities (Jeynes, 2012; Catalano and future success. Parents-involvement is not a rigid
Catalano, 2014). one stage affair. Parents can involve themselves
Well-adjusted persons normally adjust with at various levels ranging from active listening
reasonable success to any situation in which they to highest level of decision making. According

Table 1. Distribution of parents on the basis of their involvement in their children home and school
based activities.
Sr. No. Level of involvement Home School
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
1 High 38 42.22 37 41.11
2 Medium 35 38.89 38 42.22
3 Low 17 18.89 15 16.67
Total 90 100.00 90 100.00
to Brown (2016) there are two kinds of parental Standardized children’s adjustment scale
involvement first school based which focuses on constructed by R. Dubey was used to find out the
such activities that involve direct interaction of level of adjustment:
the parent with the child’s school teacher or school In this scale there were 45 questions, 15 were
and another is home based which focuses on those related to home adjustment, 15 were related to
activities or interactions that parents engage in at school adjustment, and 15 were related to peer
home in connection with their children’s education adjustment. There were two types of statements
and that help in child’s adjustment. A home in the scale; one type of statement showed good
with encouraging learning environment is more adjustment and second types of statement showed
important than its income, or educational level, or poor adjustment. Every statement which showing
cultural background. Through active participation good adjustment got ‘1’ mark and which statement
parents demonstrate their interest in the child’s showing poor adjustment got ‘0’ mark.
educational activities at home and in school with
this parent send critical message to their child Self-made questionnaire to assess parental-
reinforcing the idea that school is important. involvement in home based and school based
Positive effects of parental involvement have been activities
demonstrated at both the elementary and secondary A self-constructed questionnaire was used
to assess the level of parental-involvement scale
levels across several studies, with the largest effects
often occurring at the elementary level. A recent in home based and school based activities of
meta‐analysis showed that parental involvement in children. This questionnaire contained 30 questions
school life was more strongly associated with high regarding the involvement of mothers in their
academic performance for middle schoolers than children’s activities. Out of 30, 15 questions were
helping with homework (Jeynes, 2005). referring the home based activities of children and
remaining activities were directed towards school
MATERIALS AND METHODS based activities. The questionnaire had five options
The sample of 90 students (with their parents) (Never, Rarely, Sometimes, Often, and Always)
of class VI from two schools was selected randomly from which respondents had to choose one preferred
from the schools of Bilari town near Moradabad, option. All 30 questions of the questionnaire carried
Uttar Pradesh. Parental involvement was assessed 0 to 4 marks which could group maximum to 120.
using the five scales proposed by Hoover-Dempsey Reliability: The scale’s reliability ranges from 0.83
and Sandler (2005) that aim to measure the level to 0.97 (home based activities) and 0.87 to 0.99
of family involvement in children’s education in (school based activities).
elementary school from the point of view of the
Validity: The validity of the scale was established
fathers, mothers and/or guardians.
by giving the scale to the experts of the department

Table 2. Distribution of children’s adjustment on the basis of the level of their parent’s home based
involvement.
Sr. No. Children High Medium Low
Adjustment F P F P F P
1 Very –Poor - - - - 10 58.83
2 Poor - - 2 5.72 1 5.88
3 Moderate 2 5.26 5 14.28 2 11.77
4 Good 12 31.59 20 57.14 4 23.52
5 Very-Good 24 63.15 8 22.86 - -
Total 38 100.00 35 100.00 17 100.00
F= Frequency, P=Percentage
for evaluation and the required changes were adjustment, then other children whose parents were
incorporated accordingly in the final draft of the less involved.
scale. Among the parents who showed medium level
Statistical analysis: Frequency, percentage and of involvement in home based activities maximum
correlation were used to draw inferences from the 57.14 per cent of children showed good adjustment,
study. whereas 22.86 per cent children showed very-
good adjustment, 14.28 per cent children showed
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION moderate level of adjustment, whereas 5.72 per
It was evident that in case of home-based cent children showed poor adjustment, none of
activities 42.22 per cent parents showed high level them showed very poor adjustment. Among the
of involvement, 38.89 per cent showed medium parents who showed low level of involvement in
involvement, rest of parents showed low level of home based activities maximum 58.83 per cent of
involvement in their children home based activities. children showed very poor adjustment, whereas
In case of school based activities maximum 42.22 23.52 per cent children showed good adjustment,
per cent parents showed medium involvement, 11.77 per cent children showed moderate level of
whereas 41.11 per cent parents showed high level adjustment, whereas 5.88 per cent children showed
of involvement, rest 16.67 per cent parents showed poor adjustment, none of them showed very-good
low level of involvement in their children home adjustment.
based activities. The data show that in the case of highly involved
The data show that in the case of highly involved parents in home based activities maximum 54.05
parents in home based activities maximum 63.15 per cent of children showed good adjustment,
per cent of children showed very good adjustment, whereas 24.33 per cent children showed very-good
whereas 31.59 per cent children showed good adjustment, rest 21.62 per cent children showed
adjustment, rest 5.26 per cent children showed moderate level of adjustment, none of them showed
moderate level of adjustment, none of them poor and very poor adjustment. Among the parents
showed poor and very poor adjustment. Flouri and who showed medium level of involvement in
Buchanan (2004) investigated the effect of parental- home based activities maximum 57.89 per cent
involvement on the children adjustment, he studied of children showed moderate adjustment, whereas
on 6th grade children and suggested that children 26.32 per cent children showed good adjustment,
of involved parents showed significantly and good 10.53 per cent children showed poor adjustment,

Table 3. Distribution of children’s adjustment on the basis of the level of their parent’s school based
involvement.
Sr. Children Parents school based involvement
No. Adjustment High Medium Low
F P F P F P
1 Very –Poor - - - - 8 53.33
2 Poor - - 4 10.53 3 20.00
3 Moderate 8 21.62 22 57.89 4 26.67
4 Good 20 54.05 10 26.32 - -
5 Very-Good 9 24.33 2 5.26 - -
whereas 5.26 per cent children showed very- significance. While low parental involvement and
good adjustment, none of them showed very poor the child’s adjustment at home and in school were
adjustment. Jeynes (2005) reported that students found to be non-significant.
with parents who were involved in their school
tend to have better academic performance. Among CONCLUSION
the parents who showed low level of involvement It was found that the parent active involvement
in home based activities maximum 53.33 per in children activities affect their children
cent of children showed very poor adjustment, adjustment in home and in school. Parents are
whereas 26.67 per cent children showed moderate children’s best motivators and role models so they
adjustment, 20.00 per cent children showed poor should encourage their children to develop clarity
level of adjustment, none of them showed good and of thought and reinforce daily conversation and
very-good adjustment. healthy parent child bonding. Parents should show
The high involvement was found to be interest in children’s activities and should involve
positively correlated between home (r = 0.4140*), themselves as much as possible. Parents should
school (r = 0.3265*) and child’s adjustment at 5% give more time to their children at home and should
per cent level of significance. Medium involvement make an effort to have discussions with them which
of parents was found to be positively correlated will aid in making the learning process of a child
between home (r = 0.5268*), school (r = 0.3266*) more clearly and healthy.
and child’s adjustment at 5% per cent level of
Table 4. Correlation coefficient between the level of parental involvement and the adjustment of
children.
Sr. No. Involvement of parents Adjustment of children
Home School
1 High 0.4140* 0.3265*
2 Medium 0.5268* 0.3266*
3 Low 0.4643* 0.0722*
*5% level of significance

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British J Edu Psychology 74:141-153. v24.2030
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1–10. doi: 10.1016/j.jsp.2017.04.002

Effect of Potassium Salt of Active Phosphorous on Growth, Yield

and Quality Contributing Attributes of Soybean
Savita Kumari, Ashok Kumar Dixit*, Manish Kumar,
Neerja Patel Mahendra Singh and K S Bhargav
KrishiVigyan Kendra, Dewas( Madhya Pradesh)
ABSTRACT
An experiment was conducted to examine the effect of potassium salt and active phosphorus on growth,
yield and quality contributing parameters in soybean crop during two consecutive yearskharif2018-19 and
2019-20. The experiment comprises of 9 treatments i.e., RDF+plant protection measure(T1) ; T1+ PSAP @
4g/l (T2) ; RDF+50 % PPM (T3) ; T3 + PSAP @ 4g/l (T4) ; RDN+50 % P & K + PPM (T5) ; T5 + PSAP
@4g/l(T6) ; RDN +50 % P, K + 50 % PPM (T7) ; T7 + PASP @4 g/l (T8) and RDN+PASP @ 4g/l (T9) .
The experiment was carried out in alkaline nature of vertisols with soybean variety JS-2034 in randomized
block design and replicated thrice. The plant protection measures includes quinolphos 25 EC @ 1L/h ,
Trizophos @ 0.8 L/h and propenophos @ 1.25 L/h during the crop period. The RDF of N: P: K: S @ 25:
60: 40: 40 kg/ha were applied as basal dose at the time of sowing through straight fertilizers like urea, SSP,
and MOP .The product potassium salt and active phosphorous (PSAP) was applied as a 1stsprayof PSAP
@ 4g/l, 40 DAS at Pre-flowering stage,2ndspray at 55 DAS and 3rdSpray 70 DAS, simultaneously. The
recorded data showed the maximum plant height (70.3cm) was observed in T2 (RDF+PPM+PSAP) while
minimum (66.9 cm) in T9 (RDN and PSAP). The similar trends were also observed for number of pods per
plant, number of grain per plant, weight of grain per plant, yield per plot, respectively. The maximum yield
11.44 q/ha was recorded with application of PSAP along with RDF and plant protection measures while the
minimum yield was noticed in case of PSAP application with RDN only. Data of experiment revealed that
application of potassium salt of active phosphorus on trypsin inhibitor activity was higher (8.34 mg/g) in T
2, the minimum White flies (2.97 leaf /plant)was recorded in T1(RDF+PPM) while maximum (4.63 leaf /
plant) in T9. The lower infestation of Girdle beetle (0.92 mrl) and semilooper (0.69 mrl) were found in T2
while higher in T9, may be due to vegetative foliage. It was observed that the RDF +PPM and PSAP have
slight significant impact on insect pest control in soybean crop.
Key Words: Growth, Oilseed, Soybean, Vertisols, Yield.
INTRODUCTION in the state. Generally, the farmers are not given

Soybean (Glycine max L) is an important major the emphasis of potassium nutrition in soybean
oilseed crop of Madhya Pradesh during kharif season. crop. Potash salt of active phosphorus (PSAP) is an
Among the macro nutrients phosphorus is very important invention as through its foliar applications
important for translocation in plant body and potash both these nutrients get absorbed quickly in the
plays very vital role, but if applied through chemical plants and performs their vital role of regulating
fertilizers get fixed in the soil and hardly 10-13% the different activities, reducing the insect pest
is available to crop plants. In current scenario, diseases incidence hence enhancing overall growth,
soybean production and productivity are facing yield and quality attributes of soybean. In PSAP,
huge problems of imbalanced nutrition, scarcity of phosphorus is activated by a catalytic process, and
moisture as well as insect pest diseases infestation by using the split technique, potash is attached to
Corresponding Author’s Email : [email protected]
*Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Agar

Effect of Potassium Salt of Active Phosphorous on Growth
Table 1. The details of treatments included in the experiment

Treatment Details
T1 RDF+plant protection measure
T2 RDF+plant protection measure+PSAP @ 4g/l

T3 RDF+50 %plant protection measure
T4 RDF+50 %plant protection measure + PSAP @ 4g/l
T5 Recommended dose N+50 % P, K & plant protection measure
T6 Recommended dose N+50 % P, K & plant protection measure+ PSAP @ 4g/l
T7 Recommended dose N+50 % P, K & 50 %plant protection measure
T8 Recommended dose N+50 % P, K & 50 %plant protection measure +PASP @ 4g/l
T9 Recommended dose N+PASP @ 4g/l
this activated phosphorus, which is extremely water The soybean crop early maturing varietyJS-2034
soluble 180 per cent and gets absorbed 100per was selected for the experimental trial and sown
cent in plants leaves and does not fixed in soil it at 30 cm row to row distance, on 28th June, 2018
confirmed by Verma and Billlore (2020). Signifying and10th July, 2019, simultaneously by adopting
the importance of balanced nutrition, an experiment all technological packages and practices i.e., seed
was carried out to assess the effect of potassium salt treatment, weeding etc. The seeds were treated by
of active phosphorus on growth, yield and quality the fungicide carboxin 37.5% + thiram 37.5% @
contributing parameters in soybean crop during two 2.5g/kg, insecticides thiametheoxazone 30FS @ 10
consecutive years kharif 2018-19 and 2019-20. ml/kg, and rhizobium and phosphate solubilizing
bacteria @ of 5ml each/kg of seed, respectively.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Recommended doses of fertilizer of N: P: K: S @
A field experiment was organized to find out of 25: 60: 40: 40 kg/ha were applied as basal dose
the effect of PSAP on soybean crop, during two at the time of sowing through straight fertilizers like
consecutive years in kharif2018-19 and2019- urea, SSP, and MOP. The standard integrated plant
20on instructional farm, of Krishi Vigyan protection measure was followed like that 1stspray
Kendra Dewas. The experiment was carried out of trizophos 40 ECand2ndspray of profenophos
in randomized block design which comprises 50 EC, respectively. The product potassium salt
of 9 treatments and replicated thrice (Table 1). and active phosphorous (PSAP) was sprayed as
The experimental plot size was 2.5m X4mand per given protocol under the experiment which
maintained isolation distance 0.5mbetween PXP. was offered by Isha Agro Science Pvt. Ltd. Pune
The soils of experimental plots were analyzed pre India. The 1stspray of PSAP @ 4g/l was applied
and post conduction of the experiment by adopting on,40 DAS at Pre-flowering stage,2ndspray on 55
standard analytical procedure (Black, 1965). Soil DAS and 3rdSpray at 70 DAS, simultaneously. The
was alkaline in nature and available Nitrogen and observations of various yield attributes(plant height,
Phosphorus ranges between low to medium and number of pods per plant, number of grains per pod,
potassium at higher side while micronutrients were weight of grain per plant, 100 seed weight etc.) and
generally below critical level. quality contributing parameters (trypsin inhibitor,

Table 2. Effects of PSAP on growth and yield attributes of soybean

Treatment Treatment detail Plant No. of No. of Weight Yield/ Yield
height pods/ plant grain/ plant of grain/ plot (q/ha)
(cm) plant (g) (kg)
T1 RDF+ plant protection 70.15 18.13 36.27 2.18 1.09 10.88
T2 RDF+plant 70.33 19.07 38.13 2.29 1.14 11.44

protection+PSAP
T3 RDF+50 %plant protection 67.92 14.87 29.73 1.78 0.89 8.92
T4 RDF+50 % plant 68.70 15.13 30.27 1.82 0.91 9.08

protection +PSAP
T5 Recommended dose N+50 69.30 16.60 33.20 1.99 1.00 9.96
% P, K & plant protection
% P, K & plant protection+
PSAP
% P, K & 50 % plant
protection
% P, K & 50 % plant
protection +PASP
T9 Recommended dose 66.54 14.20 28.39 1.70 0.85 8.52
N+PASP
S.Em (±) 1.14 0.45 0.9040 0.05 0.03 0.27
CD at 5% 3.43 1.35 2.71 0.16 0.08 0.81
CV 5.22 8.75 8.75 8.75 8.75 8.75
protein% and fat %,) insect pest and disease incident PSAP increased; yield contributing parameters
and effect on soil parameters were recorded time and yield of soybean. The maximum plant height
to time during the both year of experiment. The (70.3cm)was observed in T2 (RDF+PPM+PSAP)
data for insect and pest infestations were taken pre while minimum (66.9 cm) in T9 (RDN and PSAP).
and post spray of insecticide. The pooled data were The similar trends were also observed for number
analyzed by adopting simple RBD design by using of pods per plant (19.07),number of grain per
standard procedure (Snedecor and Cochran, 1967). plant(38.13), weight of grain per plant(2.29g),
yield per plot (1.14kg),respectively (Table 1). The
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION maximum yield 11.44 q/ha were recorded with
Effect on Growth, yield and quality attributes application of PSAP along with RDF and plant
The results showed that the application of protection measures (T2) while the minimum yield
was noticed in case of PSAP application with RDN

78
Table 3. Effect of PSAP on incidents of insect, pest, disease and natural fauna.
Treatment Details Whitefly Green Tobacco Girdle beetle Pod Yellow Coccinella chrysoperla Predatory
(3leaf/plant) semilooper Caterpillar (mrl) damage vein (mrl) spider
(mrl) (mrl) (%) mosaic
BF AF BF AF BF AF BF AF (PDI)
T1 RDF+plant 4.80 2.97 2.70 0.81 2.53 1.22 1.30 0.97 4.77 1.36 0.31 0.36 0.66
protection
T2 RDF+ plant 5.00 3.00 2.73 0.69 2.63 1.25 1.53 0.92 4.15 1.55 0.29 0.34 0.63
protection+PSAP
T3 RDF+50 %plant 4.17 3.97 2.80 1.40 2.57 2.20 1.67 1.40 7.23 2.58 0.56 0.58 0.98
protection
T4 RDF+50 % plant 4.75 3.80 2.57 1.42 2.40 2.18 1.70 1.38 7.11 2.60 0.60 0.54 0.84
protection +PSAP
T5 Recommended dose 4.15 3.27 2.30 1.03 3.00 1.37 1.50 0.87 5.33 1.91 0.35 0.46 0.60
N+50 % P, K &
plant protection
N+50 % P, K &
plant protection+
PSAP
N+50 % P, K & 50
%plant protection
N+50 % P, K & 50

%plant protection
+PASP
N+PASP
SEm (±) 0.19 0.22 0.14 0.10 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.11 0.48 0.05 0.03 0.05 0.04
CD at 5% 0.56 0.67 0.43 0.31 0.36 0.33 0.30 0.34 1.45 0.14 0.10 0.15 0.11
CV 13.36 19.66 18.20 23.99 14.14 18.47 19.92 27.17 24.47 6.59 17.37 26.42 12.84
Table 4. Effect of PSAP on benefit cost ratio.

Treatment Treatment Details Yield Cost of Gross Net Return B:C
(q/ha) cultivation return (Rs) (Rs)
(Rs)
T1 RDF+ plant protection 10.9 32350 43218.5 10868.5 1.34
T2 RDF+plant protection 11.4 34950 45201 10251 1.29
+PSAP
T3 RDF+50 % plant 8.9 30350 35288.5 4938.5 1.16
protection
T4 RDF+50 %plant 9.1 33950 36081.5 2131.5 1.06
protection +PSAP
T5 Recommended dose 10.0 30950 39650 8700 1.28
N+50 % P, K & plant
protection
T6 Recommended dose 10.3 32950 40839.5 7889.5 1.24
N+50 % P, K & plant
protection+ PSAP
N+50 % P, K & 50
%plant protection
N+50 % P, K & 50 %
plant protection +PASP
T9 Recommended dose 8.5 29950 33702.5 3752.5 1.13
N+PASP
only (T9) which was significantly higher in treated (4.15) was minimum inT2(RDF+PPM+PSAP)
plot as compare to absolute control. The results while maximum (8.84) in T9. The slightly higher
were in conformity by the study of Agrios (2005) population of natural enemies i.e., Coccinella, (1.86)
and Verma and Billlore (2020). chrysoperla (1.61) and predatory spider (2.24)
population were recorded in T9 as compared to T2.
Effect on insect -pests and disease incidence There was no any phytotoxic effect was recorded
The pooled data of two year experiments after the application of PSAP in soybean crop. It
revealed that the minimum white flies (2.97 leaf / was concluded that the RDF+PPM and PSAP have
plant) were recorded in T1while maximum (4.63 slight significant impact on insect pest control in
leaf /plant) in T9 (RDN+PSAP @4g/l). The similar soybean crop. Result were supported by the study
trends were also observed for tobacco caterpillar of Bhise et al (2017) and Sawant et al (2016) who
and YVM, respectively. (Table 4) The lower evaluated potassium phosphate against downy
infestation of Girdle beetle (0.92 mrl) was found mildew in grape and found it was most effective in
in T2(RDF+PPM+PSAP@4g/l) while higher in T9 controlling the diseases.
(2.40 mrl), may be due to higher vegetative foliage by
application of nitrogen. The green semilooper (0.69 Effect on Quality and economic return
mrl) was observed significantly less incidence in T2, Pooled data of experiment revealed that
as compared to T9. The percentage of pod damage application of potassium salt of active phosphorus on

grain quality of soybean i.e., trypsin inhibitor activity REFERENCES

was higher (8.34 mg/g) in RDF+PPM+PSAP@4g/l Agrios GN (2005). Plant pathology 5th edition, Elsevier
(T2)in comparison to RDF+PPM(T1) alone, Amsterdam. PP:635
(7.44mg/g), while the reverse trend was observed Bhisea A,Vitekaria H, Mhetaraand K and Maneb R (2017).
in case of protein and fat percentage which were Antifungal activity of postassium phosphite against
downy mildew causing Plasmopara viticola in grape. Int
higher in T1 as compared to T2. It also observed J Pharma Biol Sci 7(4):139-142
that the net return was achieved of Rs. 2209/- in
Black C A (1965). Methods of Soil Analysis. Part II. American
PSAP sprayed plot as compared to control plot but Society of Agronomy. Inc. Madison, Wisconsian, U.S.A.
there was no significant difference in B: C ratio
Mengel K and Krikby EA (1987). Principals of plant nutrition.
values of PSAP application which was at par in T1 4th edition PP: 403-446
and T2 (Table 4).
Nambiar KKM (1995). Soil fertility and crop productivity
under long term fertilizer use in India. Fertilizer News
CONCLUSION 34:11-20
It was concluded that the application of Sawant S D, Ghule M R, Savadekar R M, Sawant I S, and
RDF+PPM+PSAP@4gm/l increased growth and Sah S (2016). Effective use of activated potassium salt of
yield attributes as compared to yield and economic long chain phosphorus (96%) for the control of fungicide
return in control. In spite of this the quality aspect resistant Plasmopara viticola causing downy mildew in
grape. Indian Phytopath 69: 338-344
of soybean was also better when applied with PSAP.
As well as the insect pest and disease incidence Snedecor G W and Cochran W G (1967). Statistical Methods,
Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. New Delhi. PP: 135-375
were least in soybean crop hence achieved better
yield. It may be due to appropriate nutrition of P & Swarup A (1998). In long term soil fertility management
through integrated plant supply. AICRP, fertilizer
K nutrition of soybean which enhanced growth and experiments. IISS, Bhopal PP. 54-68
yield parameters, photosynthesis metabolic process
Verma, Rakesh and Billlore S D (2020). Bio efficacy
reduces the loss by stomatal opening and closing in evaluation of potassium salt of active phosphorus (PSAP)
leaves of plant system. on soybean. Project report, ICAR-IISR Khandwa Road,
Indore PP. 1-31

Effect of Rice Stubble and Irrigation Scheduling on

Growth and Yield of Wheat Crop
Hrishikesh Nath1, Rajan Kumar2, Britan Rahman3*, Saikat Sarkar4, Apurba Baruah5,
Pranjeet Kalita6 and Sonamoni Turi7
Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar-848125
ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted during the winter Rabi season of 2021 at Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central
Agricultural University, Pusa, Bihar, in order to study the possibility of improving the growth and yield of
wheat under the effect of rice stubble and irrigation scheduling. The experiment was laid out in split-plot
design, having 5 main-plot treatment, viz., I1, one irrigation at crown-root-initiation(CRI) stage; I2, two
irrigation at the CRI +booting stage; I3, two irrigation at the CRI + milk stage; I4, three irrigation at the CRI
+ late jointing +milk stage; I5, four irrigation at the CRI + maximum tillering + flowering + dough stage
and 3 subplot treatment, viz., R1 (rice stubbles cut at a height of 5 cm); R2 (rice stubbles cut at a height of
20 cm) and R3 (rice stubbles cut at a height of 35 cm)with 3 replication. Resulted indicated that, the growth
parameters and yield attributes viz., of plant height, number of tillers/mrl, no. of tillers/m2, spike length,
number of grains/ear, crop emergence (number of plants/m2), dry matter accumulation (g/m2) and crop
growth rate (g/m2/day) were found to be maximum with I5 irrigation level, which was significantly superior
to I1, I2, and I3 but statistically at par with I4. 4 irrigations (I5) and rice stubbles cut at a height of 20 cm
(R2) resulted in the highest growth and yield-attributing characters. The grain yield and straw yield were
increased up to 4 irrigations (I5). Treatment R2 gave the highest grain and straw yields which was at par with
R1 treatment. The highest grain and straw yields were recorded with I5R2 treatment combination.
Key Words: Growth, Irrigation Scheduling, Rice, Stubble, Treatment, Yield
INTRODUCTION duration and timing of the imposed soil-moisture

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is not only a deficit under limited irrigation determine grain yield
major food source, but it is also an important crop reduction. The procedure for determining irrigation
for national food security due to its significant scheduling refers when and amount of water should
contribution to food grain buffer stock. Irrigation be applied per irrigation. Proper scheduling of
is one of the most important and costly inputs that irrigation is critical to maximise the water, energy,
have a direct impact on wheat growth and yield, and and other manufacturing inputs. Three significant
irrigation at the right time and quantity can increase factors influence scheduling of irrigation: (a) crop
yield. A change in the optimal temperature during water requirements; (b) Irrigation water availability;
wheat’s vegetative and reproductive growth has a and (c) water in the root system storage capacity.
negative impact on the rate and duration of growth, Crop water requirements are critical in determining
as well as the yield. Irrigation can be timed to create irrigation timing during the crop-growing season in
a favourable soil moisture regime. The degree, irrigation projects.

1,2,4,5,6&7
Dr.Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar-848125
3
SCS College of Agriculture, Assam Agricultural University, Rangamati, Dhubri, Assam-783376

Effect of Rice Stubble and Irrigation Scheduling on Growth
Furthermore, the biological and biochemical in an increase in plant available nutrients in the
benefits of composted stubble are not significantly soil. Furthermore, repeated cultivation under rice
greater than those of incorporated stubble. Stubble stubble improves soil structure, which benefits the
incorporation aids in the degradation of organic wheat crop and internal drainage, which benefits the
matter, the stimulation of nitrogen fixation, and rice crop. Wheat yield is maximised when wheat
the stimulation of phosphorus, all of which result seeds are sown directly in a field containing rice
Table 1. Effect of rice stubble and irrigation scheduling on plant height (cm) and number of tillers/
meter row length (mrl)
Treatment Plant Height ( in cm) No. of tillers/meter row length (mrl)
Irrigation 30 DAS 60 DAS 90DAS HARVEST 30DAS 60 DAS 90 DAS HARVEST

Scheduling (I)
I - Irrigation at 18.06 45.48 72.77 80.85 32.15 66.95 59.52 51.01
1
CRI Stage
I –Irrigation at 18.45 48.72 77.95 86.60 32.55 73.81 64.63 55.39
2
CRI+boot Stage
I –Irrigation at 18.59 50.77 81.23 90.24 33.00 76.49 71.95 61.67
3
CRI+ milk Stage
I –Irrigation 18.75 56.77 90.83 100.91 33.84 86.97 84.13 72.11
4
at CRI + late
jointing + milk
Stage
I –Irrigation at 19.00 57.00 91.20 101.32 34.34 88.58 85.98 76.43
5
CRI + maximum
tillering+
flowering+ dough
Stage
SEm(±) 0.22 1.52 2.44 2.71 0.85 1.99 2.08 1.79
LSD( p= 0.05) NS 5.27 8.43 9.36 NS 6.90 7.21 6.19
Rice stubbles(R)
R1- Rice stubble 18.47 51.67 82.67 91.85 30.62 78.46 73.17 63.28
cut at 5 cm height
R2- Rice stubble 18.86 54.21 86.74 96.36 30.91 81.79 76.66 66.27
cut at 20 cm
height
R3- Rice stubble 18.38 49.36 78.98 87.74 30.20 75.43 69.89 60.42
cut at 35 cm
height
SEm(±) 0.23 0.93 2.22 2.47 0.78 1.82 1.93 1.66
LSD (p= 0.05) NS 2.78 6.66 7.40 NS 5.45 5.79 4.99
Interaction (IX R) NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS

Table 2. Effect of rice stubble and irrigation scheduling on Dry matter accumulation (g/m2) and
Crop growth rate (g/m2/day)
Treatment Dry matter accumulation (g/m2) Crop growth rate (g/m2/day)
Irrigation Scheduling (I) 30 DAS 60 DAS 90DAS HARVEST 0-30 30-60 60-90 90- 120-
120 Harvest
I-Irrigation at CRI Stage 22.19 182.49 364.94 656.89 0.74 5.34 6.08 8.52 1.22
I –Irrigation at CRI+boot 22.01 198.15 396.27 713.29 0.73 5.87 6.60 9.25 1.32
2
Stage
I –Irrigation at CRI+ 22.31 220.60 441.17 794.11 0.74 6.61 7.35 10.29 1.47
3
milk Stage
I –Irrigation at CRI + late 22.41 239.21 478.38 861.09 0.75 7.23 7.97 11.16 1.59
4
jointing + milk Stage
I –Irrigation at CRI + 22.54 257.96 515.87 928.56 0.75 7.85 8.60 12.04 1.72
5
maximum tillering+
flowering+ dough Stage
SEm(±) 0.75 6.39 12.77 23.01 0.02 0.21 0.21 0.30 0.04
LSD( p= 0.05) NS 22.10 44.20 79.63 NS 0.71 0.74 1.03 0.15
Rice stubbles(R)
R1- Rice stubble cut at 5 22.25 219.36 438.68 789.63 0.74 6.57 7.31 10.24 1.46
cm height
cm height
cm height
SEm(±) 0.52 5.77 11.66 20.78 0.02 0.20 0.19 0.27 0.04
LSD (p= 0.05) NS 17.30 34.95 62.29 NS 0.59 0.58 0.82 0.12
Interaction (IX R) NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS
stubble and nitrogen is applied recently until wheat MATERIALS AND METHODS
tillering. It is a novel idea that will benefit farmers During the Rabi season, an experimental trial
by saving them time when sowing wheat, resulting was carried out at Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central
in increased overall production. Cultivation on rice Agricultural University’s research farm at Pusa,
Stubble will allow farmers to plan water rotation Bihar. It is located on the Burhi Gandak river’s
between fields to minimize crop water stress, as well southern bank, at 250 59000 N latitude and 840 4000
as maximising the yield, in addition to increasing E longitude, at an elevation of 52.3 m above mean
net returns through increased crop yields and crop sea level (mean sea level). The research field had
quality. Rice stubbles on the plot will be cut at a consistent topography and textural make-up and
various heights, allowing crop residues left on the was linked to the main irrigation channel, which
field to replenish soil moisture. We will be able to was linked to the farm tube well for consistent
observe irrigation treatments at various stages of and timely irrigation. During the research period,
wheat growth. drainage system arrangements were available to
remove excess water. The trial was carried out in

a calcareous sandy loam type of soil texture which (4 m × 3.4 m).The statistical analysis was carried
comes under the soil order entisol. The soil testing out as described by Gomez and Gomez (1984).
results showed alkaline type of reaction with lower
values of organic carbon, N, P and K. It was found Growth parameter
that pH was 8.28, low organic carbon (0.42 %), low Crop emergence, plant height, the number
available nitrogen (201.2 kg/ha), high available of tillers per metre row length (mrl), dry matter
phosphorus (P2O5) (17.18 kg/ha) and medium accumulation, and crop growth rate (CGR) were all
available potassium (K2O) (120.05 kg/ha). The measured in each plot at 30, 60, 90, and 120 days
experiment was carried out in split-plot design after sowing (DAS), as well as at harvest.
(SPD) with three replications. It consisted of 5 main W2-W1
plots and 3 subplot viz., I1(one irrigation at CRI CGR =
(T2-T1) P
stage), I2 (two irrigation at the CRI +booting stage),
Crop Growth Rate (CGR): The amount of dry
I3 (two irrigation at the CRI + milk stage), I4 (three
matter produced per area of land per unit time, as
irrigation at the CRI + late jointing + milk stage), I5
well as the crop growth rate (CGR), were calculated
(four irrigation at the CRI + maximum tillering +
using the formula & expressed in g/m2 /day.
flowering + dough stage) and sub-plot consists of R1
(rice stubbles cut at a height of 5 cm), R2 (rice stubbles Where,
cut at a height of 20 cm) and R3 (rice stubbles cut at W1: weight of dry matter at time t1
a height of 35 cm). The variety used for wheat was
W2: weight of dry matter at time t2
HD2733. The RDF (Recommended Fertilizer Dose)
of wheat was 120:60:40 kg/ha (NPK) respectively. P: Land area
The spacing was maintained at 20 cm (R x R). Line Yield and Yield Parameters
sowing and by manual broadcasting was done as Yield attributing parameters were recorded
per the treatment and mixed it with a rotavator. at physiological maturity. All these observations
Wheat cv. HD 2733 was sown on 2nd December include effective tillers/m2, length of spike (cm),
in all the plots during 2021 all the treatments. A No. of grains/ear, test weight (1000 grains in gm),
standardized nitrogen dose has been used in two biological yield (grain + straw) and harvest index
parts: ½ only at planting time as basal and the other (%).
half two day’s later as top dressing. Whole amount
of P2O5 and K2O was applied as basal at the time Economic yield ( e.g. grain)
H.I. = × 100
of sowing. Pre-sown irrigation was applied for both Biological yield ( e.g. grain + straw)
seasons during 2021-2022. Common irrigation
as per crop needs was applied based on moisture Sink
= × 100
requirement status and crop development stages. Source
The other management practices were adopted
as per the recommendations of the crops. Rice RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
stubbles were cut at different height i.e. 5, 20 and Growth Parameters
35 cm from 25.11.2021 to 30.11.2021. During the Wheat plants grown with irrigation level at I5
trial meteorological data were suitable for normal (irrigation at CRI +Maximum Tillering + Flowering
growth of the crop. The harvesting of the wheat + Dough Stage) showed maximum plant height as
crop began on in the last week of April, 2022, when shown in (Table 1). 101.32 cm at harvest which
the crop reached maturity. Observations on the was significantly superior to irrigation level at I1
growth parameter and wheat yield were assessed on i.e. irrigation at CRI stage, I2 i.e. irrigation at CRI
the basis of the produced recorded from the net plot + Boot stage and I3 i.e., irrigation at CRI+ Milk

Table 3. Effect of rice stubble and irrigation scheduling on yield and yield attributes and harvest
index(%)
TREATMENT No. of Spike No. of Test Grain Straw Harvest
effective or ear grains/ear Weight Yield(t/ha) Yield(t/ha) Index
tiilers/m2 length(cm) (g) (%)
Irrigation
scheduling (I)
I - Irrigation at 284.76 8.10 30.27 38.53 2.90 4.73 37.96
1
CRI Stage
I –Irrigation at 319.03 8.67 33.91 39.07 3.25 5.29 38.14
2
CRI+boot Stage
I –Irrigation at 332.45 9.04 35.34 39.55 3.38 5.48 38.20
3
CRI+ milk Stage
I –Irrigation at 384.84 10.10 40.91 40.32 3.92 6.27 38.47
4
CRI + late jointing
+ milk Stage
I –Irrigation at 392.92 10.15 41.77 40.48 4.00 6.32 38.77
5
CRI + maximum
tillering+
flowering+ dough
Stage
SEm(±) 9.97 0.27 1.06 1.04 0.10 0.16 0.26
LSD( p= 0.05) 34.49 0.94 3.67 NS 0.35 0.57 NS
Rice stubbles(R)
R1- Rice stubble 342.30 9.20 36.39 39.12 3.48 5.63 38.35
cut at 5 cm height
R2- Rice stubble 358.93 9.65 38.15 39.32 3.65 5.90 38.42
cut at 20 cm height
R3- Rice stubble 327.17 8.79 34.78 38.92 3.33 5.37 38.10
cut at 35 cm height
SEm(±) 9.11 0.25 0.97 0.80 0.09 0.15 0.25
LSD (p= 0.05) 27.27 0.74 2.90 NS 0.28 0.45 NS
Interaction (IX R) NS NS NS NS NS NS NS
stage but statistically at par with I4(100.91cm) i.e. reported significant reductions in plant height as
irrigation at CRI +Late Jointing + Milk stage.This is a result of decreased irrigation levelsAt harvest,
probably due to increasing the number of irrigation plant height was maximum at R2, rice stubble cut
at different growth stages, which maintained at height 20 cm (96.36 cm) which was significantly
various metabolic processes due to the presence of superior to R3, rice stubble cut at height 35 cm but
adequate moisture in the soil. Saren et al (2004), was statistically at par with R1, rice stubble cut at
Brahma et al (2007) and Kumar et al (2016a.) all height 5 cm (91.85 cm) as demonstrated in (Table

1). It could be because the rice stubbles at R2 could boot stage and I3 i.e. irrigation at CRI + milk stage
hold enough moisture, resulting in improved soil but was at par with I4 i.e., irrigation at CRI+ late
health and higher uptake of available nutrients from jointing+ milk stage (861.09 g/m2)as presented in
the soil.Familiar results has been reported by Davari (Table 2). Plant photosynthetic activity is heavily
et al (2012), Verma and Pandey (2013), Meena and reliant on dry matter accumulation in leaves and
Singh (2013) and Kumar et al (2016b.) where they leaf area. More dry matter accumulation in leaves
revealed that highest plant height and maximum allowed the photosynthetic area to remain active
tillers per meter square under zero tillage sown with for a longer period of time, which is responsible for
rice residue retention followed by zero tillage with overall plant growth Plants grown with rice stubbles
residue burning in both years. cut at height 20 cm i.e. R2 produced more dry
Plants irrigated at I5 i.e., irrigation at CRI matter (828 g/m2) as compared to other treatments
+maximum tillering + flowering + dough stage at harvest which was superior than R3 i.e. rice
produce a greater number of tillers/mrl at 60 DAS stubbles cut at height 35 cm but R2 was statistically
as shown in table 1. (88.58 tillers/mrl) which at par with R1 (789.63 g/m2) i.e. stubbles cut at
was significantly superior to I1 .i.e. irrigation at height 5 cmas presented in (Table 2). Also, in R2
CRI stage, I2 .i.e. irrigation at CRI + Boot stage (rice stubbles cut at a height of 20 cm), crop height
and I3 .i.e. irrigation at CRI + milk stage but was maximised, implying that the taller the plant,
was statistically at par with I4 (86.97 tillers/mrl) the greater the dry matter production. Thapa et al
i.e. irrigation at CRI + late jointing stage + milk (2019) found that zero-tillage plots with residue
stage,which might be due to more availability of retention had higher dry matter.
water on I5 irrigation application. In the sub-plot Highestcrop growth rate (g/m2/day) was found
treatment, plants grown with rice stubbles cut at at 90-120 DASat I5, irrigation at CRI + maximum
20 cm height i.e. R2 produce more no. of tillers/ tillering +flowering + dough stage (12.04 g/m2/day)
mrl (81.79 tillers/mrl) at 60 DAScompared to other which was significantly superior than irrigation
treatments and was significantly superior over at I1i.e. irrigation at CRI stage, I2 i.e. irrigation
R3 .i.e. rice stubbles cut at height 35 cm but was at CRI + boot stage and I3 i.e. irrigation at CRI +
statistically at par with R1 i.e., rice stubbles cut at milk stage but was statistically at par with I4, i.e.
height 5 cm (78.46 tillers/mrl) as demonstrated in irrigation at CRI+ late jointing+ milk stage (11.16
(Table 1).It might be due to increased crop residue g/m2/day) as presented in (Table 2).The reason for
load on the soil surface or incorporation into the soil this was that as the number of irrigations increased,
created an impervious layer enough to hinder crop so did the positive effect of water on cell division,
germination and subsequently its initial growth. cell enlargement, elongation, photosynthetic
These findings were in agreement with Kumar et al accumulation, and proper translocation. These
(2005) where increasing the rice crop residue @ 6-7 findings in terms of growth parameters in the
t/ha reduces the emergence of wheat as compared to present investigation also finds support from
residue removal and burning of residues. Also due the works of Yadav and Verma (1989), Bhan et
to mortality of lately formed non-effective tillers. al (1990) and Deshmukh et al (1992). In case of
Similar studies were made by Singh et al (2006b) sub-plot treatment, maximum crop growth rate
Maximum dry matter accumulation was was recorded at 90-120 DAS at R2, rice stubbles
recorded at harvest at I5 (928.56 g/m2) i.e. irrigation cut at height 20 cm (10.73 g/m2/day) which was
at CRI +maximum tillering + flowering + dough significantly superior than R3 i.e. rice stubbles cut
stage which was significantly superior than I1 i.e. at height 35 cm but was statistically at par with R1
irrigation at CRI stage, I2 i.e. irrigation at CRI + i.e. rice stubbles cut at height 5 cm (10.24 g/m2/day)

shown in the (Table 2). This might be due to residue with Tripathi et al (2015) reported that the number
retention in case of rice stubbles and R2 shows more of grains per spike were found in zero-tillage
nutrient uptake due to better moisture availability wheat with full residue retention, followed by zero-
which might have showed increased organic carbon tillage wheat without residue, and were lowest
and increased microbial population and infiltration in conventional tillage wheat with full residue
rate, resulting in more favourable conditions for incorporation.
crop growth and development. This result is similar I5 (irrigation at CRI + maximum tillering +
with the findings of Jat et al (2013); Ronanki and flowering + dough Stage) produced the highest
Behera (2018). But in case of R3 (rice stubbles cut grain yield (4 t/ha) and straw yield (6.32 t/ha) as
at height 35 cm), due to excess moisture holding in shown in the (Table 3). This could be attributed to
the root zone, temperature decreases which creates adequate moisture availability, which contributed
an anaerobic condition and slows down the uptake to improved growth parameters and yield
of nutrients due to slow metabolic processes. characteristics. Irrigation at CRI (I1) produced
Yield and Yield Attributes the lowest grainyield (2.90 t/ha)due to a lack of
The maximum number of effective tillers m2 moisture during the growth period, which reduced
(392.92 tillers/m2), length of spike (10.15 cm), yield attributes and resulted in low grain and straw
and number of grains/ear (41.77 grains/ear) were yield. Kumar et al (2016a) and Ahmad et al (2016)
obtained at I5 (irrigation at CRI +maximum tillering all reported similar findings. R2 grain (3.65 t/ha)
+ flowering + dough Stage), which was comparable and straw yield (5.90 t/ha) was significantly higher
to I4 (irrigation at CRI+ Late Jointing+ Milk Stage), than R3 in sub-plot treatment and was at par with
and showed significant superiority over I1 (irrigation R1 as shown in the table 3, because the number of
at CRI), I2 (irrigation at CRI + boot stage), and I3 tillers was higher in R2 treatment. Yadav et al (2005)
(irrigation at CRI + milk stage) as described in the reported similar findings.
(Table 3). The test weight, on the other hand, was
not significantly affected by irrigation scheduling CONCLUSION
treatment. Thus, under maximum irrigation level Irrigation at CRI +maximum tillering + flowering
obtained with I5 (irrigation at CRI +maximum + dough Stage (I5) was found to be optimal for
tillering + flowering + dough Stage), this was the wheat crop when all growth parameters, yield
favourable environment for vegetative growth attributes, and yield were considered. In case of
and development resulted in a greater number rice stubbles, rice stubbles cut at height 20 cm (R2)
of yield attribute characters. This finding was above the ground level produced maximum grain
similar to those of Shivani et al (2001), Saren et al and straw yield which was superior over R1 (Rice
(2004) and Brahma et al (2007).Except for the test Stubble cut at height 5 cm) and R3 (Rice Stubble cut
weight, which is not significant in the case of rice at height 35 cm).
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Kumar A, Nand V and Kumar R (2016a). Effect of different Agric 13 (1): 37-49.
levels of irrigation under integrated nutrient management Watson D J (1952).The physiological basis of variation in
(INM) on wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) for central plain yield. Adv Agron 6: 103-109.
agro climatic zone of Utter Pradesh, India. Pl Archives 16 Yadav D S, Shukla R P and Sushant (2005). Effect of zero
(1): 395-398. tillage and nitrogen level on wheat ( Triticuma estivum)
Kumar A, Nand V and Kumar R (2016a). Effect of different after rice. Indian J Agron 50 (1):52-53.
levels of irrigation under integrated nutrient management Yadav G L and Verma J K (1989).Effect of irigation regime,
(INM) on wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) for central plain nitrogen and zinc fertilization on growth and yield of late
agro climatic zone of Utter Pradesh, India. Pl Archives sown wheat. Indian J Agron 36 (1):50-53.
16(1): 395-398.
Kumar S D, Pandey D S and Rana N C (2005). Economics and
yield potential of wheat (Triticum aestivum) as affected
by tillage, rice (Oryza sativa) residue and nitrogen
management options under rice-wheat system. Indian J
Agron 50: 102-105.

Effect of Transplanting Dates and Locations on the Performance

of Broccoli under wet temperate Himalayas
Rajeev Kumar, Aanchal Chauhan, Reena Kumari, Kumari Shiwani,
Priyanka Thakur and Neha Thakur
Dr YS Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry
College of Horticulture and Forestry Thunag, Mandi-175048 (Himachal Pradesh)
ABSTRACT
An experiment on the effect of dates of transplanting on growth and yield of broccoli (Brassica oleracea
var. italica) was carried out at three different locations of Seraj valley, Mandi, Himachal Pradesh. The
treatment combinations comprised of three dates of transplanting viz., 15th April, 30th April and 15th May
and three locations viz., Bajwas, Mayadhar and Jarol villages in a factorial randomized block design (FRBD)
with three replications. The broccoli transplanted on 30th April recorded significantly maximum yield
(214.81 q/ha) over the other dates of transplanting. Third location viz., village Jarol showed significantly
maximum number of non wrapper leaves, head diameter, head weight and yield. Interaction between dates
of transplanting and location was significant in respect of yield per hectare. Maximum yield per hectare
(215.55 q/ha) was obtained in treatment combinationL3T2 i.e. transplanting on 30th Aprilat village Jarol.
Key Words: Broccoli, Locations, Production, Transplanting dates, Yield
INTRODUCTION weather conditions of this valley are on cooler side

Broccoli [Brassica oleracea (L.) var. italica] almost round the year and it encounter snowfall
is one of the most popular exotic vegetable in during winters. There is need to standardize suitable
India. It belongs to the family brassicaceae and planting time for broccoli. Therefore, present study
is nutritionally rich vegetable and possess good was aimed at promotion of high valued broccoli by
amount of proteins, fibers, carbohydrates, vitamins, identifying its optimum planting time at different
calcium and iron. It contains an anticancerous locations of Seraj valley of Mandi district, Himachal
compound sulphoraphane. Broccoli like other Pradesh.
cole crops prefer cool moist climatic conditions
which help in the developing quality heads. It is MATERIALS AND METHODS
generally grown in highland where the weather The present investigation was undertaken in
is cool or in the lowlands during the cool season farmer’s field at three different locations during year
(Nooprom and Santipracha, 2013). Time of sowing 2020. The experiment was laid out in RBD factorial
and transplanting are important factors influencing design with three replications with plots of 1.5 m
vegetable production. The exact time of sowing of x 1.5 m size. Performance of broccoli var. Pusa
seed in nursery and transplanted in field is essential KTS-1 was evaluated at three different locations
for obtaining maximum yield along with quality of viz. village Bajwas (L1), Mayadhar (L2), Jarol (L3)
vegetable (Csizinszky, 1996).Optimum temperature and at three transplanting dates 15th April (T1), 30th
for growth ranges between 18-24°C (Decoteau, April (T2), 15th May (T3). Ten plants were selected
2000; Uzen and Kar, 2004). The climatic conditions randomly for data collection. Observations were
of Seraj valley are suitable for its production. The recorded on days to head initiation, number of non

Effect of Transplanting Dates and Locations
Table 1. Effect of different locations on different horticultural traits of Broccoli var. Pusa KTS-1.
Location Days to head Number Head Plant Head Yield/ Yield/ ha
initiation of non diameter height Weight plot (kg) (q)
wrapper (cm) (cm) (g)
leaves
Bajwas (L1) 81.42 15.45 12.17 43.96 426.81 8.54 213.41
Mayadhar(L2) 79.68 17.47 14.12 44.32 428.22 8.56 214.11
Jarol (L3) 78.06 17.84 15.27 45.56 428.70 8.57 214.35
CD(0.05) NS 0.93 NS NS 1.66 0.03 0.83
wrapper leaves, plant height (cm), head diameter April. Maximum head diameter (15.12 cm) of
(cm), head weight (g), yield per plot (kg) and yield broccoli was obtained from 30th Aprilsowing. On
per hectare (q). The collected data were analyzed the other hand, transplanting on 15th Aprilproduced
statistically and the means were separated by LSD. the longest broccoli plant (45.69 cm) and 15th May
(T3) sowing produced minimum head diameter. The
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION highest single head weight was recorded from 30th
Effect of locations on broccoli April (T2) transplanting and the lowest single head
Yield and other yield contributing characters weight was recorded by transplanting on15th May.
like number of non wrapper leavesand head weight Being a thermo sensitive plant, the early planted
were significantly influenced by the locations (Table plant received comparatively low temperature
1). For some traits such asdays to head initiation, during vegetative growth which produced bigger
head diameter and plant height the effect of location sized head. The main head yield of broccoli were
was found to be non significant. Minimum days to significantly influenced among the three sowing
head initiation was recorded at Jarol(L3) whereas time. 30th April transplanting produced the highest
maximum at Bajwas (L1). Maximum number of non main head yield (214.81q/ha) and transplanting
wrapper leaves, head diameter, plant heightwere on 15th May produced the lowest main head yield
recorded at village Jarol(L3), whereas minimum (212.44 q/ha).
values for these traits were recorded at village Combined effect of location and transplanting
Bajwas (L1). dates
Highest per plot as well as per hectare yield Treatment combination of location and
(214.35q/ha) was obtained from village Jarol (L3) transplanting dates had significant effect on yield
and minimum (213.41q/ha) at Bajwas (L1). Similar and yield contributing characters of broccoli except
observations reported by Solunke et al (2011) and for days to head initiation, head diameter and plant
Nooprom and Santipracha (2014). height (Table 3). Combination of third location
i.e., Jarol and transplanting on 15th May had taken
Effect of transplanting dates on broccoli minimum days (76.50) to head initiation whereas,
Yield and yield contributing characters of maximum days tohead initiation were taken by
broccoli except number of non wrapper leaves were transplanting on 30th April at village Bajwas.
significantly influenced by different transplanting Maximum number of non wrapper leaves (19.26)
dates (Table 2). Minimum days (78.39)to head were observed in treatment combination L T i.e.
initiation were taken by transplanting on 15th May transplanting on 15th May at village Mayadhar2 and 3
it
(T3) whereas, maximum days (80.70) for head was at par withL T (18.64), whereas least number of
3 3
initiation were observed by transplanting on 15th non-wrapper leaves (14.43) were found in treatment

Table 2. Effect of different transplanting dates on different horticultural traits of Broccoli var. Pusa
KTS-1.
Transplanting Days to head Number Head Plant Head Yield/ Yield/ ha
dates initiation of non diameter height Weight plot (q)
wrapper (cm) (cm) (g) (kg)
leaves
15th April (T1) 80.70 16.51 13.68 45.69 429.22 8.58 214.61
30th April (T2) 80.07 16.81 15.12 44.74 429.63 8.59 214.81
15th May (T3) 78.39 17.44 12.76 43.40 424.89 8.50 212.44
CD(0.05) 1.53 NS 1.34 1.30 1.66 0.03 0.83
combination L1T3 i.e. 15th May transplanting at value of plant height (422.33g). Among different
village Bajwas. Maximum value (15.62 cm) for head treatment combinations maximum head yield per
diameter was observed with treatment combination plot (8.62 kg) as well as per hectare (215.55q) was
L2T230th April transplanting at village Mayadhar observed under treatment combination L3T2 i.e. 30th
whereas minimum value (9.93 cm) for this trait was April transplanting at village Jarol. This was found
observed at village Bajwas when transplanted on at par with 30th April transplanting at Bajwas(L1T2)
15th May. Maximum plant height (46.33 cm) was and 15th April transplanting at Mayadhar (L3T1).
recorded with L3T2 i.e. 30th April transplanting at Maximum yield at 30th April transplanting at
village jarol. Transplanting on 15th May at village village Jarol might be due to climatic suitability and
Mayadhar had resulted in minimum plant height availability of desired temperature which resulted in
(42.47cm). Maximum head weight of 431.11g was profused growth of the crop. Similar observations
observed with 30th April transplanting at village were observed by Saikiaet al (2010); Hossain et al
Jarol (L3T2). On the other hand transplanting on (2011); Karistsapol et al (2013).
15th May at village Bajwas resulted in minimum
Table3. Combined effect of location and transplanting dates on broccoli production
Location Transplanting Days Number Head Plant Head Yield/ Yield/
date to head of non diameter height Weight plot ha (q)
initiation wrapper (cm) (cm) (g) (kg)
leaves
Bajwas (L1) 15th April (L1T1) 81.50 15.33 11.67 45.73 427.33 8.55 213.67
30th April (L1T2) 81.53 16.58 14.90 43.40 430.78 8.61 215.39
15th May (L1T3) 81.23 14.43 9.93 42.73 422.33 8.45 211.17
M a y a d h a r 15th April (L2T1) 81.27 16.40 14.03 46.00 430.00 8.60 215.00
(L2) 30th April (L2T2) 80.33 16.76 15.62 44.50 427.00 8.54 213.50
15th May (L2T3) 77.43 19.26 12.73 42.47 427.67 8.55 213.83
Jarol (L3) 15th April L3T1 79.33 17.79 15.33 45.33 430.33 8.60 215.17
30th April L3T2 78.33 17.10 14.87 46.33 431.11 8.62 215.55
15th May L3T3 76.50 18.64 15.60 45.00 424.67 8.49 212.33
CD(0.05) NS 1.61 NS NS 2.88 0.06 1.44

Hossain M F, Ara N, Uddin M R, Dey S and Islam M R (2011).
Effect of time of sowing and plant spacing on broccoli
production. Tropical Agric Res & Ext 14: 90-92.
Karistsapol N, Quanchit S and Sompong T C (2013). Effect of
planting date and variety on growth and yield of broccoli
during the dry season in Southern Thailand. Int J Pl Anim
and Environ Sci 3:121-124.
Lawande K E, V A Khaire and D P Bhore (1988). Effect of
sowing date on yield of broccoli. J. Maharashtra Agril
Univ 13(1): 100-110.
Nooprom Karistsapol and Santipracha Quanchit (2014).
Growth and yield of broccoli planted year-round in
Songkhla Province, Thailand. Res J Appl Sci, Engineer
and Technol 7(19): 4157-4161.
Figure1. Effect of transplanting dates on Nooprom K and Q Santipracha ( 2013). Effects of planting
broccoli production. dates and varieties on growth and yield of broccoli during
rainy season. Am J Agric Biol Sci 8: 357-361.
CONCLUSION Saikia B.R, Phookan D.B and Brahma Sanchita (2010). Effect
Results of the present study revealed that of time of planting and planting densities on growth, yield
transplanting on 30th April was the optimum time and economic production of broccoli [Brassica oleracea
for broccoli production as it resulted in highest (L.) var. italica Plenck] cv. Pusa broccoli KTS-1. J Hill
Agric 1:135-39.
yield. Maximum number of non wrapper leaves,
head diameter, plant heightwere recorded at village Solunke B G, Wagh A P, Dod V N and Nagre P K (2011).
Effect of dates of planting and spacing on growth and
Jarol(L3). Among different treatment combinations yield of broccoli. The Asian J Hort 6: 294-296.
maximum head yield per plot (8.62 kg) as well as
Tejaswini T, Varma LR, Verma P, Kumar P Arun and Prajapati
per hectare (215.55q) was observed under treatment R I (2018). Studies on interaction effect of plant spacing
combination L3T2 i.e. 30th April transplanting at on different varieties with respect to growth and yield
village Jarol. of broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica. L). Int J Curr
Microbiol Appl Sci 7 (06):690-698.
REFERENCES Tewary R N, Gill S H and Ram S (1987). Influence of different
Csizinszky A A (1996). Optimum planting time, plant planting times on head shape in broccoli. Prog Hort 8(4):
spacing,and nitrogen and potassium rates to maximize 35.38.
yield of green cauliflower. Hort Sci 31(6):930–933. Uzen S and H Kar (2004). Quantitative effects of planting
Decoteau D R ( 2000). Vegetable Crops. Prentice-Hall, Upper time on vegetative growth of broccoli (Brassica oleracea
Saddle River, New Jersey var. italica). Pakistan J Bot 36: 769-777.

Effectiveness of Mobile Based SMS in

Transfer of Agricultural Technology
S Neelaveni, P Venkatarao*, Ch Balakrishna, B Mounika and K Bhagyalakshmi
Krishi Vigyana Kendra, Amadalavalasa, Srikakulam District , Andhra Pradesh
ABSTRACT
Effective communication strategy is the need of the hour to enable research results to reach the farmers’
fields without much time lag. Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Amadalavalasa has started sending mobile based
SMS through WAY2SMS to the KVK registered farmers to transfer the agricultural technology since June
2010. Ex post facto research design was followed for the study. Randomly 60 farmers were selected as
respondents for the study by simple random sampling method. 90 per cent of the farmers perceived that the
mobile based SMS were useful to disseminate the agricultural technology with cheaper cost even to remote
areas. Around 77 per cent of the farmers watching the messages immediately after receiving the messages.
The mobile service authorities need to take extra care to streamline the system so as to prepare relevant
content for maximum utility by the end users.
Key Words: SMS, Technology dissemination, Language.
INTRODUCTION to the registered farmers to transfer of agricultural

The Indian agriculture is today face to face technology since June, 2010. Hence, the study
with three challenges: to improve the economic was conducted with the objective of studying the
condition of farmers, to improve agriculture effectiveness of mobile based SMS in transfer of
productivity to feed ever-increasing population agricultural technology.
and maintenance of environment. Agricultural
extension, which is essentially a message delivery MATERIALS AND METHODS
system, has a major role to play in agricultural Ex post facto research design was followed
development. It serves as a source of advice and for the study. Regarding sample selection, out of
assistance for farmers to help them improving nine, six divisions were selected randomly and two
their production and marketing (Adams, 1988). mandals from each selected division and one village
The task of extension education is accomplished from each mandal were selected randomly. Five
by different extension methods/media, which may farmers from each village were selected randomly,
come under individual, group and mass contacts thus total 60 farmers were selected as respondents
(Sharma et al, 2012). for the study by simple random sampling method.
Effective communication strategy is need of the Structured interview schedule was developed
hour to enable research results to reach the farmers’ consisting of 9 items to measure effectiveness of
fields without much time lag. Hence, it is obvious mobile based SMS sent by KVK, Amadalavalasa
to use modern ways of communication besides for the year 2022. Each respondent was asked to
traditional methods of communication. Krishi indicate their response for the each item. Based
Vigyana Kendra (KVK), Amadalavalasa has started on the responses, frequency and percentage was
sending mobile based SMS through WAY2SMS calculated for each item.

*Scientist (TOT) DAATTC Srikakulam

Table1. Effectiveness of mobile based advisories through way2sms. (N=60 )

Sr. No. Item Frequency Percentage
1. Watching messages immediately after receiving 46 76.67
2. Receiving messages at right time 46 76.67
3. Receiving messages as per the technological needs of the farmers 42 70.00
4. Messages are in understandable language 30 50.00
5. Received SMS are useful 34 56.66

6. Received SMS are adoptable 34 56.66
7. Calling back to the office mobile to clarify doubts and for further 18 30.00
information
8. Useful as TOT method 48 80.00
9. Useful to disseminate the agricultural technology with cheaper 54 90.00
cost even to remote areas

The data (Table 1) showed that around 77 per cent
of the farmers watching the messages immediately
after receiving the messages. This might be due
to that farmer are habituated to use modern ways
of communication and usage of android phones
increased tremendously. Receiving messages at
right time might be due to SMS prepared based on
the problems identified during field diagnostic visit
and because of precision in the internet, cell phone
technology.
The SMS selected for sending to the registered Fig.1. Effectiveness of mobile based advisories
farmers were as per their technological needs. through way2sms
Hence, more concentration should be given on The given messages were adoptable as they have
demand and need of the farmer rather than the attributes like relative advantage, observability,
technology. Messages were in understandable compatibility and predictability. As the messages
language and very simple, meaningful, logical and were precisely edited and given based on practical
written in English Telugu in understandable way. utility, hence the received messages are adoptable.
Message focused on solution to one particular Farmers were able to get more clarifications after
problem in agriculture. calling back immediately and how to do the job also
will be easy after calling back to the expert.
It was revealed that received SMS were useful
because messages were pragmatic, applicable to The reach and affordability of broad band internet
them as they were developed from field experience is also improving dramatically. Internet connectivity
and real time agro advisory was given. around the world has grown exponentially since

2000 by over 480 per cent (Internet world statistics The study showed a great reliance of farmers
2011). Mobile phones are in the vanguard of ICTs on farmer-to-farmer exchange for agricultural
in Agriculture. information (Drafor, 2016; Kiptot and Franzel,
Farmer access to information through 2015). Farmer-to-farmer exchange and information
mobile phone was varied by age, gender and sharing is a good proxy for its perceived value. It is
farmer category. This digital divide reflects the also an indicator of how far information is likely to
prevalent social realities in access to extension, spread within any given farming community, giving
which have been in part attributed to differences an estimate of the potential ‘reach’ for the service in
in literacy, socio-cultural factors, ownership or broad terms, although this would need further and
control of mobile phones, and technological skills more detailed investigation.
(Mbo’o-Tchouawou and Colverson, 2014). These Amanish et al (2022) also conducted a similar
differences, in particular, education attainment, sex, study and found that, almost third-fourth of the
and age of respondent, to a great extent affected the respondents regularly used messages delivered by
level of understanding of the messages received. mobile-based agricultural advisory services about
This flags some potential challenges in equitably sowing time (73.34%) and weather (71.67%).
reaching farmers, in particular women, elderly and While, in case of overall utilization, majority of the
resource-constrained farmers with mobile extension respondents were moderately (72.50%) utilized the
delivery mechanisms. There was evidence that mobile based agro-advisory services. Sandhu et al
farmers were willing to take action and adopt new (2012) reported that majority of the farmers found
practices based on the information they received agricultural information in the form of SMS through
through mobile services. mobile phone as useful (69.3%), comprehensible
(74.7%) and timely (64.7%).

Similar study was carried out by Khan et al REFERENCES

(2020) in sehore district of Madhya Pradesh with Amanish Kumar, Angad Prasad, Daya Ram, Deepa Devi M
an aim to know the effectiveness of Mobile Agro- and Singh N G (2022). Utilization of mobile-based agro-
advisory services by the farmers of Thoubal district,
Advisory Services in Extension Delivery System Manipur and their level of satisfaction. The Pharma
and showed that 44.55 per cent had medium Innov J SP-11(9): 325-327.
effectiveness of mobile based agro-advisory Drafor, Ivy (2016). Access to information for farm-level
services. decision-making. J Agric Food Inform 17(4), 230–245.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10496505. 2016.1213170. FAO
CONCLUSION (2005).
Local language customization and remote Khan S, Pathak K N, Nishi Jain, Abhilasha Sharma, Reena
transaction services need to be strengthened. Bhawel and Nagar H R (2020). Effectiveness of mobile
Agro-advisory services in extension delivery system, J
Commercial enterprises such as processors, input
Pharmacog Phytochem SP 9(3),32-35.
suppliers and exporters should be motivated to invest
Kiptot Evelyne and Franzel Steven (2015). Farmer-to-farmer
in ICT because they often lead to increased efficiency
extension: Opportunities for enhancing performance
and revenue as well as extension to client base like of volunteer farmer trainers in Kenya. Dev in Practice
isolated farmers. Hence, efforts should be made 25(4), 503–517.
to disseminate complete and precise information Mbo’o-Tchouawou M and Colverson K (2014). Increasing
on all aspects of crop and related information access to agricultural extensionand advisory services:
for harnessing the possibilities of utilizing the How effective are new approaches in reaching women
information, the mobile service authorities need farmers inrural areas. Nairobi, Kenya: International
Livestock Research Institute (ILRI).
to take extra care to streamline the system so as to
prepare relevant content for maximum utility by Sandhu H S, Singh G and Grover J (2012). Analysis of kisan
mobile advisory service in south western Punjab. J Krishi
the end users. Hence more concentration should be Vigyan 1 (1): 1-4.
given on demand and need of the farmer rather than
Sharma Manoj, Gagandeep Kaur and Gill M S (2012). Use of
the technology. Leaders are needed for the long information and communication technology in agriculture
haul as interventions that require new infrastructure by farmers of District Kapurthala. J Krishi Vigyan 1 (1):
or policy and institutional reforms take years to 83-89
complete. Voice messages may be preferable than Received on 23/1/2023 Accepted on 22/4/2023
text messages for covering illiterate farmers. KVKs
and other extension functionaries can make new
platforms to reach the unreached through mobile
advisory.

J Krishi Vigyan 2023, 11 (2) : 97-100 10.5958/2349-4433.2023.00018.1

Roop Singh*, Rakesh Kumar Bairwa, Irfan Khan1, Kamla Mahajani2 and Sarita
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kota (Rajasthan) 324001,
ABSTRACT
A non-farm trial was conducted at farmer’s field to diminish Fusarium wilt of chickpea. The assessed
practice of seed treatment with Trichoderma virideat @ 5 g/kg seed plus incorporation of T. viride at 5 kg/
ha multiplied on decomposed FYM at 100 kg/ha at the time of sowing recorded minimum disease incidence
(7.85%) with maximum efficacy of disease control (76.13) as compared to farmers’ practices. There was
37.41 per cent more yield in assessed practices plots than farmers’ practices and highest net return and
benefit cost ratio was also obtained.
Key Words: Chickpea, Fusarium wilt, Trichoderma viride
INTRODUCTION cell walls and obstructs the plants transport system
Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is an important (Animisha et al, 2012). Discolouration occurs inside
pulse crop in India. Wilt disease is the major the tissues from the roots to aerial parts, yellowing
limiting factor in chickpea production, incited by and wilting occurs (Leslie and Summerell, 2006)
Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceriis. This disease is with no external rotting of roots and black internal
widespread in chickpea growing areas resulting in discoloration involving xylem and pith (Dubey
considerable economic losses. Pulse crops are an et al, 2007). Keeping in view the severity of the
important source of food proteins, vitamins, lipids disease and economic importance of chickpea,
and certain minerals and generally grown under risk on-farm trials (OFTs) were planned to assess the
prone marginal land (Animisha et al, 2012). The field efficacy of T. viride against Fusarium wilt of
wilt of chickpea incited by Fusarium oxysporum chickpea.
f. sp. ciceri is a major yield constraint of chickpea
in India. This pathogen is internally seed (Haware MATERIALS AND METHODS
et al, 1978) and soil borne (Singh et al, 2009) and An eco-friendly disease management
causes heavy losses (20-100%) depending upon technology i.e. use of Trichoderma as seed and soil
stage of infection and wilting (Haware and Nene, treatment with rotted FYM have been evaluated on
1980). It infects chickpea crop with more incidence ten farmers’ field with an objective to assess field
at flowering and pod forming stage, if the crop is efficacy of T. viride during Rabi 2019-20 in two
subjected to sudden temperature rise and water villages viz., Mundiya and Dungapura of the district
stress (Chaudhry et al, 2007). In India, it is estimated Karauli through on farm trials (OFTs). In selected
that 10per cent yield losses are caused annually. villages of the district, technological gap between
Under certain conditions, it may go up to 60% improved management practices and farmer’s
(Singh et al, 2007). Infested soil and infected seeds practices were studied based on survey and group
are the sources of primary inoculum. The spores discussion with farmers’ interactive group (FIG) of
of fungus enter into the plants passing through the chickpea growers. Out of 100 farmers, 25 farmers
roots. After reaching the xylem tissues, the fungus were selected randomly and discussions were held on
spread up in vessels by means of hyphal growth and seven improved management practices to study the
microconidia. They produce enzymes and disgrace technological gap. The gap between recommended
1
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Chomu, Jaipur (Rajasthan) 303702, 2Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Bundi (Rajasthan) 323001

Table 1. Technological gap between improved production technology and farmers’ practices in
Chickpea
Practice Recommended Practices Farmers’ Practice Gap observed
Cultivars GNG-1958, GNG-1581, RSG-974 RSG-888, GNG-663 and Full gap
other local varieties
Seed rate 70-80 kg/ha 80-100 kg/ha Partial gap
Seed treatment Carbendazim @ 2 g/kg seed or Trichoderma done by 30-40% farmers Partial gap
viride @ 4 g/kg seed and Rhizobium and PSB
@ 10 ml/ kg seed
Bio- agent for Trichoderma viride @ 5 kg/ha multiplied on No soil treatment Full gap
soil treatment decomposed FYM and broadcasted @ 100
kg/ha at the time of sowing
Weed Pendimethalin 30 [email protected] l/ha (PE) Inadequate weed Partial gap

management management: One hand
weeding
Fertilizers N @ 20 kg/ha Imbalanced use of fertilizers Partial gap
P @ 40 kg/ha (N&P)
Plant Quinalphos 1.5 % @ 25 kg/ha Quinalphos 25 EC @1 l/ha Partial gap
protection Emamectin benzoate 5 SG 250 g /ha (40% farmers)
measures
technologies and existing technologies was cent efficacy disease control (PEDC) was also
identified and categorized into three levels viz., full worked out. Seed yield of chickpea was recorded
(8-12), partial (4-7) and non-adoption (less than 3). on the basis of individual plot and converted into
The integrated approaches i.e. Seed treatment with kg/ha. The cost benefit ratio was calculated using
Trichoderma viride @ 5 g/kg seed plus incorporation the formula (Reddy and Reddy, 2004)
of T. virideat @ 5 kg/ha multiplied on decomposed
FYM to 100 kg/ha and then broadcasting at the RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
time of sowing were assessed under on farm trials. The gap between improved technology and
The area under each treatment was 1000 m2. The farmers’ practices of chickpea cultivation is
details of treatment for management of Fusarium presented in table 1. The data pointed out that there
wilt of chickpea were T1 (Farmers’ Practices): Seed was full gap in soil treatment with bioagents and
treatment with carbendazim 50per cent WP at 2g/kg sowing of cultivars which were observed to be the
seed, T2 (Recommended Practice): Seed treatment reasons of severe incidence of fusarium wilt of
with carbendazim 50 per cent WP at 2g/kg seed chickpea in farmer’s field. Partial gap was found in
plus soil application of T. virideat 2.5kg/ha and T3 cultivars, seed rate, seed treatment, fertilizer dose,
(Assessed Practice): Seed treatment with T.virideat weed management and plant protection measures.
5 g/kg seed plus incorporation of T. viride at 5 kg/ The data (Table 2) revealed that both treatments
ha multiplied on decomposed FYM to100 kg/ha lowered down and reduced the disease incidence
at the time of sowing.The disease incidence was as compared to farmer’s practices. The initial
observed at 75 and 100 days after sowing (DAS) disease symptoms emerged 60 days after sowing,
in each treatment from 20 randomly selected plants and the severity of the disease increases in lockstep
in each plot and the PDI was calculated. The per

Table 2. Efficacy of Trichoderma viride against Fusarium wilt of chickpea

Technology Option Per cent Disease Mean Per cent
incidence Efficacy
75 DAS 100 DAS
T1: Seed treatment with carbendazim 50 per cent WP @ 2g/kg 23.50 42.30 32.90 -
seed (Farmers practices)
T2: Seed treatment with carbendazim 50 % WP @ 2g/kg seed + 12.90 20.78 16.84 48.81
Soil application of T. viride@ 2.5kg/ha (Recommended Practice)
T3: Seed treatment with T. viride @ 5 gram/kg seed + Incorporation 5.30 10.40 7.85 76.13
of T. viride @ 5 kg/ha multiplied on decomposed FYM @ 100 kg/
ha at the time of sowing (Assessed practices)
with the plant’s growth. The treatment consisting in lowering the wilt disease. The similar report was
seed treatment with T. virideat @ 5 g/kg seed plus reported by Patra et al (2017).
incorporation of T. viride @ 5 kg/ha multiplied on Data analysis pointed out that the average yield
decomposed FYM to 100 kg/ha at the time of sowing recorded was 21.30 q/ha in assessed practices
was found most effective with minimum disease whereas in farmers’ practice it was found to be
incidence 5.30 (75 DAS) and 10.40 (100 DAS) with 15.50 q/ha (Table 3). Hence, 37.41 per cent more
maximum efficacy of disease control (76.13) as yield was recorded in assessed practices plots than
compared to farmers’ practices. This was followed farmers practices. The losses of yield were due
by seed treatment with carbendazim 50per cent to higher incidence of fusarium wilt disease. The
WP at 2g/kg seed plus soil application of T. viride results were in conformity with the findings of
at 2.5 kg/ha with PDI 12.90 (75 DAS) and 20.78 Khan et al( 2004) who reported that cultivars of
(100 DAS) as compared to farmers’ practices which chickpea suffered 9 to 41 per cent seed yield due
was 23.50 and 42.30, respectively. Similar findings to wilt disease incidence. The economic analysis
were reported by Kumar et al (2012) who observed revealed that net returns of assessed plots was Rs.
disease incidence from 38.7 to 59.2 per cent. Ghosh 58959/ha in comparison to farmers practice of Rs.
et al (2013) reported incidence of chickpea wilt 38517/ha. Benefit cost of 2.93 were found under
from 9.7 to 13.8 per cent in central and southern assessed practices while it was 2.44 in farmer’s
parts of India. The incidence varied from 14 to 32 practices. These results were in accordance with
per cent in different states as reported by Dubey et the findings of Bawane et al (2022) who reported
al (2010) and 72.16 per cent as recorded by Kumar that soil application with Trichoderma viride was
and Bourai (2012). Vats et al (2016) reported that found most effective in the percentage of disease
soil and seed treatments with Trichoderma resulted control in chickpea as well as maximum yield were
Table 3. Yield and economic performance of chickpea with improved technology and farmer’s
practices
Treatment Yield (q/ha) Increase in yield over Net Return B:C Ratio
farmers practice(%) (Rs./ha)
T1 15.50 -- 38517 2.44
T2 19.00 22.58 49424 2.62
T3 21.30 37.41 58959 2.93

also found. Moreover, chemical control is not good Dubey S C, Singh S R and Singh B (2010). Morphological
enough; therefore, biological control is a substitute and pathogenic variability of Indian isolates of Fusarium
oxysporum f. sp. ciceri using chickpea wilt. Archives of
to chemical control against this disease (Anjajah et Phytopath and Pl Prot 43 (2): 174-190.
al, 2003).
Ghosh R, Sharma M, Telangre R and Pande S (2013).
Occurrence and Distribution of Chickpea Diseases in
CONCLUSION Central and Southern Parts of India. American J Pl Sci
The present study revealed that application of 4: 940-944.
T. viride as seed treatment @ 5 g/kg seed plus soil Haware M P and Nene Y L (1980). Influence of wilt at different
application at 5 kg/ha multiplied on decomposed growth stage on yield loss in chickpea. Trop Grain Leg
FYM and broadcasting @ 100 kg/ha at the time of Bull 19 :38-40.
sowing was observed to be superior which resulted Haware M P, Nene Y L and Rajeswari R (1978). Eradication of
in 76.13 percent efficacy of disease control. Soil Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceri transmitted in chickpea
and seed treatments with Trichoderma resulted in seed. Phytopathology 68:1364-1368.
lowering the wilt disease and considerably increased Khan M R, Khan S M and Mohiddin F A (2004). Biological
control of Fusarium wilt of chickpea through seed
grain yield of chick pea over farmers› practice.
treatment with the commercial formulation of
The use of Trichoderma for the management of Trichoderma harzianum and Pseudomonas fluorescens.
Fusarium wilt was very much appreciated by the Phytopathologia Mediterranea 43: 20–25.
farmers. The success of Trichoderma in the target Kumar A, Lal H C and Akhtar J (2012). Morphological and
villages outlines the need for its popularization in pathogenic characterization of Fusarium oxysporum f.
larger areas. sp. ciceri causing wilt of chickpea. Indian Phytopath
65(1): 64-66.
REFERENCES Kumar S and Bourai V A (2012). Economic analysis of pulses-
Animisha Z S, Jaiswal K K and Pandey P (2012). Integrated production, their benefits and constraints (a case study of
management of chickpea wilt incited by Fusarium sample villages of Assan valley of Uttarakhand, India). J
oxysporum f.sp. ciceris. Int J Agric Res 7 (5): 284-290. Hu Social Sci 4(1): 41-53.
Anjajah V, Cornelis P and Koedam N (2003). Effect of Leslie J F and Summerell B A (2006). The Fusarium,
genotype and root colonization in biological control of Laboratory Manual, Blackwell Publishing. pp. 1-388.
Fusarium wilt in pigeonpea and chickpea by Pseudomonas Patra S, Biswas M K and Mahato A (2017). Sustainable
aeruginosa PNA1. Canadian J Microbiol 49: 85-91. Management of Chickpea Wilt caused by Fusarium
Bawane A S, Zacharia S and Seyoun R K (2022). Eco-friendly oxysporum f.sp. ciceri. Int J Pure Appl Biosci 5(1): 526-
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Innov J 11(3): 1284-1288. 3rd edition, Kalyani publisher, pp 527.
Chaudhry M A, llyas M B, Muhammad F and Ghazanfar M Singh G, Chen W, Rubiales D, Moore K, Sharma Y R and Gan
U (2007). Sources of resistance in Chickpea germplasm Y (2007). Diseases and their management. In Chickpea
against Fusarium wilt. Mycopath 5(1): 17-21. Breeding and Management. (Eds. Yadav, Redden, Chen
Dubey S C, Bhavani R and Singh B (2001). Integration of and Sharma) CAB International. pp. 497-519.
soil application and seed treatment formulations of Singh J, Ratan Vand Singh N (2009). Management of wilt of
Trichoderma species for management of wet root rot of chickpea. Annals Pl Prot Sci 17: 248-249.
mung bean caused by Rhizoctonia solani. Pest Manage
Sci 67(9): 1163-1168. Vats A S, Singh A K and Pandey M K (2016). Field evaluation
of Trichoderma viride for wilt management in chickpea
Dubey S C, Suresh M and Singh B (2007). Evaluation of crop. Int J Pl sci 11(2): 233-236.
Trichoderma species against Fusarium oxysporum f. sp.
ciceris for integrated management of chickpea wilt. Biol Received on 7/1/2023 Accepted on 17/4/2023
Cont 40:118–127.

Environmental and Ergonomic Risk Factors of

Professional Gardeners
Divya Martolia* and Ritu Gupta**
Department of Family Resource Management, College of Community Science,
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004 (Punjab)
ABSTRACT
The present study was undertaken to investigate the various activities performed by the gardeners and
assessing the risk factors faced by gardeners on environmental and ergonomic aspects. The study was
conducted on 150 sample size of male gardeners in Ludhiana city by using purposive sampling technique
to ensure that the respondents, have worked for the last 5 years in gardening as their main occupation.
Primary data were collected with the help of structured interview schedule. Findings of the study unveils
that weeding activity absorb most of the time (on average 6.26 hr/day) performing activity in squatting/
sitting/bending posture with frequent twisting and turning. Gardeners work most of the time in unshaded
outdoor areaswhich eventually make them susceptible to environmental risk and the extreme environmental
risk perceived by workers during gardening was heat stress (mean score=3.79). Indeed, heat stress has a
straight effect on workers output because of poor performance and work-related illness/injuries. Other
than that, the ergonomic risk also contributes in physical fatigue and discomfort during task performance,
awkward working posture (mean score=4.56) was perceived to be high ergonomic risk among gardeners
which may led to musculoskeletal disorders in the body.
Key Words: Disorders, Ergonomic, Fatigue, Gardeners, Movements, Musculoskeletal, Risk.
INTRODUCTION workers face almost the same occupational risk due

The probability of an accident occurring as to their workplace and work pattern similarity.
a result of exposure to job risks is referred to as According to Dash and Kjellstrom (2011)
occupational risk. The term occupational risk in physical work and unsound working conditions
the present study talks about two major risks i.e., have a significant impact on India’s labour force.
environmental and ergonomic risk which is likely Apart from that the repetitive motion, forceful work,
to be occurred because of their workplace and job adopting awkward postures comply to increase in
routine,as gardeners work outside and are extremely number of injuries during gardening. In particular,
exposed to hot and cold weather. Exposure to gardeners who work in crooked and crouched
ultraviolet (UV) radiation is obviously high in positions in hoeing, and cleaning duties, or standing
outdoor occupation as gardeners work in unshaded and walking jobs while carrying heavy equipment
area for long duration. Jackson and Rosenberg of grass cutting, fertilizing, watering, trimming and
(2010) stated that excessive heat may cause heat pest spraying, perhaps develop musculoskeletal
rash, heat cramps, heat exhaustion, and heatstroke. issues over time (Savitri et al, 2012). Hence,
Heat rash is an irritating skin inflammation from the present study investigated about activities
clogged sweat glands. In addition to working performed by gardeners and time spent per day;
under severe hot condition this eventually causes the environmental and ergonomic risk faced by
dehydration state to most of the workers because of workers engaged in gardening as profession.
poor hydrationproblem. Gardeners and agricultural
Corresponding Author’s E-mail:[email protected]
Research scholar* and Associate Professor**

MATERIALS AND METHODS Scoring of severity description.

The study was carried out in two educational Score Inference
institutes, one community garden and eight nurseries
1 Negligible- no action required, but generally
in Ludhiana city because of the easy accessibility be reviewed periodically.
and availability of sample.
2 Moderate- risk should be monitored.
Selection of sample 3 Serious- take immediate action.
The information regarding the list of gardeners Further, the data collected were tabulated
was procured from Department of Floriculture and and analyzed using descriptive statistical tool
Landscaping, Punjab Agricultural University and (frequency, percentage and mean score method).
Landscaping wing of Guru Angad Dev Veterinary
and Animal Sciences University. The snowball RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
technique was also used to get the information
regarding the gardeners working in nurseries and Time spent for performing different activities
community garden. A total of 150 male gardeners The data (Table 1) revealed that majority of the
were selected purposively as respondents, who respondents (95.30%) participated in bed preparation
were fully engaged in gardening job for the last five activity on seasonal basis with the average time
years. The selected respondents were personally spent per day was 4 hr mostly in squatting, standing
interviewed with the help of self constructed and bending posture. For planting/sowing activity
interview schedule to collect the primary data 98.0 per cent of the respondents participated
about activities performed by gardeners and time actively in it. Likewise, bed preparation activity
spent per day based on their subjective response. was also executed based on season. The average
Environmental and ergonomic risk faced by the time spent was 4.35 hr for planting or sowing a
gardeners’ during gardening was assessed by field area. Sitting, squatting and bending posture
using risk assessment method. was adopted by the respondents.
All the respondents were involved in watering
Risk assessment method activity. The frequency of watering the plants or
It is a method through which hazardous tasks are field area depends upon season such as in summer
prioritized which help us to determine which risk the respondents’ water the plants every day or on
is the most serious. The risk score is based on two alternative day. In rainy season, once in a week
parameters the product of probability of occurrence and in winter twice or thrice times in a week. The
marked as (O) and severity score (S). Further, the average time spent by the respondents in watering
parameters are assessed on perceived risk score i.e., was 3.5 hr/day and the posture adopted was
Risk score= O×S. Based on the risk score the risk standing. Around 96.0 per cent of the respondents
is ranked. were involved in pruning activity. The frequency
Scoring of occurrence description. of doing this activity was recorded to be twice per
season for about 4.5 hrs/day by adopting standing,
Score Inference
bending and twisting posture.
1 Rarely -may occur, but not likely
2 Sometimes-likely to occur sometime The mowing activity was performed by 89.30
3 Always- likely to occur several times
per cent of the respondents for 1-2 times per season
and the duration to perform the task was observed

Table 1. Activities performed by the respondents and the time spent per day. n=150
Activity Frequency Frequency of performance Average time spent Posture used
(%) (per person/day) (hr.)
Bed preparation 143 Seasonal 4 Squatting+ standing
(95.30) +bending
Planting/sowing 147 Seasonal 4.35 Sitting +squatting+
(98.00) bending
Watering 150 Summer (Every day or 3.5 Standing
(100.00) alternative day)
Rainy Season (Once in a week)
Winter (twice or thrice in a
week)
Pruning 144 Twice per season 4.5 Standing +bending+
(96.00) twisting
Mowing 134 1-2 times per season 4.04 Standing
(89.30)
Weeding 146 1-2 times per season 6.26 Sitting +squatting+
(97.30) bending + twisting
Cleaning 133 Multiple times 3 Standing +bending
(88.70)
Spraying 105 Twice in a year 2 Standing
(Pesticides) (70.00)
Note: Figures in parentheses indicate percentage. Multiple response*
to be 4.04 hr/day in standing posture. The active Environmental risk

respondents involved in weeding activity were The data (Table 2) give an information about
97.30 per cent. Frequency of performing weeding the environmental risk faced by the respondents
was observed 1-2 times per season. The average during gardening activity. Gardeners working
time taken to perform the task was recorded 6.26 hr/ outside are prone to inevitable risk such as heat
day with the posture adopted was sitting, squatting, stress, dehydration, respiratory problem, noise,
bending and twisting. insect bite etc. It can be clearly seen that the
Cleaning is the everyday task that is required respondents assigned highest mean score to heat
after every gardening work. So, the frequency of stress (mean score= 3.79). Jacklitsch et al (2016)
performance was recorded to be multiple times. The also reported that heat stress can affect workers
time taken to perform the task was recorded to be 3 who are exposed to excessive heat or work in a hot
hr/day in standing and bending posture. About 70.0 outdoor environment. The other risk mentioned by
per cent of the respondents were involved in spraying the respondents were dehydration (mean score=
activity twice in a year to protect the gardening area 2.61) due to direct exposure of outside element i.e.,
from insects and pest. For spraying, knapsack spray sunlight. According to Balanay et al (2015) noise is
bag is commonly used by the respondents. The a significant hazard in groundskeeping occupation.
average time consumed to perform the task was 2 In this study also the respondents reported headache
hr/day depending upon the area. Spraying was done problem due to noise (mean score=2.52) who
in the standing posture. were working with garden machinery as well as

Table 2. Environmental risk factors faced by the respondents at workplace. n=150

Environmental factor Occurrence Severity Mean Risk Rank
Mean Score (A) Score Mean Score
(B) (A*B)
Heat stress 2.43 1.56 3.79 I
Dehydration 2.27 1.15 2.61 II
Head ache due to noise 2.25 1.12 2.52 III
Respiratory problems due to dust 2.06 1.05 2.16 IV
Insect bite 2.20 1.00 2.20 V
Skin allergy 1.33 1.07 1.42 VI
Occurrence score-3-Always, 2-Sometimes, 1-Rarely
Severity Score-3-Serious, 2-Moderate, 1-Negligible
the continuous passing of vehicle in nearby area. were using conventional hand tool while gardening
Further, the respondents also faced the problems in forceful way (mean score= 3.69). Whereas, the
related to insect bite (mean score= 2.20) and skin respondents felt the vibration while operating power
allergy (mean score= 1.42) while performing tool (mean score= 2.40). The reason behind it was
gardening activities. that some of the gardeners who were operating
power tool were not wearing any anti vibrational
Ergonomic risk gloves. Instead of wearing protective gloves they
Ergonomic risk factors are workplace conditions were just wrapping plastic polyethene on the handle
which if inappropriate may cause injury to the body of power operating machine.
of the worker. These include awkward working
posture, repetitive, forceful work and exposure CONCLUSION
to vibration. Anonymous (2021) reported that the So far from the above study, it can be concluded
landscapers perform a wide variety of tasks from that from various gardening activities, the most time
mowing lawns and pruning bushes to weeding, taking activity was found to be weeding activity
planting, tree trimming, and irrigation work. Many among gardeners. In particular, the traditional
of these tasks require awkward postures, forceful practice of weeding activity using hand tools (such
exertions, repeated movements, whole body as trowel, spade) and poor posture (squatting/
vibration and hand-arm vibration—all these risk bending) was considered as back breaking.
factors leads to development of musculoskeletal Moreover, gardeners perform most of the activities
disorders (MSDs). The data (Table 3) indicate in unshaded or partially shaded areas in outdoor
that the high ergonomic risk was observed during environment. Therefore, the high environmental
working in awkward posture (mean score= 4.56). risk was perceived to be heat stress among
A similar result was found in a study conducted by gardeners. Also, their job observed as physically
Lim et al (2021) who found that awkward posture laborious, most of the gardeners perceived high
was the main ergonomic risk factor identified, and ergonomic risk due to awkward posture followed
none of the working postures during assessment was by repetitive and forceful work. All in all, health
appropriate while performing landscape task. This is everything for every individual, one should
was followed by repetitive mode of work in have a healthy work practice at their level such as
various gardening activities (mean score= 4.45) as wearing protective clothing, taking frequent break,
experienced by respondents. Most of the gardeners

Table 3. Ergonomic risk factors faced by the respondents at workplace. n=150

Ergonomic factor Occurrence Severity Risk Rank
Mean Score Mean Score Mean Score
(A) (B) (A*B)
Awkward working posture 2.82 1.62 4.56 I
Repetitive work 2.91 1.53 4.45 II
Forceful work 2.66 1.39 3.69 III
Vibration due to contact with power tool 1.89 1.27 2.40 IV
Occurrence score-3-Always, 2-Sometimes, 1-Rarely
Severity Score-3-Serious, 2-Moderate, 1-Negligible
hydration, minimizing excessive poor posture Jackson L L and Rosenberg H R (2010). Preventing
practice to overcome with work related postural Heat-Related Illness among Agricultural Workers. J
Agromedicine 15(3): 200-15.
discomfort.
Jacklitsch B, Williams W J, Musolin K, Coca A, Kim J H and
Turner N (2016). Occupational Exposure to Heat and Hot
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Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.www.cdc.
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Knibbs L D (2014). Occupational hazards to the health
Wegman DH and WE Program Working Group(2016).
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Intervention to reduce heat stress and improve efficiency
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A S, Jeffree M S and Syed Abdul Rahim S S (2021).
Balanay J A G, Kearney G D and Mannarino A J (2015). Noise
Landscaping Work: Work-related Musculoskeletal
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Problems and Ergonomic Risk Factors. Risk Manag
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Savitri A, Mulyati G T and Aziz I W F (2012). Evaluation
Bigoniya P, Shukla A and Singh C S (2010). A survey on the
of working postures at a garden, maintenance service to
occupational health status of gardeners in Bhopal, India.
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496–503.

Enhancement of Growth and Productivity of Cucumber

(Cucumis sativus L.) through Calcium Based Fertilizer
Dharamvir Singh1 *, Narendra Kumawat2 and Mahender Singh3
Krishi Vigyan Kendra (RVSKVV), Manavar, Dhar, (Madhya Pradesh)
ABSTRACT
The present study was carried out at Research Farm, Krishi Vigyan Kendra (RVSKVV), Manawar (Dhar),
during kharif season 2020. Total 7 treatments were used in Randomized Block Design (RBD) with three
replications to study the effect of calcium based fertilizer on yield attributes and yield of cucumber. All
the treatments significantly improved growth, attributed and yield of cucumber as compared RDF alone
treatments. Among the various treatments the maximum plan height and flower setting was recorded with
the application of RDF + Turbocalcio Plus @ 2 kg at 25 DAT and 40 DAT (T5) in comparison to other
treatments. However, the less number of days (31.50) to flower appearance was recorded with the application
of RDF + Turbocalcio Plus @ 2 kg at 25 DAT and 40 DAT. Significantly higher yield parameters viz., length
of fruit (15.85 cm), girth of fruits (12.06 cm), weight of fruits (146.83 g/fruit) and number of fruit/plant
(16.50) and fruit yield (324.67 q/ha) were RDF + Turbocalcio Plus @ 2 kg at 25 DAT and 40 DAT (T5)
which was statistically similar with RDF + Turbocalcio Plus @ 2 kg at 25 DAT and 60 DAT (T6) and RDF
+ Turbocalcio Plus @ 1 kg at 25 DAT 2 kg at 40 DAT and 2 kg at 60 DAT (T7).
Key Words: Calcium, Cucumber, Flower appearance, flower setting, Fruit yield
INTRODUCTION Calcium (Ca) is a major component of cell

Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) is extensively walls having 60-70% of its total tissue. It helps
grown vegetable crop of Cucurbitaceae family. Due in maintaining cell wall integrity and membrane
to its economic importance as a high value vegetable permeability. Calcium is the basic component
crop both in domestic and overseas markets due of many enzymes (Akinki and Simsek, 2004).
to more consumer preferences quality production Application of supplemental Ca decreased the Na
of cucumber is the need of the day (Jakhar et al, content in plant parts and increased the K content
2016). Calcium is macronutrient which plays a very (Dabuxilatu, 2005). It is considered as important
important role in plant growth and nutrition, as well mineral elements that regulates fruit quality and
as in cell wall deposition. Lower levels of calcium enhances its post-harvest life through decrease the
in plants affect growth and development of plant. physiological disorders like water core, bitter pit
As a soil amendment, calcium helps to maintain and internal breakdown. As a versatile signaling
chemical balance in the soil, reduces soil salinity, ion of calcium (Ca2+) act at multiple sites in
and improves water penetration leads to improve diverse networks of signaling cascades. It serves
crop growth, development and yield (Shafeek et al, as a major regulatory ion in Horticultural crops.
2013 and Siddique et al, 2017). These pathways receive signals from a wide array
of biotic and abiotic sources, and cause changes

1
Krishi Vigyan Kendra (RVSKVV), Manavar, Dhar, (MP), India
2
College of Agriculture (RVSKVV), Indore – 452001 (MP), India
3
Krishi Vigyan Kendra (RVSKVV), Dewas, (MP), India

Table 1. Effect of calcium based fertilizer on growth parameters of cucumber.

Sr. Treatment Plant Flower Flower setting
No. height at appearance 35 50 70
harvest (days) DAS DAS DAS
1 T1: RDF (Without calcium treatment) 151.50 33.00 3.02 12.20 2.60
2 T2 : RDF + Turbocalcio Plus @ 2 kg at 25 DAT 151.97 31.83 3.25 13.47 2.60
5 T5 : RDF + Turbocalcio Plus @ 2 kg at 25 DAT and 156.23 31.50 3.93 15.23 5.43
40 DAT
6 T6: RDF + Turbocalcio Plus @ 2 kg at 25 DAT and 154.57 31.83 3.97 15.07 5.33
60 DAT
7 T7 : RDF + Turbocalcio Plus @ 1 kg at 25 DAT 2 kg 154.77 31.73 3.50 15.03 5.18
at 40 DAT and 2 kg at 60 DAT
SEm+ 0.88 0.28 0.09 0.24 0.16
C.D at 5% 2.71 0.87 0.26 0.75 0.50
in gene expression (Dodd et al, 2010). Ca2+ as an @ 1 kg at 25 DAT 2 kg at 40 DAT and 2 kg at 60

essential plant nutrient actively participates in cell DAT). The experimental soil was medium to black
wall structure, cellular signaling responses, and soil with pH of 7.5 and organic carbon 0.38per cent.
membrane function. Calcium deficiency causes a The soil was low in available nitrogen (220.2 kg/
decline in the growth, reduce leaf size, yield, and ha) medium in available phosphorus (14.10 kg/
in extreme situation it also causes the necrosis ha) and high in potassium (460.5 kg/ha). Sowing
of young leaves (Hao and Papadopoulos, 2004 of cucumber seeds were done manually in each
and Gustavo et al, 2020). With an objective to treatments plot. Basal dose of NPK (40-60-60)
improve the cucumber production and quality by kg/ha were applied to all treatments plot by soil
supplementing calcium, this study was undertaken. dressing method. Other cultural practices were
also performed as per recommended for cucumber
MATERIALS AND METHODS cultivation. The observations were recorded on
This study was carried at Research Farm, Krishi various growth parameters plant height, flower
Vigyan Kendra (RVSKVV), Manawar (Dhar), appearance. The quality parameters viz., length of
during kharif season 2020. The experiment was fruits, girth of fruits, weight of fruits and flower
laid out on Randomized Block Design (RBD) setting at 35, 50 & 70 DAT were recorded. The
with seven treatments and replicated three times. Yield parameters were recorded number of fruits/
This field study was conducted for improving the plant (picking wise), number of fruits/plant, fruit
productivity and quality of cucumber in relation to yield/plant and yield/ha. The data obtained were
7 treatments (T1 : RDF (without calcium treatment), statistically analyzed.
T2: RDF + Turbocalcio Plus @ 2 kg at 25 DAT,
T3: RDF + Turbocalcio Plus @ 2 kg at 40 DAT, T4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
RDF + Turbocalcio Plus @ 2 kg at 60 DAT, T5 : The plan height, flower appearance and flower
RDF + Turbocalcio Plus @ 2 kg at 25 DAT and setting were significantly affected by the application
40 DAT, T6: RDF + Turbocalcio Plus @ 2 kg at 25 of different doses of calcium based fertilizer (Table
DAT and 60 DAT and T7: RDF + Turbocalcio Plus 1). The data showed that taller plant were recorded

Table 2. Effect of calcium based fertilizer on yield attributes and yield of cucumber.
Sr. Treatment Length Girth Weight No. of Fruit
No. of fruit of fruits of fruits fruit/ yield (q/
(cm) (cm) (g) plant ha)
1 T1: RDF (Without calcium treatment) 14.10 11.54 136.73 12.47 241.03
2 T2 : RDF + Turbocalcio Plus @ 2 kg at 25 13.47 11.94 137.50 13.40 248.77
DAT
DAT
DAT
DAT and 40 DAT
6 T6: RDF + Turbocalcio Plus @ 2 kg at 25 15.79 11.97 146.23 16.23 314.67
DAT and 60 DAT
DAT 2 kg at 40 DAT and 2 kg at 60 DAT
SEm+ 0.20 0.09 0.36 0.33 4.90
C.D at 5% 0.61 0.27 1.10 1.02 15.11
with the application of RDF + Turbocalcio Plus flower appearance was recorded in RDF alone (T1).
@ 2 kg at 25 DAT and 40 DAT (T5) which was Natesh et al, (2005) reported that macronutrient
statistically similar with RDF Turbocalcio Plus @ 2 has beneficial effect on the growth of chilies,
kg at 25 DAT and 60 DAT (T6), RDF + Turbocalcio while optimum dose of these macronutrients have
Plus @ 1 kg at 25 DAT 2 kg at 40 DAT and 2 kg at significant effect on days to flowering. Tegopati et
60 DAT (T7) and RDF + Turbocalcio Plus @ 2 kg al, (1997) stated that calcium chloride maintained
at 60 DAT. While, the smaller plants were noticed higher total chlorophyll content therefore it might
with the application of RDF only (without calcium). affect days to flowering of cucumber plant. These
The result was in confirmation with Rab and Haq results were in line with the findings of Jan et al,
(2012) who observed that application of calcium (2013) and Siddique et al, (2017).
at the rate of 0.3% significantly increased plant The yield attributes and yield of cucumber
height. The maximum flower setting at 35, 50 and significantly affected by the application of different
70 DAS was observed under RDF + Turbocalcio doses of calcium based fertilizer (Table 2). Among
Plus @ 2 kg at 25 DAT and 40 DAT (T5) which the various treatments, significantly higher yield
was at par with RDF Turbocalcio Plus @ 2 kg at parameters viz., length of fruit (15.85 cm), girth
25 DAT and 60 DAT (T6), RDF Turbocalcio Plus of fruits (12.06 cm), weight of fruits (146.83 g/
@ 1 kg at 25 DAT 2 kg at 40 DAT and 2 kg at 60 fruit) and number of fruit/plant (16.50) were RDF
DAT (T7) and RDF + Turbocalcio Plus @ 2 kg at + Turbocalcio Plus @ 2 kg at 25 DAT and 40 DAT
60 DAT. The results that the less number of days (T5) which was statistically similar with RDF +
(31.50) to flower appearance was recorded with the Turbocalcio Plus @ 2 kg at 25 DAT and 60 DAT
application of RDF + Turbocalcio Plus @ 2 kg at 25 (T6) and RDF + Turbocalcio Plus @ 1 kg at 25 DAT
DAT and 40 DAT (T5) followed by T7, T6, T4 and T2. 2 kg at 40 DAT and 2 kg at 60 DAT (T7). Similarly,
While, the more number of days (33.0) taken into highest fruit yield (324.67 q/ha) was also recorded

with the application RDF + Turbocalcio Plus @ 2 kg El-Tohamy W A, Ghoname A A and Abou-Hussein S D
at 25 DAT and 40 DAT (T5) which was statistically (2006). Improvement of pepper growth and productivity
in sandy soil by different fertilization treatments under
similar with RDF + Turbocalcio Plus @ 2 kg at 25 protected cultivation. J Applied Sci Res 2(1): 8-12.
DAT and 60 DAT (T6) and RDF Turbocalcio Plus
Gustavo E, González-Terán, Fernando C Gómez-Merino,
@ 1 kg at 25 DAT 2 kg at 40 DAT and 2 kg at 60 Libia I, Trejo-Téllez (2020). Effects of silicon and
DAT (T7). However, the lowest yield attributes calcium application on growth, yield and fruit quality
and yield of cucumber was recorded under RDF parameters of cucumber established in a sodic soil. Acta
treatment. This result comes in accordance with Sci Pol Hortorum Cultus 19(3):149-158.
the results of El-Tohamy et al, (2006) who found Hao X and Papadopoulos A P (2004). Effects of calcium and
that, spraying of pepper plant with calcium chloride magnesium on growth, fruit yield and quality in a fall
maintained higher total chlorophyll content. This in greenhouse tomato crop grown on Rockwool. J Pl Sci 83:
903-902.
turn might affect flower number and fruit setting of
cucumber. The results were in agreement with that Jakhar R K, Singh A K and Kumawat N (2016). Yield
attributes and yield of cucumber (Cucumis stivus L.)
of Chapagain and Menzies (2003) observed that cultivars as influenced by growing conditions in arid zone
application of Calcium can significantly increase of Rajasthan. Environm Ecol 34 (4C): 2258-2261.
the reproductive growth and yield. These results Jan I, Rab A and Sajid M (2013). Influence of calcium choloride
are in line with the findings of Al-Hamzawi (2010), on physical characteristics and soft rot incidence on fruit
Siddique et al, (2017) and Gustavo et al, (2020). of apple cultivars. The J Anim Plant Sci 23(5): 1352-
1359.
CONCLUSION Natesh N, Vyakaranahal B S, Shekhargouda M and Deshpande
It is concluded that higher growth attributes V K (2005). Effect of Micronutrients and Organics on
Growth, Seed Yield and Quality of Chilli. Department of
and productivity of cucumber could be achieved by
Seed Science and Technology, University of Agricultural
application of RDF + Turbocalcio Plus @ 2 kg at 25 Sciences, Dharwad-580 005. Karnataka J Agric Sci
DAT and 40 DAT. 18(2): 334-337.
Rab A and Haq I (2012). Foliar application of calcium chloride
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nitrate and Anfaton on growth and storability of plastic application of calcium and potassium nitrate under plastic
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Plant Nutr 51: 549-555. terhadap pembungaan dan produksi mangga. Bull Penel
Dodd A N, Kudla J and Sanders D (2010). The language of Hort 6(1): 27-3 20
calcium signaling. Ann Rev Plant Biol 61: 593-620. Received on 14/1/2023 Accepted on 10/5/2023

Environmental Concerns and Household Purchase Practices of

Working and Non-Working Women.
Shifali Sharma* and Amarjit Kaur**
RIMT University, Mandi Gobindgarh (Punjab)
ABSTRACT
The study was conducted to know the purchase and post purchase behavior of the respondents with respect
to green consumerism. The sample comprised of 500 respondents which included 250 from working viz.
doctors, engineers, IT professional and bank employees and 250 non-working women based on their
education level viz. illiterate, up to metric, graduate, diploma holder, post graduate. Age range between
30-40 yr was taken into consideration for the study. Purchase practices for selected food items included
self-life, quality marks, ingredients used, packaging material used. The study encompassed clothing items,
household appliances, type of cleansing agents, shopping bags, eco-friendly vehicle as well as disposing
off practices. It was noticed that 40.80 percent working women show high level of buying green behaviour
as compared to 19.20 percent of non-working women. It was also noticed that 34.80 percent of working
women used green practices for disposing off discarded household items whereas only 8.40 per cent of non-
working women used this method. Thus, Awareness about the green practices needs to be created.
Key Words: Behaviour, Eco-Friendly, Environment, Purchase, Consumerism, Consumer.
INTRODUCTION for the sake of the future generations. But; were

Green consumer behaviour is viewed as a form unwilling to forego their money through increased
of ethical behaviour that is motivated not only to safeguard the environment. Ayub et al (2018)
by consumer’s own personal needs, but also by stated that the environmental consciousness was the
their concern for the welfare of society (Ferraro, most important factor influencing young customers
2009). The Green showcasing idea joins a wide purchase intentions for organic food products. On
scope of exercises for setting up shopper rights, the other side, Pandey et al (2019) examined the
sparing the earth and meeting the customer needs variables responsible for organic food consumers
and inclinations. The green advertising idea is as buy intentions and examined the link between major
of now actuated everywhere throughout the world. decisional factors and customers purchase intentions
Green alertness has changed the job of customers toward organic food. The impact of price, quality,
to show their responsibility to spare the world the impact of media awareness campaigns and
before purchasing exercises (Cherian and Jacob, friends urge played a significant effect in choosing
2012). However, Bisschoff and Liebenberg (2017) to buy a certain product Chughtai and Awan (2020).
researched to bridge the gap by investigating many It was the attitude that had a substantial influence on
factors that impacted green purchasing behaviour buying intentions Consumers who were concerned
and found that the South African consumer was about the environment and had access to knowledge
well aware of what green purchasing behaviour. and alternatives choose ecologically friendly items(
They believed that pollution had already harmed Jain et al, 2021).
their health and the nature must be preserved

Ph D scholar
** Head, Department of Nutrition Dietics and Food Technology, RIMT University.

Environmental Concerns and Household Purchase
Table 1. Level of consumer buying behaviour with regard to green products among working
Level of Score Non-working Working Z-test Level of
buying Frequency % Frequency % score significance
behaviour
Low 33-44 123 49.20 58 23.20 6.049 **
Medium 45-51 79 31.60 90 36.00 1.040 NS
High 52-63 48 19.20 102 40.80 5.270 **
The study was focused on working and non- Consumption practices and frequency of engaging
working women of Faridabad city to study the in the environment friendly behaviour were studied
consumer attitude/buying behavior and the post on a three-point scale i.e. always, sometimes and
purchase (Disposing off) practices in relation to the never with a score3, 2 and 1. Data was analysed
environment. using suitable statistical techniques
MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The study was conducted in Faridabad City Buying behaviour
of Haryana. A sample of 500 women respondents It is assumed that the distribution of sample
were selected through random sampling technique. women according to level of consumer buying
It was observed that the level of awareness about behaviour (Low, medium and high) vary among
green consumerism is not similar among working working and non-working women. The z-test was
and non-working women; therefore, a number of applied to compare the distribution of working and
250 working and 250 non-working women were non-working women according to level of consumer
included in the sample. In order to make the sample buying behaviour and the results are given in Table
more representative, the working women in the 1. There was significant difference between the
sample included women respondents of different distribution of working and non-working women
professions such as teachers, entrepreneur, IT in the respect of low and high level of consumer
professionals, doctors, business, however, the non- buying behaviour. The proportion of working
working women included on the basis of education women in the respect of low, medium and high
level viz. illiterate, up to metric, graduate, diploma level of consumerism worked out to be 23.20, 36.00
holder, post graduate. Age range between 30-40 and 40.80 per cent as against the 49.20, 31.60 and
years was taken into consideration for the study. 19.200 per cent in the case of non-working women,
Questionnaire was prepared and pretested on fifty respectively.
non sampled respondents, twenty-five working and
twenty-five non-working women. First part of the Extent of consumer buying behaviour
questionnaire was to gather information about age, The data (Table 2) observed that mean score
income, family size, education and job experience of of consumers buying behaviour was not similar
the respondents. Second part pertained to purchase, among working and non-working women. In case
usage and disposal practices. Modified greendex of durable goods, the mean score of consumer
scale was used for studying purchase/consumption buying behaviour in favour of food items, clothing
practices of respondents. Items included in the and home appliances came out to be 7.828, 8.216
scale were the comparative behaviour of the and 9.240 in case of working women, whereas, the
respondent’s behaviour in purchase, usage and corresponding figures were 7.152, 7.120 and 8.464
disposal of selected household items. Purchase/ in case of non-working women, respectively. The

Table 2. Mean score of consumer buying behaviour with regard to green products among working
and non-working.
Green items Non-working Working t-stat p-value Level of
significance
Mean SD Mean SD
Durable goods
Food items 7.152 1.660 7.828 1.086 5.388 p<0.001 **
Clothings 7.120 1.109 8.216 1.116 11.011 p<0.001 **
Home appliances 8.464 1.199 9.240 1.416 6.611 p<0.001 **
Total durable (A) 22.736 3.711 25.284 3.118 8.312 p<0.001 **
Consumable goods
Food items 7.172 1.182 7.620 1.253 4.113 p<0.001 **
Clothings 6.600 1.245 7.320 0.851 7.548 p<0.001 **
Home appliances 8.076 1.257 9.320 1.176 11.425 p<0.001 **
Total consumable (B) 21.848 3.340 24.260 2.224 9.503 p<0.001 **
Total buying behavior 44.584 6.942 49.544 5.042 9.140 p<0.001 **

(A+B)
result revealed that the total score of durable goods respectively. This indicates that working women
turned out to be higher among working women have been more intensely involved in purchasing
(25.284) as compared to non-working women green products as compared to non-working. Hence,
(22.736). In case of consumable goods, the mean the study suggested that non-working women also
score of consumer buying behaviour in favour of needs to be come forward for purchasing green
food items, clothing and home appliances came out products on account of safeguarding the eco-system
to be 7.620, 7.320 and 9.320 in case of working and family health as well.
women, whereas, the corresponding figures were
7.172, 6.600 and 8.076 in case of non-working Practices of segregating kitchen waste for
women, respectively. The result revealed that disposing off
the total score of consumable goods turned out Lots of wastes have been produced in our daily
to be higher among working women (24.260) as routine household activities which are to be either
compared to non-working women (21.848). Like- thrown away or disposed off. These substances
wise, the mean score of consumer buying behaviour include kitchen waste like vegetables and fruit
in favour of durable and consumable goods together peels, empty cartons, used tea leaves, and so many
estimated as 49.544 in case of working women as expendable items like juices, plastic bags, paper, old
against the 44.584 in case of non-working women, clothes, old footwear etc. Many of these materials

Table 3. Practices of segregation of kitchen waste before disposing off

Particular Non-working Working Total
frequency % Frequency % frequency %

Yes 21 8.40 87 34.80 108 21.60
No 229 91.60 163 65.20 392 78.40
Total 250 100.00 250 100.00 500 100.00
like paper, vegetable and fruit peels can be easily 5.40 per cent were getting the old phone repaired for
broken down by the action of bacteria or other making it in use. The polythene bags were mostly
decomposers. Such substances which can be easily disposed by throwing it. About 63.00 per cent of the
broken down by the action of bacteria are named sample working women was following this method,
biodegradable substances. Other substances or while remaining 37.00 per cent reused it.
materials like plastics, metallic cans and pesticides
which cannot be broken down easily by biological
processes are named non-biodegradable substances.
Therefore the biodegradable and non-biodegradable
household wastes are to be segregated and disposed
off separately. The practice of segregation of
kitchen wastes by the sample women is presented
in Table 3. Nearly one-fifth i.e. 21.60 per cent of the
total sample women were reported to segregate the
kitchen waste before disposing off it. The proportion
of women who were following the practice of
segregating the kitchen wastes was higher in case
Graph 1 : Practices followed by all sample women to
of working women (34.80%) as compared to non- treat households waste items
working women (8.40%).
CONCLUSION
Practices followed by all sample women to treat
It was evident that the most of the attitude of
households waste items
the non- working women with regard to purchasing
The data (Graph 1) indicated that out of total
green products observed to be more casual as
sample women (500) about half i.e. 51.40 per cent
compared to working women. It was also observed
of the women used recycle method to manage the
that the concern of non-working women is to check
used tins/containers, while 29.20 and 19.40 per cent
only the self-life and packing materials while
of the sample women followed donate and repair
purchasing food items, whereas working women
methods for treating used tins/containers. Left over
has been purchasing the food items after checking
plastic bottles has been treated either by donating
all the above four parameters. Though the numbers
it (75.00%) or by throwing it (25.00%). About 45
were less, but like food items, the approach of
per cent of the sample women were used to reuse
working women observed to more serious as
waste clothes, while 40.00 per cent repair it and
compared non-working women while purchasing
remaining 15.40 per cent were reported to donate
clothing and home appliances. The mean score of
old waste clothes. Most of the sample women i.e.
consumer buying behaviour in favour all items came
94.60 per cent have been adopting recycle method
out be significantly higher among working women
for disposing off old cell phones, while remaining

which indicates that working women has been Chughtai A A and Awan A G (2020). Impact of factors
intensely involved in purchasing green products as affecting buying decisions to purchase eco-friendly
products. Global J Manage, Social Sci and Humanities,
compared to non-working women. Hence, the study 6(4): 952-973.
suggested that non-working women also needs to
Jain V K , Dahiya A , Tyagi V and Dube P (2021). Predicting
be come forward for purchasing green products on factors affecting green purchase intentions towards green
account of safeguarding the eco-system and family products. Sustain Dev 17 (4): 360-374
health as well. Pandey D, Kakkar A, Farhan M and Khan T A (2019). Factors
influencing organic foods purchase intention of Indian
REFERENCES consumers. Organic Agri 9(4):357-364.
Ayub A H, Naziman N M Y H and Samat M F (2018). Cherian J and Jacob J (2012). Green Marketing: A Study of
Factors influencing young consumers’ purchase intention Consumers ‘Attitude towards Environment-Friendly
of organic food products. Adv Busi Res Int J (ABRIJ), Products. Asian Soc Sci 8(12): 117-126.
4(1):17-26.
Bisschoff C A and Liebenberg P (2017). Identifying factors
that influence green purchasing behaviour in South
Africa. 2016 SMA Proce, Uni of Pretoria, South Africa
174-189.

Evaluation of Antagonistic Potential of Fructosphere-

Associated Microflora Against Major Crown Rot Pathogen of
Robusta variety Banana
Deepa R Chandran and Susha S Thara
Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture Vellayani, Kerala Agricultural University,
Thiruvananthapuram, 695522 (Kerala), India.
ABSTRACT
Banana is one of the tropical fruits that is exported in large quantities. Banana is an integral fruit component
of most farming systems in Kerala and also an important commercial fruit crop of the country. Crown rot
of dehanded banana is one of the most important and predominant postharvest diseases of banana which
can lead to heavy losses for farmers as well as the wholesalers. A survey was conducted in five major
banana growing districts of Kerala to identify the major pathogens associated with crown rot of banana in
Kerala. Lasiodiplodia theobromae was found to be the major and most virulent pathogen associated with
postharvest crown rot of Robusta variety banana in Kerala. Fructosphere microflora was isolated from
healthy banana fruits to evaluate the antagonistic potential. 22 fungal isolates and 7 bacterial isolates were
obtained from different locations of Kerala. Among the fructosphere isolates, the fungal isolates, W3B-BC
and A3B-BC, showed highest inhibition on growth of the major pathogen with 44.44 and 40.00 per cent
of inhibitions respectively. Based on the molecular studies, the best two effective biocontrol agents were
identified as W3B-BC and A3B-BC as Aspergillus aculeatus (MN046330) and Aspergillus niger (MN04
6326) respectively using the universal inter transcriptional sequencing (ITS) primers.
Key Words: Antagonists, Banana, Crown rot, Robusta, Aspergillus.
INTRODUCTION (Musa AAA) was most susceptible to crown rot

Postharvest losses of perishables in developing diseases as reported by Raman et al (2007), it was
countries have been estimated to be in the range selected for the study. From the study conducted
of 5-50 per cent or more of the harvest. In India, at Department of Plant Pathology, College of
nearly 20-50 per cent of perishables are lost due Agriculture, Vellayani, Lasiodiplodia theobromae
to postharvest diseases, and for banana it accounts (T2C isolate) was identified as the major pathogen
for 20-80 per cent (Yadav et al, 2013). The two associated with crown rot of Robusta variety
primary postharvest rots of banana (Musa spp.) banana in Kerala. Although the use of synthetic
fruits are crown rot and anthracnose. The diseases chemical fungicides remains as the primary method
usually appear on ripening fruits either at points of of controlling postharvest diseases, the global
sale or later, after purchase. Crown rot of banana trend appears to be shifting towards reduced use
is a major threat causing losses during storage and of fungicides, substituting them with alternative
marketing (Krauss and Johanson, 2000). Even methods like bio-fungicides. It is very much essential
though the infected fruits are safe for humans to to develop the stable biocontrol strategies efficient
consume, the infection reduces the fruit quality, for the postharvest management. Hence, the study
shelf life and marketability. Since Robusta variety was formulated with the objective to identify the

Evaluation of Antagonistic Potential of Fructosphere-Associated Microflora
Table.1. Fructosphere microflora isolated from Robusta variety banana collected from major
banana growing locations of Kerala
District Locations Isolates Remarks
Thiruvananthapuram Pallichal T1 A-BC Non-pathogenic fungi
Pallichal T1 B-BC Pathogenic fungi
Pallichal T1 C-BC Pathogenic fungi
Pallichal T1 D-BC Pathogenic fungi
Alappuzha Edathua A1 A -BC Non-pathogenic fungi
Edathua A1 B-BC Pathogenic fungi
Edathua A1 C-BC Non-pathogenic fungi
Edathua A1 D-BC Pathogenic fungi
Cherthala A2A-BC Pathogenic fungi
Cherthala A2B-BC Pathogenic fungi
Kayamkulam A3 A-BC Pathogenic fungi
Kayamkulam A3 B-BC Non-pathogenic fungi
Kayamkulam A3 C-BC Non-pathogenic fungi
Kayamkulam A3 D-BC Non-pathogenic fungi
Edathuva A1E-BC Non-pathogenic bacteria
Cherthala A2C-BC Non-pathogenic bacteria
Pathanamthitta Konni Pt1A -BC Non-pathogenic fungi
Adoor Pt2A-BC Pathogenic fungi
Adoor Pt2B -BC Non-pathogenic fungi
Konni Pt1B-BC Non-pathogenic bacteria
Konni Pt1C-BC Non-pathogenic bacteria
Adoor Pt2C-BC Non-pathogenic bacteria
Palakkad Mannarkkad P1A-BC Non-pathogenic fungi
Palakkayam P2A-BC Pathogenic fungi
Mannarkkad P1B-BC Non-pathogenic bacteria
Wayanad Vaduvanchal W3A-BC Pathogenic fungi
Vaduvanchal W3B-BC Non-pathogenic fungi
Vaduvanchal W3C-BC Non-pathogenic fungi
Karyambadi W2A-BC Non-pathogenic bacteria
potential biocontrol agents from the fructosphere Alappuzha, Pathanamthitta, Palakkad and
and establish a stable biological strategy for the Wayanad. Banana bunches were collected from
management of crown rot disease of banana. fields or homesteads having reports of crown rot
incidence. To identify the effective antagonists
MATERIALS AND METHODS from the fructosphere of banana, total microflora
Isolation of fructosphere microflora was isolated from the fruit surface of healthy
Collection was done from five banana growing bananas taken from lots having diseased as well as
districts of Kerala namely Thiruvananthapuram, healthy bunches. Healthy bananas from mixed lot

Table. 2. Evaluation of antagonistic effect of fructosphere microflora against major crown rot
pathogen (T2C)
Sl. Fructosphere isolate Radial growth of pathogen Percent inhibition * (%)
(cm) *
1 T1A-BC 4.50 0 (1.351) d
2 A1A-BC 4.50 0 (1.351) d
3 A1C-BC 4.50 0 (1.351) d
4 A3B-BC 2.70 ± 0.08 40.00 (39.23) a
5 A3C-BC 4.50 0 (1.351) d
6 A3D-BC 4.50 0 (1.351) d
7 Pt1A-BC 3.50 ± 0.24 22.22 (27.99) b
8 Pt2B-BC 4.50 0 (1.351) d
9 W3B-BC 2.50 ± 0.20 44.44 (41.80) a
10 W3C-BC 4.50 0 (1.351) d
11 P1A-BC 4.50 0 (1.351) d
12 A1E-BC 4.50 0 (1.351) d
13 A2C-BC 4.50 0 (1.351) d
14 Pt1B-BC 4.00 ± 0.20 11.11 (19.16) c
15 Pt1C-BC 4.50 0 (1.351) d
16 Pt2C-BC 4.50 0 (1.351) d
17 W2A-BC 4.50 0 (1.351) d
18 P1B-BC 4.50 0 (1.351) d
CD (0.05) 0.355 3.872
SE (m) ± 0.162 1.843
* Mean of four replications and values in parenthesis are angular transformed data
were chosen for the experiment since the presence was gently vortexed for proper mixing. 1 ml of the
and activity of antagonists will be more prevalent in stock was pipetted out and transferred into a test
such conditions. tube with 9 ml sterile water and vortexed thoroughly.
Bananas were dehanded (retaining the crown to This will give a solution of 10 dilution. Then 1 ml
-3
each banana) from the mature harvested bunches. from this test tube was transferred in to another test
The fruits were subjected to serial dilution technique tube with 9 ml sterile water and vortexed to give
in vitro followed by plating, selection and pure -5solution of 10 dilution. Similarly, dilutions up to 10
-4
culturing of the microflora. In the laminar airflow were made. The diluted stocks were respectively
chamber, the fructosphere (fruit surface) of banana plated on media using spread plate method. For this,
was washed using double distilled sterile water. specific media like Rose Bengal Agar (for fungi),
The fructosphere wash was collected in to a sterile Nutrient Agar (for bacteria) and Kuster’s media (for
beaker (250 ml). The wash volume was made up actinomycetes) were used. 15 - 20 ml of each media
to 100 ml using double distilled sterile water in a was poured in to sterile petri plates kept inside the
standard round bottom flask. This will serve as the laminar air flow chamber. The statistical design used
stock solution with 10 -2 dilution. The stock solution was CRD and four replications of each treatment

were kept. The media were allowed to solidify. 0.1 cm away from the periphery and pathogen culture
ml of diluted stocks of fructosphere washes were disc was placed at the opposite side 2 cm away from
pipetted out from test tubes with 10-2, 10-3, 10-4 periphery of the petri plate. For each treatment four
and 10-5 dilutions respectively, poured on to the replications were maintained. The plates were kept
solidified media in petri plates and spread using an for incubation at room temperature (28 ± 2 °C)
L - rod. The plates were kept for incubation at room after proper labelling and wrapping. Growth in
temperature (28 ± 2 °C) after proper wrapping and the control plates were regularly monitored. When
labelling. The plates were observed for microbial growth of pathogen (T2C) in the control plate was
colonies daily. When colonies started to appear, full, observations were taken. In order to identify the
they were picked out before spreading and merging effective antagonist, the radial growth of pathogen
with other colonies and transferred on to respective in control plate and treated plate were recorded
growth media. Pure cultures of these colonies to find the percent inhibition using the following
were separately maintained for further studies. formula described by Vincent (1927) originally and
This technique was performed for all the samples modified by Girish and Sushma (2018).
collected from the 15 locations. These isolated Per cent Inhibition = (C – T) x 100
microbial colonies served as the total fructosphere
microflora from banana. The pathogenic microflora C
was then screened out after artificial inoculation on C - radial growth of mycelia of the pathogen in
healthy banana followed by verification of Koch’s control plate
postulates. T - radial growth of mycelia of the pathogen in the
Identification of effective antagonists presence of respective fructosphere microflora
The non-pathogenic microflora isolated from
fructosphere of healthy banana was selected for RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
studying the antagonistic effect on the major crown Fructosphere microflora from healthy banana
rot pathogen (T2C isolate, L. theobromae) under fruits were isolated by serial dilution technique
in vitro condition by dual culture technique. In the followed by plating and incubation. Colonies of
dual culture technique, five-day old cultures of the bacteria and fungi appeared on NA and RBA media,
pathogen and the non-pathogenic microflora were two and three days after incubation, respectively.
used for inoculation. For testing the antagonistic No actinomycetes were obtained. From the
effect of fungal microflora against the pathogen, fructosphere washes of 15 different samples, 22
culture disc of fungal microflora was taken using fungal isolates and seven bacterial isolates were
a cork-borer (5mm diameter) and placed at 2 obtained in total (Table 1) but not from all the
cm from the periphery of petri plate containing locations surveyed. The absence of microflora
solidified Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) medium. from some locations could be from the over use of
Similarly, culture disc of pathogen was placed fungicides on banana. On contrary, more than one
carefully at 2 cm away from periphery on the isolate has been obtained even from a single banana
opposite side. In addition, culture disc of pathogen fruit.
kept at the center of petri plate containing solidified All the isolates were then subjected to artificial
PDA medium served as the control. This method inoculation on healthy banana fruits to verify Koch’s
was followed for all fungal microflora. In case postulates and screen out pathogenic isolates. Out
of bacterial microflora, the media used was a 1:1 of the 29 fructosphere microflora isolated, 11 fungi
medium of PDA and NA. Moreover, instead of and 7 bacteria were found to be non-pathogenic
placing culture disc, the bacterium was streaked 2 (Table 1). The non-pathogenic fungal and bacterial

isolates were then subjected to dual culture with the ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

pathogen for studying their antagonism. Smilanick I thankfully acknowledge Kerala Agricultural
(1994) reported that the antagonists to the crown rot University for the facilities; and Kerala State
pathogen could be isolated from the surface of plants Council for Science, Technology and Environment
like from fructosphere or phyllosphere. Among the (KSCSTE) for the funding and fellowship.
isolates, Pt1A-BC, Pt1B-BC, A3B-BC and W3B-
BC showed different levels of inhibition of growth REFERENCES
of pathogen in PDA whereas others showed zero Girish K and Sushma G (2018). Screening of bacteria for
inhibition. The fungal isolates namely W3B-BC antifungal activity against phytopathogenic fungi of
sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.). Eurasia J Biosci
(Aspergillus sp. from Vaduvanchal, Wayanad) 12(2): 195-203.
and A3B-BC (Aspergillus sp. from Kayamkulam,
Krauss U and Johanson A (2000). Recent advances in the
Alappuzha) showed maximum antagonistic effect control of crown rot of banana in the Windward Islands.
on growth of the major pathogen (T2C isolate, Crop Prot 19 (3): 151-159.
L. theobromae) with 44.44 and 40.00 per cent of Raman T, Sangeetha G and Mustaﬀa M M (2007). Cross-
inhibition respectively (Table 2). infection potential of crown rot pathogen (Lasiodiplodia
Based on the molecular studies, effective theobromae) isolates and their management using
potential native bioagents in banana. Australasian Pl
biocontrol agents namely W3B-BC and A3B-BC Pathol 36: 595–605.
were identified as Aspergillus aculeatus (GenBank
Smilanick J L (1994). Strategies for the isolation and testing
Accession: MN046330) and Aspergillus niger of biocontrol agents. in: Wilson, C. L. and Wisniewski,
(GenBank Accession: MN046326) respectively M. E. Biol. Control Postharvest Dis pp. 25-41.
using the universal Inter Transcriptional Sequencing Vincent J M (1927). Distortion of fungal hyphae in the
(ITS) primers. presence of certain inhibitors. Nat 159: 800.
Yadav S K, Babu S, Yadav M K, Singh K, Yadav G S and Pal
CONCLUSION S A (2013). Review of Organic Farming for Sustainable
Among the fructosphere microflora isolated from Agriculture in Northern India. Int J Agron 8p.
healthy banana samples collected from different Received on 11/1/2023 Accepted on 18/4/2023
locations from five banana growing districts of
Kerala, W3B-BC and A3B-BC recorded maximum
inhibition of mycelial growth of the major crown
rot pathogen. If the active principle inhibiting
the pathogen’s growth could be identified in the
further studies, it could lead to the development of
novel biocontrol strategies for postharvest disease
management. In this era of increasing promotion
of biocontrol strategies for management of plant
diseases, isolation and development of innovative
formulations of biocontrol agents, with due respect
to all the safety concerns, for management of
postharvest diseases can unlock a great opening.

Evaluation of Different Substrates for the Production and

Economics of Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus)
Sandeep Kumar1, Somendra Nath2, Anil Kumar3 and Amit Kumar Singh4
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Amihit, Jaunpur2 - 222001 (Uttar Pradesh)
ABSTRACT
The experiment was carried out at Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Jaunpur of eastern Uttar Pradesh. during 2019.
Oyster mushrooms draw their nutritional requirement from a host substrate or the agricultural wastes rich in
lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose used for its cultivation. Nutrient content varied with the substrate which
lead to varied mushroom yield. An experiment was conducted to evaluate commonly available agro-wastes
viz., wheat straw, paddy straw, sugarcane leaves, sugarcane bagasse, stalks of maize, stalk of pearl millet for
the cultivation of oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus). Among tested substrates wheat straw was found
to yield more yield (710.50 g/ kg dry substrate), biological efficiency, net returns and benefit cost ratio than
other treatments.
Key Words: Efficiency, Maize, Oyster, Pearl millet, Stalks, Sugarcane, Wheat straw.
INTRODUCTION sugarcane bagasse (Hoa et al, 2015). The different

Mushroom is a edible macro fungi which has types of lignocellulosic agricultural waste are rich
a distinct fleshy fruiting body. Oyster mushrooms in various types of nutrients and disposal of huge
(Pleurotus sp.) is one of the most commercially quantity of agro wastes is very difficult to manage
cultivated and useful mushrooms next to white as excess of nutrients in them can cause leaching is
button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) especially in left in field, as a compost. Mostly they are disposed
Southeast Asia, India, Europe, and Africa (Sanchez, by means of incineration which causes pollution.
2010, Royse et al, 2017 and Jennifer and Devi, Hence, there is always a high demand of crop
2020). Oyster mushroom have many advantages residue management method which is cost effective
over other mushrooms, which grow under a wide and contributes less in environment pollution. An
range of temperature (15-30°C) and pH (6-8) attractive feature of oyster mushrooms is that can
(Yingyue et al, 2014). Kaur et al (2022) revealed utilize a large variety of agricultural waste products
that spawning during second week of October and and transform the lignocelluloses biomass in to
during first week of January were found to be the high quality food. The potential of bioconversion of
most beneficial time to get maximum production as lignocelluloses waste into value added mushroom
well as higher net returns from button mushroom is emphasized in earlier studies (Poppe, 2000).
production under Punjab conditions Ashem et al (2021) showed that exposure to the
Mushroom cultivation has become a profitable training programme and method demonstration
business with the produce fetching good returns in increased the skill and knowledge of rural farm
the market. The oyster mushrooms can also grow women with regard to techniques of mushroom
on various kinds of lignocellulosic agricultural cultivation. Similarly, Kamalabai et al (2021)
waste materials as substrate such as wheat straw, reported that Proper training and guidance to the
sugarcane leaf, paddy straw, maize waste and farmers is essential and would help the interested
1,3&4 Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Amihit, Jaunpur2 - 222001 (UP)
2 Krishi Vigyan Kendra Sohaon, Ballia

Evaluation of Different Substrates for the Production and Economics
Table 1. Effect of different agro-wastes for production and economics of P. ostreatus.

Sr. Treatment Yield (g/kg Biological Gross Gross cost net income B:C
No. substrate) Efficiency (%) income (Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.) ratio
1. Wheat straw 710.50 71.05 106.58 42.21 64.37 2.52
2. Paddy straw 675.70 67.57 101.35 40.87 60.48 2.47
3. Sugarcane leaves 526.20 52.62 78.93 39.52 39.41 1.99
4. Sugarcane 645.53 64.55 96.83 39.15 57.68 2.47
bagasse
5. Stalk of maize 624.80 62.48 93.72 40.14 53.58 2.33
6. Stalk of pearl 685.30 68.53 102.80 41.62 61.18 2.46
millet
CD at 5% 21.87 - - - - -
growers to sustain and earn their livelihood. Ahir etKendra, Jaunpur (U.P.). The following substrates
al (2021) revealed that except farming experience, were used to cultivation i.e. wheat straw, paddy
all the variables i.e., age, education, land holding,straw, sugarcane leaves, sugarcane bagasse, stalks
family income, farming experiences, achievement of maize, stalk of pearl millet. The dry agro wastes
motivation, economic motivation and knowledge of were chopped to small pieces (5-8 cm long). In
mushroom production technology were positively present study, the pure quality spawn of Pleurotus
and significantly correlated with adoption of ostreatus was obtained from mushroom laboratory,
mushroom production technology. Indian Institute of Vegetable Research, Varanasi
Lekha and Muralidharan (2021) indicated (U.P.)
that match wood saw dust can be used as an Substrate preparation and sterilization
alternative substrate for mushroom production as The chopped substrate were weighed and
it is cheaper and yielded at par with rubber saw soaked in into the solution containing appropriate
dust. Radhakrishnan et al (2021) showed that concentration of formalin and Bavistin chemicals
milky mushroom production was not beneficial in for 16-18 hr in fresh water until the moisture content
the study area and banana pseudostem waste was a reached about 75%. After soaking substrates were
suitable substrate for mushroom cultivation. They be taken out and excess of water drained off.
further revealed that unorganized market structure
is the major constraint faced by the farmers. Bag filling and spawning
Keeping this in view, present study was carried The polypropylene bags of the size 35 × 55
out to evaluate different agricultural wastes for cm will be sterilized with dipping in 2% formalin
2
growth and production of Pleurotus ostreatus in solution prior to use and lower corners of the bags
climatic condition of eastern Uttar Pradesh. was tied with the string so that the bed assumes a
round shape. Spawn used for spawning in layers
MATERIALS AND METHODS was done @ 2 per cent on wet weight basis of
The investigations on evaluation of different the substrate. The bags were filled up to their 85
agro-wastes on yield and economics of oyster percent capacity and mouth was closed tightly with
mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) was carried threads with the help of sterilized needle, about 25-
out during the year 2019-2020 at Krishi Vigyan 30 minute holes all-round the filled bags was made.

Incubation and spawn run Pradesh. Wheat straw obtained highest yield of
A spawned substrate bag was kept in growing 710.50 g/ kg dry substrate which was significantly
room where the temperature and humidity superior than other treatments viz., paddy straw,
were maintained around 20-25 0C and 80-90%, stalk of pearl millet, stalk of maize, sugarcane
respectively for 20 days. After completion of spawn leaves and sugarcane bagasse. Similar results
run the bags were removed by cutting longitudinally were also reported by earlier workers (Kirbag and
with sharp blade and these bags was kept on bamboo Akyuz, 2008, Pandey et al, 2008 and Raja and
racks/platform at 18-20 0C temperature and 80- Ganesh, 2013). Biological efficiency of Pleurotus
90% relative humidity for cropping. Ventilation of ostreatus was computed since certain substrates
2 to 3 hr/ d was given for maintaining CO2 level were denser than others. The effect of substrates
in the growing room and observations regarding on yield contributing characters such as biological
days required for pinhead formation were taken at efficiency was varied with the substrates. Maximum
regular intervals. Light spray of water was given to biological efficiency 71.05 of mushroom was
beds twice in a day till the end of cropping seasons. noticed in treatment in which wheat straw used as
Watering was stopped a day before harvesting. substrate. Similar differential biological efficiency
Pinhead initiation was evident within 3-4 days after of Pleurotus ostreatus with different substrates has
removal of poly bags. The bags were maintained been reported by Kumar, 2017. The economics of
up to the harvest of the third flush, which was substrates of wheat substrate gave more net returns
completed in 35-40 days after sowing. (Rs. 64.37/ kg dry substrate) and benefit cost ratio
(2.52) than other treatments.
Mushroom yield
The total yields of oyster mushroom were CONCLUSION
measured for each treatment. The accumulations of The results of present study led to conclusion
three flushes were noted as the total mushroom yield. that wheat straw can be used as substrates for
Harvesting was done by twisting the mushroom fruit the commercial cultivation of oyster mushroom
body at its base clockwise or anticlockwise. After in climatic condition of eastern Uttar Pradesh.
first harvest, beds were scrapped slightly to remove Promotion of mushroom cultivation using wheat
dead mycelial growth. Then the observations on and paddy straw also leads to eco-friendly way of
second and third flushes were taken. Harvested agro- waste management.
fruiting bodies per bed were collected and fruit body
weight was recorded by using electronic balance.
REFERENCES
Biological efficiency: The total yield due to Ahir Premila, Thakor R F and Kapur L T (2021). Factors
different treatments was recorded as g per kg dry influencing adoption of mushroom production in Gujarat.
J Krishi Vigyan 10 (1): 90-93.
substrates used. The yield obtained per bag was
expressed in terms of biological efficiency (B.E.) Ashem Senjit Singh, Ralte Zonunkimi, Remtluangpuii H
P (2021). Training on oyster mushroom cultivation
and calculated using following formula (Chang and
enhanced knowledge levels of farm women in north east
Miles, 1981). hilly region of Mizoram. J Krishi Vigyan 10 (1): 293-296.
Chang ST and Miles PG (1981). Edible mushrooms and their
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION cultivation. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida 6: 555-565.
The observation on yield and economics (Table Hoa H T, Wang C L, and Wang C H (2015).The
1) revealed that among evaluated agro-waste effects of different substrates on the growth, yield,
substrate wheat straw was found most suitable and nutritional International Journal of Food Science
for the cultivation of oyster mushroom (Pleurotus 7 composition of two oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus
ostreatus) in the climatic condition of eastern Uttar ostreatus and Pleurotus cystidiosus). Mycobiology 43 (4):
423–434.

Jennifer O and Devi L J (2020). Bioconversion of selected Poppe J (2000). Use of agricultural waste materials in the
solid wastes by control cultivation of oyster cultivation of mushrooms. In Proceedings of the 15th
mushroom, Pleurotus florida and its nutrient analysis. Int International Congress on the Science and Cultivation of
J Res Engineer, Sci and Manage 3 (12): 34–36. edible fungi, ed. Van Griensive LJLD 3-23. Rotterdam,
Kamalabai Koodagi, Pavithra S, Jayashree S, Munawery Balkema.
Atheefa and Mahesha H M (2021). Skill development Radhakrishnan Aparna, Sanju Balan, Indulekha V P, Simi S
training on mushroom farming for income generation. J and Sruthi Krishnan (2021). Potential, economics and
Krishi Vigyan 10 (1): 268-272. constraints of mushroom cultivation in Wayanad, Kerala.
Kirbag S and Akyuz M (2008). Effect of various agro-residuces J Krishi Vigyan 9 (2): 171-176.
on growing period, yield and biological efficiency of Raja E and Ganesh P (2013). Studies on oyster mushroom
Pleurotus eryngii. J Food Agric Envt. 6 (3- 4):402-405. (Pleurotus florida) on using different substrates. Indian
Kaur Ravinder, Singh Mandeep and Kaur Balvir (2022). Effect streams Res J 3 (3):1-3.
of different spawning time on profit margin of button
mushroom cultivation. J Krishi Vigyan 11 (1): 81-85 Royse D J, Baars J, and Tan Q (2017).Current overview of
Kumar Pardeep (2017). Effect of different agricultural mushroom production in the world in Edible a n d
substrates on yield of Pleurotus sajor caju. J Krishi medicinal mushrooms: technology and applications.
Vigyan 6 (1): 61-66 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Lekha G and Muralidharan P (2021). Matchwood (Ailanthus Sanchez C (2010). Cultivation of Pleurotus ostreatus and
exelsa) saw dust as an alternative substrate for oyster other edible mushrooms. Appl Microbiol and Biotechnol
mushroom (Pleurotus florida) cultivation. J Krishi 85 (5): 1321–1337.
Vigyan 9 (2): 131-137 Yingyue S, Min G, and Jin Q (2014). Effects of cold
Pandey R K, Pandey I B and Jha S (2008) Performance of stimulation on primordial initiation and yield of Pleurotus
oyster mushroom (Pleurotus sajor-caju) on different pulmonarius. Scientific Hort 167: 100–106.
agricultural wastes. Agricultra-Stiintasi- Practica 3
Received on Accepted on
(4):26-33.

Empowering Hill Women through Promotion of AIPAN Designs’

Based Textile Articles
Vandana Bhandari1 Anita Rani2, Sudha Jukaria3 and Pooja Bhatt4
1, 4
M.Sc. students and 2 Associate Prof., Department of Clothing and Textiles
College of Home Science, 3 SMS (Home Science) KVK, Jeolikote
G.B.P.U.A.T., Pantnagar (Uttarkahand)
ABSTRACT
Uttarakhand is known for its natural scenic beauty rendered by Himalayas, Tarai and Bhabar region and
it has attracted everyone from all over the world. Aipan is a folk art of Kumaun region of Uttarakhand
which is related to Hindu myths and rituals drawn on the floor. In the present study, Aipan designs were
incorporated into borders woven through extra weft figuring technique using woollen yarn. These were
then applied on products namely, lady’s shirt, waist coat for male, waist coat for female, cap and stole.
These finished articles were assessed by the two groups of respondents comprising of 30 Kumauni women
and 30 females from of the College of Home Science on the parameters namely, workmanship of woven
border, suitability of the border colour combination to that of fabric colour of the article, suitability of the
border to the articles, placement of border on article, neat finishing of the article with applied border, overall
appearance of the article. The waist coat for males and females finished with the borders, were widely
accepted by the two groups of respondents and most of the respondents were satisfied with cost of articles.
Thus, woven borders can be used effectively for the product diversification and could be promoted as means
for conservation of Aipan craft in form of textile items.
Key words: Aipan design, Woollen yarn, Weaving, Textile Products
INTRODUCTION Kumaun region, Uttarakhand. It is a decorative art

Indian arts and crafts had been and still are form used extensively to decorate floors and walls at
representative of day-to-day lifestyle of people, the places of worship and entrance of homes. Aipan
socio-political conditions, palaces and court scenes. are used as ritual designs for worships, festivals
Indian arts and crafts of each age echo the culture, and ceremonies connected with birth, marriage and
traditions and technology of a particular time period death. Efforts had been made continuously from a
(Kumari, 2013). The folk paintings of different decade to explore possibility of preserving Aipan
parts in India have distinctive features and reflect in form of textile for its conservation in future.
culture of specific regions inspired from the local The Aipan designs had been adapted to apply on to
customs and traditions. The rich cultural heritage textile through weaving (Sangama and Rani, 2012;
of Uttarakhand has been kept alive through the arts Kumari, 2013; Arya et al, 2017), tie and dye (Negi
and crafts. Temple architecture, wood carvings, et al, 2017), screen printing (Arya et al, 2012; Arya
traditional ornaments, rugs, carpets, baskets, copper et al, 2011), embroidery (Singh et al, 2013) and
utensils and the folk art Aipan are some examples applique (Negi et al, 2015; Negi and Rani, 2016).
of these crafts which have a unique touch of nature Being a Himalayan state, the climate of
in their designs (UttaraPedia, 2014). Aipan is one Uttarakhand is mostly cold in the hill region; hence,
of the traditional forms of Rangoli practiced in

Empowering Hill Women through Promotion of AIPAN
Table 1. Graphs for the Aipan designs used in borders.

Name of design Selected design Adapted design Graphical representation
Ghanti
Nata
Ghiroli 1
Ghiroli 2
Sua
the clothing of the state is mostly woollen. The products would help to create distinct range of
borders were woven with wool yarn to make them products for winter wear. Furthermore, these efforts
compatible to variety of woollen products used by would ensure the cultural development of the
local people due to cold climate in the hill region of Uttarakhand state.
the state. In the present study ready to use woven
woollen borders were applied on traditional (ladies MATERIALS AND METHODS
coat, gents waist coat) and contemporary dresses Planning the articles
(ladies shirt) and accessories (cap and stole) used The articles planned for application of woven
in winters. The woven borders applied on woollen borders included ladies’ shirt, gent’s waist coat,

ladies’ waist coat, cap and stole. Among these Weaving the borders
articles, waist coat for males, waist coat for females Five Aipan designs of selected border patterns
and cap were the traditional clothing items used by namely, ghanti, nata, ghiroli 1, ghiroli 2, and sua
men and women in Kumaun region of Uttarakhand were converted into graphic forms for weaving them
whereas ladies’ shirt and stole represented the into the borders using extra yarn figuring technique
conventional clothing items used in daily life by (Table 1). The background of the border had 2 x 2
adult females of all age groups. right hand twill weave. The weaving was done on
handloom using four harness and reed density 2 per
Collection of raw materials dent.
The borders were prepared with woollen and
acrylic yarns. These yarns were chosen so that the Stitching of Articles and their finishing
borders would have more suitability for application The woven borders were applied onto the
on either woollen fabric or fabrics having texture of planned articles according to the suitability of
wool i.e., blends and acrylic fabric. This would help borders to them. These borders were applied to the
in bringing out range of woollen articles finished articles at different parts and direction.
with borders to fulfil demand of local people of hill
areas of the state. Hence, the blends and woollen Assessment of Prepared Articles for Consumer
material demanded by consumers for winter Acceptability
clothing were chosen for construction of planned The stitched and finished articles were finally
articles. got assessed to establish their acceptability among
consumers.
Table 2. Border arrangements in different combinations

Design Name Border Arrangement Coloured Border arrangement
Ghanti P1a1
Nata P1a1
Ghiroli 1 Pm11
Ghiroli 2 P111
Sua Pm11

Table 3. Details related to articles and parts where the borders were applied
Border arrangement Article Place where border was applied on the article
P1a1 (Ghanti) Ladies shirt Neck yoke, sleeve hem
P111 (Ghiroli 2) Waist coat for males Shoulder to waist line
P1a1 (Nata) Waist coat for females Waist hem
Pm11 (Ghiroli 1) Cap Flap of cap
Pm11 (Sua) Stole 6’’ above hem
Note: The text in parenthesis indicates the name of Aipan design used in the border
Selection of respondents in selected colour schemes. The borders were

Two types of respondents were selected in woven on handloom using the extra weft figuring
present study. The group I comprised of 30 technique of weaving. These woven borders were
Kumauni women in age group 45 to 55 yr. They applied on to the planned articles namely, ladies’
were selected purposively as they were residents shirt, waist coat for males, waist coat for females,
of Kumaun region of Uttarakhand and well versed cap and stole. Table 3 represents information
with the Kumauni tradition and culture. It was related to woven borders, articles and place where
considered that as they had good knowledge of the borders were applied. The finished articles are
Aipan designs, they would be able to assess the shown in the Plates 1 to 5.
prepared articles with the Aipan designs borders.
The group II consisted of 30 females including the RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
faculty members, M.Sc. and Ph.D. students from Estimation of Cost for the Prepared Articles
Department of Clothing and Textiles and Department The raw material cost and production charges
of Family Resource Management, College of Home for weaving of borders and construction of articles
Science, G. B. P. U. A. & T., Pantnagar. They were were calculated and final cost calculation of products
also selected purposively being related to field of was done. Table 4 shows the cost incurred in the
design and product development preparation of articles finished with woven borders.
The calculated cost of finished ladies shirt, waist
Assessment of consumer acceptability coat for male, waist coat for female, cap and stole
The prepared articles were assessed on five were Rs. 548/-, Rs. 1823/-, Rs. 1593/-, Rs. 443/-
point rating scale on the given parameters namely, and Rs. 263/-, respectively. The calculated cost was
workmanship of woven border, suitability of the more for the waist coat for males and waist coat
border colour combination to that of fabric colour for females as they are the tailored garments. These
of the article, suitability of the border to the articles, two articles needed diverse inputs as the supporting
placement of border on article, neat finishing of the materials for their structural finishing and hence
article with applied border, overall appearance of craftsmanship charges for construction made the
the article. total cost high as compared to other articles.
RESULTS AND DISSCUSION Assessment of Prepared Articles for Consumer
Application of Borders on selected Articles and Acceptability
their Finishing The results obtained from the assessment
The data (Table 2) show the different border were given in Tables 5 and 6. Both the group
arrangement prepared using different Aipan designs accepted the articles well on different parameters.

Table 4. Cost incurred in preparation of the articles finished with woven borders.
Sl. No. Parameters Cost of articles finished with woven borders
(In Rs.)
Ladies Waist coat Waist coat for Cap Stole
shirt for male female
A. Weaving the borders
1. Raw material
2. Yarns used in background woven 15 15 15 15 15
fabric
3. Yarn used for figuring of the 3 3 3 3 3
borders
4. Craftsmanship charges for 125 500 250 250 125
weaving of the borders
5. Sub-total 143 518 268 268 143
B. Construction of articles
6. Raw material
7. Fabric 250 300 300 80 60
8. Lining - 70 70 20 -
9. Interfacing - 60 60 - -
10. Piping - - 25 10
11. Lace 15 - 10 - -
12. Button - 5 15 - -
13. Craftsmanship charges for 140 870 870 50 50
construction of the articles
14. Sub-total 405 1305 1325 175 120
15. Total Cost 548 1823 1593 443 263
The respondents of group I rated all the articles The highest rated parameter was suitability of the
acceptable as depicted by weighted mean score border colour combination to that of fabric colour of
(WMS) above 2.50 i.e., the mid value of WMS. the article in case of waistcoat (men) (WMS 4.80)
The highest rated parameter was neat finishing of while the least rated parameter was workmanship
the article with applied border in case of waistcoatof woven border in case of stole (WMS 3.10).
(men) (WMS 4.80) while it was least rated parameter Both waistcoat for men and women, were highly
in case of stole (WMS 3.26). Both waistcoat for acceptable items on all the parameters (WMS
men and women, got WMS above 4.00 for all the above 4.00). This further showcased that faculty
parameters which represented high acceptability of members, M.Sc. and Ph.D. students of college of
traditional wear item among Kumauni women in its Home Science found traditional wear item of state
new version. distinctive through application of borders and hence
It can be envisaged from Table 6 that the considered good enough for use in present times.
respondents of group II also rated all the articles
acceptable as depicted by weighted mean score
(WMS) above 2.50 i.e., the mid value of WMS.

Plate 1. Waistcoat (Ladies) finished Plate 2. Waistcoat (Men) finished Plate 3. Ladies shirt finished
with border
Plate 4. Stole finished with border Plate 5. Cap finished with border

Table 5. Average weighted mean scores for different articles and different parameters (Group I-
women of Kumaun region).
Parameters Weighted mean score
Border finished articles Average of
Ladies Waist coat Waist coat Cap Stole weighted
shirt for males for females mean score
Workmanship of woven border 4.16 4.66 4.30 4.16 3.50 4.15
Suitability of the border colour 4.13 4.53 4.46 3.96 3.43 4.10
combination to that of fabric colour of
the article
Suitability of the border to the articles 4.13 4.50 4.53 3.96 3.36 4.09
Placement of border on article 3.96 4.13 4.16 3.93 3.36 3.90
Neat finishing of the article with applied 4.40 4.80 4.63 3.93 3.26 4.20
border
Overall appearance of the article 4.46 4.16 4.70 3.96 3.53 4.10
Average of weighted mean score 4.20 4.46 4.46 3.98 3.40
Figure 1. Comparison between preference of Figure 2. Comparison between preference of

respondents (group I and group II) for border finished respondents (group I and group II) for different
articles parameters used in assessment
Figure 1 shows that weighted mean score for The comparison among different parameters
waist coat for males (Group I-WMS 4.46, Group has been reported irrespective of articles being
II-WMS 4.55) was maximum on acceptability assessed i.e., on basis of average of weighted mean
measures (parameters) followed by waist coat scores for different articles on a parameter. It is
for females (Group I-WMS 4.46, Group II-WMS clear from Figure 2 that the respondents of group
4.31) and ladies shirt (Group I-WMS 4.20, Group I rated the prepared articles better on neat finishing
II-WMS 4.20). The weighted mean scores for cap of the article with applied border (WMS 4.20) than
(Group I-WMS 3.98, Group II-WMS 3.95) and other parameters. It was followed by workmanship
stole (Group I-WMS 3.40, Group II-WMS 3.35) of woven border (WMS 4.15), suitability of the
were lower in acceptability measures. Therefore it border colour combination to that of fabric colour
can be concluded that the respondents of two groups of the article (WMS 4.10), overall appearance of
had similar preferences as they rated the articles in articles(4.10) and suitability of the border to the
similar order.
Table 6. Average weighted mean scores for different articles and different parameters (Group II-
Faculty members, M.Sc. and Ph.D. students).
Weighted mean score
Border finished articles Average of
Parameter Ladies Waist Waist coat Cap Stole weighted
shirt coat for for females mean score
males
Workmanship of woven border 3.96 4.46 4.56 4.03 3.10 4.02
Suitability of the border colour 4.50 4.80 4.16 4.16 3.40 4.24
combination to that of fabric colour of the
article
Suitability of the border to the articles 4.46 4.50 4.03 3.96 3.56 4.10
Placement of border on article 4.16 4.50 4.30 4.03 3.26 4.05
Neat finishing of the article with applied 4.13 4.53 3.36 3.43 3.40 3.77
border
Overall appearance of the article 4.03 4.53 4.46 4.13 3.43 4.11
Average of weighted mean score 4.20 4.55 4.31 3.95 3.35
article ( WMS 4. 09). The respondents of group II consumer acceptance on acceptability measures by
graded the prepared articles higher on suitability both the respondents of groups. The respondents
of the border colour combination to that of fabric of two groups had different preferences as they
colour of the article (WMS 4.24) followed by the rated the articles high on distinct parameters. Most
parameters namely, overall appearance of the article of respondents also expressed their willingness to
(WMS 4.11), suitability of the border to the article purchase if such articles are available in market.
(WMS 4.10) and placement of border on article Thus, the woven borders with Aipan designs patterns
(WMS 4.05) and workmanship of woven border applied on the different articles in the present
(WMS 4.02). Hence it can be inferred that the research study offered means for expanding design
respondents of two groups had different preferences possibilities in clothing for the state and further
as the rated the articles high on distinct parameters.this study preserve the valuable art of Aipan. The
weaving of such borders and their application on
CONCLUSION textile based handicraft as well as apparel items and
The woven borders were suitable for application accessories offer an opportunity to local artisans.
in apparel and accessory articles as yoke, panel or
borders at the hemlines. The border finished articles REFERENCES
were acceptable among two groups of respondents. Arya A, Gahlot M and Rani A (2017). Adaptation of Aipan
Waist coat for males had maximum acceptance on designs (A floor art of Uttarakhand) for designing of
saree. Int J Applied Research 93(7): 737-743.
acceptability measures (parameters) followed by
waist coat for females and ladies shirt by the both Arya A, Rani A and Gahlot M (2012). Keeping Tradition
Alive in Advancing Society. Saarbrucken, Germany LAP
groups of respondents. Cap and stole had lower LAMBERT Academic Publishing Gmbh & Co. KG. 171.

Arya A, Anita Rani and Gahlot M (2011). Redesigning Sah V N (2006). Aipan: Cultural motifs of Kumaon. Nainital,
Traditional Pichhora: Approach for the new market Gyanodaya Prakashan. 20-22.
trends. J Family Ecol 6(2): 75-79. Sangama E M and Rani A (2012). Development of designs
Kumari P (2013). Designing of curtains using aipan motifs for textile designing. Textile Trends 55(3): 29 -33.
through printing. Thesis. M.Sc. G. B. Pant University of Singh A, Gahlot M and Rani A (2013). Giving a new
Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar. dimension to Chikankari: An amalgamation of Aipan
Negi M and Rani A (2016). New Prospects for Women and Chikankari. Saarbruken, Germany, LAP LAMBERT
Empowerment through Value Addition of Remnant Academic Publishing.
Fabrics with Aipan Applique. Indian Res J Ext Edu 16(3): UttaraPedia (2014). Handicraft of Uttarakhand. Retrieved
84-88. from http://www.uttarapedia. com/ handicrafts/ on June
Negi M, Rani A and Singh A (2015). New horizon for Aipan 1, 2017.
(Folk art of Uttarakhand) motifs through appliqué. Int J
Research- Granthaalayah 3(9): 36-48.
Negi M, Rani A, Bala R and Singh A (2017). New perspective
in textile designing with aipan design through tie and
dye technique. Chapter in book - Gupta, T.; Mistry,
B. and Gupta, B. S. A treatise on Recent Trends and
Sustainability in Crafts & Design. Ed. Jaipur, Indian
Institute of Crafts & Design and New Delhi, Excel India
Publishers. 113-117.

Entrepreneurial Units Established by Youth

A P S Dhaliwal, Palwinder Singh*, Sarvpriya Singh and Vinay Singh
PAU’s Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Bathinda 151 001 ( Punjab)
ABSTRACT
A total of 839 rural unemployed youth between 18 and 35 years of age were selected for the study and
provided a skill development training on four enterprises viz., beekeeping (230), value addition and
processing (150), mushroom production (215) and poultry farming (244). About 392 rural youths established
their entrepreneurial units after training. The output and outcome of the study over five years (2017-2021)
revealed that various enterprises successfully generating a handsome income ranged between Rs 93,298/-
to Rs.421,775/- and provided the employment opportunity of 110 to414 men-days in the villages. Poultry
enterprise emerged as a most profitable enterprise as compared to others followed by beekeeping, mushroom
cultivation and value addition and processing.
Key Word: Beekeeping, Entrepreneur, Mushroom, Poultry, Processing, Youth.
INTRODUCTION up various agriculture, allied and service sector

In India 50 per cent of the population is engaged enterprises for sustainable income and gainful
in agriculture but agricultural extension has not been employment in selected districts, to enable the
effectively utilized in the sustainable development farm youth to establish network groups to take
of rural communities (Sharma et al, 2017). One of up resource and capital intensive activities like
the most common trends in rural India nowadays is processing, value addition and marketing, and
the movement of young people from rural areas to to demonstrate functional linkage with different
metropolitan areas in search of jobs in sectors other institutions and stakeholders for convergence of
than agriculture (Baishya et al, 2021). In India, 45 opportunities available under various schemes/
per cent of people move to urban areas, with young program for sustainable development of youth.
people making up 30 per cent of this population The KVK’s are playing can playing and can play
(Hazra, 2012). significant role in skill development of rural youths.
The fragmentation of land holdings, dramatic The learned skills may enable the youths to take
rise in family expenses relative to farm revenue, agriculture as source of livelihood (Kumari et al,
increased risk in the agricultural industry due to 2020).
recently emerging issues like climate change and The youth trained were provided with all
a severe shortage of workers on farms were the necessary technical knowhow about their respective
main causes of this issue. However, Indian Council enterprises along with some inputs to kick start
of Agricultural Research under the Ministry of their businesses. Exposure visits were conducted
Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare contemplated in order to make them convinced about the scale
the brilliant idea of initiating a visionary project and level at which other successful entrepreneurs
Attracting and Retaining Youth in Agriculture were operating. Krause et al (2015) found that
(ARYA). The project was launched in 25 districts youth skills and knowledge improved as a result
across the nation in 2015–16 with the aims to of training on entrepreneurship in Tanzania. This
attract and empower the youth in rural areas to take study was planned to evaluate entrepreneurial units
*Corresponding Author’s Email : [email protected]

Table 1. Enterprise-wise skill training of youth from 2017-2021.

Enterprise Topic covered No. of train- No. of youth No. of youth
ings trained started an
enterprise
Beekeeping Skill training on Beekeeping, value 5 230 90
addition and marketing of honey,
pollen & bee wax
Value addition Skill development training on the 5 150 103
and Processing processing of fruits, Vegetables &
Milk
Mushroom Skill training on mushroom pro- 5 215 80
Cultivation duction, spawn production, pro-
cessing, value addition and market-
ing
Poultry Farm- Improved poultry-rearing practices 5 244 119
ing on housing, feeding, healthcare,
vaccination, hatchery management
and marketing
Total 20 839 292
established by youth and reason of discontinuation post-test evaluation of participants was carried out
of units and non-adoption. during the training program.
MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Bathinda organized Adoption status
skill based as well as vocational training programs The adoption status with respect to continued
of under ARYA project for the rural youth. During adoption, discontinuance and non-adoption was
five years (2017-21), 20 skill-based vocational based on the sample of 839 trainees from whom the
training programs in four enterprises (5 training in response was given (Table 2). In beekeeping 39.1
each enterprise) and 839 rural youths were trained, percent youth started beekeeping as an enterprise
out of which 392 have started their enterprises. The and out of 26.5 per cent units are still functioning
data were collected personally from these trainees and 12.6 per cent units are non-functional. While the
through a previously developed interview schedule proportion of the functional units in value addition
and questionnaire. Eight hundred and thirty nine and processing was maximum (44.7%) followed
trainees were classified into three categories by poultry enterprise (29.5 %). The percentage of
in terms of adoption status namely: continued non-adopters was on higher side (62.8 %) in case
adopters, discontinued adopters and nonadopters. of mushroom cultivation followed by beekeeping
Out of 839, a sample of 200 respondents was (60.9%). About 24 percent and 19.3 percent of the
selected proportionately from these three categories food processing and poultry trainees respectively
to study the factors effecting adoption decision, had discontinued the enterprises over time. This
reasons for non-adoption and discontinuance, and showed that the adoption in case of poultry and
economic impact of the enterprises. Pre-test and food processing was more as compared to other two
enterprises.
Table 2. Adoption statues of trainees in different enterprises.

Enterprise No. of Youth Units established Non-adopter
Trained Continued adopter Discontinued
Bee keeping 230 61 29 140

Value addition and processing 150 67 36 47
Mushroom cultivation 215 47 33 135
Poultry farming 244 72 47 125
Total 839 247 145 447
Descriptive statistics of trainees farming was 135 to 351, 110 to 414, 142 to 303 and
It was evident from the data that in case of 155 to 331, respectively (figure 2).
continued adopters majority (42%) were studied upto
senior secondary followed by matriculates (35%).
In discontinued adopters majority (39%) were
studied up to 10th standard. Among non-adopters
most of the trainees have primary education only
(31%). Among continued adopter, discontinued
adopter and non-adopter the average age of the
trainees was 34, 32 and 33, respectively. The
trainees were predominant from rural background
having agriculture as their main occupation.
Majority of the respondents were from rural areas,
with agriculture being the major family occupation.
Figure 1: Net income from various enterprises
Majority of the adopters (38%) and discontinued
adopters (32%) belonged to small (landholding1-2
ha). Among non-adopters majority of youth was
having marginal land holding (37%) followed by
small land holding (35%). Average family income
of respondents belonging to functional units, Non-
functional units and non-adoption was 3.11 lakh,
10.84 lakh and 1.52 lakh respectively.
Net and employment generation from various
enterprises
The economic benefits arising from the various
demonstrated enterprises in the villages. The annual
Figure 2: Employment generated from various
net income was Rs 1,08,771 to 3,39,173, Rs 93,298
enterprises
to 4,21,775, Rs 1,06,297 to 272,181 and Rs 133,110
to 341,106 from beekeeping, value addition and Reasons for discontinuation
processing, mushroom production and poultry The data (Table 4) showed major reason of
farming, respectively. The annual number of man- discontinuation in various enterprises after starting
days generated from beekeeping, value addition the enterprise. It was clear that in beekeeping
and processing, mushroom production and poultry monopoly of a few companies in marketing got

Table 3. Descriptive statistics of trainees.

Sr. Functional Non-functional Not-started
No
1 Age (Yr)
a. Range 20-40 21-42 21-45
b. Average 34 32 33
2 Education
c. Illiterate 3 5 8
d. Primary (5th pass) 9 15 31
e. Middle (8th pass) 7 11 16
f. Matriculate 35 39 27
g. Senior secondary (10+2) 42 27 17
h. Graduation & above 4 3 1
3 Family background (%)
i. Rural 96 92 94
j. Urban 4 8 6
4 Gender
k. Female 64 32 107
l. Male 183 113 340
5 Family occupation (%)
m. Agriculture 97 92 96
n. Others (service, business and labour) 3 8 4
6 Farm Size
o. Marginal (Less than 1 ha) 28 25 37
p. Small (1-2 ha) 38 32 35
q. Semi-Medium (2-4 ha) 22 29 14
r. Medium (4-10 hac) 5 8 10
s. Large (10 ha & above) 7 6 4
7 Average family income (in lack)
t. Range 0-8.5 0-4.3 0-3.9
u. Average 3.11 1.84 1.52
first rank among the reasons of discontinuation. demand of eggs/meat during Covid-19, followed
Engaged in other livelihood options was major by high investment cost for commercialization,
reason for discontinuation in value addition and engaged in other livelihood options.
processing followed by low demand of products It was evident from data (Table 5) that major
during Covid-19. In mushroom cultivation main reason for non-adoption in case of beekeeping was
reason of discontinuation was costly raw material lack of finance, followed by waiting for right time to
for commercialization followed by lack of technical start and low risk bearing capacity. In value addition
labour and low economic return. In case of poultry and processing main reason of non-adoption was
farming major reason for discontinuation was Low lack of family support, engaged in other livelihood

Table 4. Major reasons of discontinuation of different enterprises.

Sr. Reasons for discontinuation Frequency Percentage Rank
No.
A. Beekeeping (n=29)
1. Monopoly of a few companies in marketing 24 82.8 I
2. Unfair competition in market due to adulterated honey 22 75.9 II
3. Poor marketing accessibility 18 62.1 III
4. Diseases and bee enemies 16 55.2 IV
5. Problem of bee flora 14 48.3 V
6. Engaged in other livelihood options 11 37.9 VI
B. Value addition and processing (n=36)
7. Engaged in other livelihood options 29 80.6 I
Low demand of products during Covid-19 27 75.0 II
8. Lack of family support 24 66.7 III
9. Lack of financial support for commercialization 18 50.0 IV
10. Costly raw material 15 41.7 V
C. Mushroom cultivation (n=33)
11. Costly Raw material for commercialization 24 72.7 I
12. Lack of technical labour 21 63.6 II
13. Low economic return 11 33.3 III
14. Engaged in other livelihood options 8 24.2 IV
15. Poor Shelf life of mushroom 5 15.2 V
D. Poultry (n=47)
16. Low demand of eggs/meat during Covid-19 34 72.3 I
17. High investment cost for commercialization 31 66.0 II
18. Engaged in other livelihood options 16 34.0 III
19. High mortality 8 17.0 IV
20. Disease outbreak 2 4.3 V
Reasons for non-adoption
activities and costly raw material. Costly raw regular supply of electricity and water (64.8%),
material also was major reason for non-adoption formation of organization or association to get
in mushroom followed by lack of technical labour. help from all sources’ (61.9%), ‘Improve technical
In case of poultry farming high investment cost got knowhow knowledge’ (53.8%), need family support
first rank among the reasons of non-adotion. in enterprise management (34.4%), and provide
more skill oriented training programmers (31.6%),
Suggestions of successful entrepreneurs
It can be inferred from the Table 6 that CONCLUSION
majority (70.9%) of the entrepreneurs suggested The follow-up of the trainings provided by the
that simplify the loan sanctioning procedure’ for KVKs provide much needed guidance to trainees and
successful running of an enterprise followed by avoid discontinuance of enterprises like beekeeping,

Table 5. Major reasons of non-adoption of different enterprises.

Sr. Reasons for non-adoption Frequency Percentage Rank
No.
A. Beekeeping (n=140)
1. Financial problem 105 75.0 I
2. Inadequate knowledge of govt scheme related to 87 62.1 II
beekeeping
3. Low risk bearing capacity 69 49.3 III
4. Engaged in other livelihood options 45 32.1 IV
5. Waiting right time to start 25 17.9 V
B. Value Addition and processing (n=47)
6. Lack of family support 32 68.1 I
7. Engaged in other livelihood options 28 59.6 II
8. Costly raw material 23 48.9 III
9. Lack of financial support 17 36.2 IV
10. Low risk bearing capacity 12 25.5 V
C. Mushroom cultivation (n=135)
11. Costly Raw material 112 83.0 I
13. Engaged in other livelihood options 82 60.7 III
14. Lack of family support 65 48.1 IV
D. Poultry (n=125)
16. High investment cost 102 81.6 I
18. Lack of family support 79 63.2 III
19. Engaged in other livelihood options 65 52 IV
mushroom, poultry and food processing. About income was highest in poultry farming followed
46.7 percent youth started an enterprise after by beekeeping, mushroom and value addition and
training and out of which 29.4 percent units are processing.
still functioning and 17.3 percent units are non-
functional. Maximum units discontinued in Value REFERENCES
addition and processing (24%) followed by poultry Sharma S, Goud, K S, and Datt R (2017). Agripreneurship
(19.3%), mushroom (15.3 %) and beekeeping (12.6 through Krishi Vigyan Kendras: A Meta-analysis of
Qualitative Case Studies. Indian J Ext Edu 53(2), 135-
%). The percentage of non-adopters was on higher 141.
side (62.8 %) in case of mushroom cultivation
Baishya S K, Sangtam H M, Tungoe M, Meyase M, Tongoe
followed by beekeeping (60.9%), poultry (51.2 %) Z, Deka B C and Ray S (2021). Empowering rural tribal
and Value addition (31.3 %). Average annual net youth through agripreneurship–evidence from a case
study in North East India. Current Sci 120(12), 1854.

Table 6. Suggestions of rural youth for successful running of their enterprise (n=247)
Sr. No. Suggestion Frequency, Percentage Rank
1. Simplify the loan sanctioning procedure 175 70.9 I
2. Regular supply of electricity and water 160 64.8 II
3. Formation of organization or association to get help
from all sources 153 61.9 III
4. Improve technical knowhow knowledge 133 53.8 IV
5. Provide professional expertise on latest Production
and market trends 106 42.9 V
6. Need family support in enterprise management. 85 34.4 VI
7. Provide more skill oriented training programmes 78 31.6 VII
Hazra A (2012). Rural India: Still Floating Towards Cities; Kumari N, Singh S K, Singh P, Mukherjee S and Singh V
Kurukshatra. J Rural Dev 60 (4):3-5 K (2020). Role of Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) in skill
Krause B L, McCarthy A S, Chapman D (2015). Fuelling development of rural youth in Indian agriculture. Annals
financial literacy: Estimating the impact of youth Hort 13(1), 82-90.
entrepreneurship training in Tanzania. J Dev Eff 8: 234– Received on 18/2/2023 Accepted on 11/5/2023
256

Estimation of Yield Gap in Rapeseed-Mustard through Cluster

Front Line Demonstrations
L C Verma1 and Angad Prasad2
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Mau
A. N. D. University of Agriculture and Technology, Kumarganj, Ayodhya-224229, Uttar Pradesh, India)
ABSTRACT
The present study was carried out at KVK in Mau district of Uttar Pradesh to know the yield gaps between
improved package of practices (IP) under Cluster Font Line Demonstrations (CFLD) and farmers practices
(FP) of rapeseed mustard. It was revealed from the study that the yield of rapeseed mustard in IP under
irrigated condition ranged from 20.89 to 21.55 q/ha, where as in FP it ranges between 16.94 to 17.25 q/ha.
The percent increase in yield IP over FP was recorded in the range of 24.05 to 26.37. The extension gap
and technological index were range between 4.70 - 5.36 q/ha and 20.42 percent respectively. The trend of
technological gap reflected to farmer cooperation in carrying out the demonstrations in subsequent years.
The cost benefit ratio was 3.57 and 3.42 under demonstration, while it was 3.24 to 3.47 under control
plots. By conducting Cluster Front Line Demonstrations (CFLD) of proven technologies, yield potential of
rapeseed mustard crop enhanced to a great extent with increase in the income level of farming community.
Key Words: Extension gap, Gap, Mustard, Rapeseed, Technological index.
INTRODUCTION consumed as spices and vegetables. They contain

In India, the mustard - rapeseed is the most selenium, calcium, magnesium, iron, phosphorus,
important oil seed crop after groundnut accounting zinc, magnesium, manganese, etc. Several biotic-
around 25 per cent of total oilseed production. It is abiotic and socio- economic constraints inhibits
one of the important oilseed crop grown in Indo- exploitation of the yield potential and these need
Gangetic plains. Indian mustard (Rai) cultivation to be addressed. Mau district has the sizeable area
has occupied about 85-90 per cent of total area under mustard cultivation but the productivity level
under cultivation of mustard - rapeseed. India’s is very low. The reasons for low productivity is lack
Agricultural Production: Nine Oilseeds: Rapeseed of newly released crop production technologies and
& Mustard: Uttar Pradesh data reported at 0.100 their management practices in the farmers fields.
Mt in March 2017 with an increase from the Keeping the above points in view, the CFLD
previous number of 0.090 Mt for March 2016. on rapeseed-mustard using production improved
India’s Agricultural Production: Nine Oilseeds: technologies was conducted with the objective
Rapeseed & Mustard: Bihar data is updated yearly, of showing the productive potential of the new
averaging 0.090 Mt from Mar 2002 to 2017, with production technologies under actual farm situation.
16 observations. The data reached an all-time high
of 0.110 Mt in 2014 and a recorded low of 0.060 Mt MATERIALS AND METHODS
in 2003. Besides, the utilities of oil obtained from The present study was carried out the Krishi
mustard rapeseed, the seeds, sprouts, leaves, tender Vigyan Kendra, Pilkhi, Mau, Uttar Pradesh during
plants are also useful to human health, when they are Rabi season from 2017- 2018 to 2021-22 (Five
1
Senior Scientist and Head, KVK, Mau.
2
Subject Matter specialist, Agronomy, KVK, Mau.

Table.1 Comparison between demonstration package and existing farmers practices under Rapeseed
- Mustard practices
Particular Rapeseed-Mustard Demonstration package Farmers practices
Farming Irrigated medium land Irrigated Irrigated medium land
situation Irrigated
Variety RH-0749 Local
Time of sowing 25th October to Last of November 05th November to 10th
December
Method of Line sowing Broad casting
sowing
Seed rate 5 Kg/ha 6-7 Kg/ha
Fertilizers doses (60 kg N, 40 kg P2O5,: 40 kg K2O, 30 kg Sulphur and 20 kg 80 kg N, 60kg P2O5
Boron
Plant Protection Need based used of mancozeb 20% WP for fungal disease and Nil
Dimethoate to protect the crop against aphid
Weed Pendamathilian @0.3 kg a.i/ha pre emergence followed by one Two hand weeding at 22
management hand weeding at 25 DAS and 35 DAS
consecutive years) in the farmers field in twelve Visits of farmers, the district agriculture line
adopted villages viz. Chauri, Ardauna, Basti department and extension functionaries were
baharwar, Gonaipur, Ekbalpur, Parasupur dighera, organized at demonstration plots to disseminate the
Ladanpur, Shadipur, Thalaipur, Mustafabad, Amari message at large scale. The demonstrated farmers
and Nasirabad of Mau district of Uttar Pradesh. were facilitated by KVK scientists in performing
Before conducting CFLD a list of farmers field operation like sowing, spraying, weeding,
was prepared from group meeting and specific organize field day, harvesting etc. during the
skill training was imparted to the selected farmers course of training and visits. The data outputs were
regarding different aspect of cultivation etc., were collected from both FLD plots as well as control
followed as suggested by Chaudhary (1999) and plots (farmers’ practices) and finally the extension
Venkatta Kumar et al (2010). In case of local check gap, technology gap, technology index along with
plots, existing practices used by farmers were the benefit cast ratio(B:C:R) worked out (Sanui et
followed. In general, soil in study area was medium al, 2000).
saline soils having pH 7.5 to 8.0 with medium
fertility status. In demonstration plots quality seed RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
of improved variety, timely weeding, need based The result of CFLD conducted during 2017-
application of pesticides, use of balance fertilizers 18 to 2021-22 in 50 ha area at the farmers’ field
(using micro nutrient sulphur) and use of suitable in twelve village of Mau district indicated that
fungicides is Bavistin 35%WP for seed treatment the cultivation practices under-CFLD viz- use of
were used as suggested by Chattopadhyay et al improved variety (RH-0749), line sowing, balance
(2003) was used as technical interventions. For the used of fertilizers, sulphur, weedicide, and control
control of aphid (Lipaphids crrysimi) Diamethoate of mustard aphid through insecticides at economic
30 EC was used in demonstrated plots as per threshold level, produced on an average 25.10%
package of practices for the Zone III, Uttar Pradesh. more yield of mustard as compared to local practices

(16.93 q/ha). The data (Table 2) revealed that the

Table.2 Productivity, technology gaps, extension gaps, technology index and benefit cost ratio of Rapeseed –Mustard (RH-
Control
yield of rapeseed- mustard fluctuated successively
3.42
3.38
3.47
3.39
3.24
3.38
B:C Ration
over the field of demonstrated plots. The maximum
yield recorded was 21.55 q/ha over local practices
CFLD
3.50 (16.67q/ha). The increase in percentage of yield

3.42
3.56
3.54
3.57
3.52
was ranged from 26.37% to 24.05% during five
year study. The similar result of yield enhancement
Extension Technology
Index %
in rapeseed crop in front line demonstrations has

19.66
20.42
18.40
17.90
20.19
19.31
been documented by Mitra and Samajdar (2010), in
Tarai zone of West Bengal. The results were also in
conformity with the findings of Tiwari et al (2003)
gap (q/ha)
Tomer et al (2003), Singh et al (2007) and Katare

4.15
4.05
4.47
4.30
4.28
4.25
et al (2011).
The result clearly indicated the positive effect
Technological
of CFLDs over the existing practices toward in

enhancing the yield of rapeseed- mustard in Mau
(q/ha)
5.16
5.36
4.83
4.70
5.30
5.07
gap
area, with its positive effect on yield attribute (Table

3). Benefit Cost ratio was recorded higher under
demonstration against control of all the year of
increase
control
study. These results were also supported by Singh

24.50
24.05
26.37
24.93
25.67
25.10
over
%
et al (2008), who found that the improvement

technologies of mustard crop have significant effect
in higher productivity of mustard.
(Varuna)
0749) grown under CFLDs and existing package of practices.
Control
16.94
16.84
16.95
17.25
16.67
16.93
The findings revealed that a gap exists between

the actual farmer’s yield and realizable yield
Grain Yield q/ha
potential of the variety. Use of improved variety

carry potential to enhance the present level of
RH-(0749)
CFLD
21.09
20.89
21.42
21.55
20.95
21.18
mustard productivity which is not percolating down

at desired pace due to lack of confidence among the
farmers. Hence, to exploit the potential of improved
production and protection technologies efforts
Potential
through CFLDs ought to be increased to create

26.25
26.25
26.25
26.25
26.25
Yield
awareness among the farmers.

Extension gap
Beneficiaries
The extension gap showed an increasing trend.

No. of
The extension gap ranging between 4.05-4.47 q/

25
25
25
25
25
ha during the study period emphasized the need

to educate the farmers through various means for
adoption of improved agricultural technologies
Area
(ha)
10
10
10
10
10
to reverse the trend. The trend of technology gap

(ranging from 4.70 to 5.36 q/ha) reflects the farmer’s
Average
2017-18
2018-19
2019-20
2020-21
2021-22
cooperation in carrying out such demonstrations

Year
with encouraging results in subsequent years.

Technology gap agencies in the district need to provide proper

The technology gap observed might be technology support to the farmers through different
attributing to the dissimilarity in soil fertility status educational and extension methods to reduce the
and weather conditions. Mukharjee (2003) also extension gap for higher oilseed production in the
opined that depending on identification and use district.
of farming situation, specific interventions may
have greater implications in enhancing system CONCLUSION
productivity. Similar findings were also recorded by It is concluded from the above study that use
Mitra et al (2010). The technology index, showed of scientific methods of mustard cultivation can
the feasibility of the evolved technology at the reduce the technology gap to a considerable extent
farmer’s field. thus leading to increased productivity of rapeseed-
The lower the value of technology index, the mustard in the district. Moreover, Krishi Vigyan
more is the feasibility of technology. The wider Kendra in the district need to provide proper technical
gap in technology index (ranging between 17.90 - support to the farmers through different educational
20.42%) during the study period in certain region, and extension methods to reduce the extension gap
may be attributed to the difference in soil fertility for better oilseed production in the district.
status, weather condition, non-availability of
irrigations water and insect- pests attack in the crop. REFERENCES
Chattopadhyay, C, Meena, P D, Sastry, R K and Meena, R L
The benefit cost ratio of front line demonstrations (2003). Relationship among photological and agronomic
have been presented in Table 2 clearly showed attributes for soil borne diseases of three oilseed crops.
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of study. The benefit cost ratio of demonstrated and KVK managers. Division of Agricultural Extension,
control plots were 3.50 and 3.42, 3.42 and 3.38, ICAR, pp 73-78.
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Hence, favorable benefit cost ratios proved Yield gap analysis of Rapeseed- mustard through front
the economic viability of the interventions and line demonstration. Agric Update 6:5-6 .
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Similar findings were reported by Sharma (2003) in Rapeseed – Mustard Production. SAARC Oils and Fats
moth bean and Gurumukhi and Mishra (2003) in Today 5( 7) : 32-33.
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out that the yield of rapeseed –mustard could
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intervention of balanced nutrient coupled with the Ext Rev 22: 16-17
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Mukharjee N (2003). Participatory Learning and Action.
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Table 3 Yield attributing parameters under FLD v/s FP

Yield Parameters Demonstration package Existing farmers’ practices
No. of siliqua/plant 130.85-230.50 71.2 – 90.00
No. seeds/siliqua 10.3-11.89 6.95-9.00
Test weight (g) 4.5-4.9 3.70-4.10
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yield mustard in Central Plain Zone of Uttar Pradesh.
Indian Res J Ext Edu 7: 79-81.

Evaluation of Biozyme Granule and Liquid Formulation

Application on Tuber Yield and Related Characters in Potato
Munish Sharma*and B S Khadda
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, S.A.S. Nagar (Mohali)
Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana, Punjab
ABSTRACT
The present investigation involves evaluation of biozyme application through granules and liquid
formulation on yield and related characters of potato. It was observed that due to imbalanced nutrition
and non-judicious use of fertilizers potato production is lower than potential one which further led to poor
tuber size and number of tubers per plant which greatly hampers tuber yield and quality. To overcome this
problem, an On Farm Trial (OFT) was conducted by K.V.K. S.A.S. Nagar (Mohali) in farmers’ field during
2020-21 to evaluate the influence of application of biozyme granule and liquid formulation on tuber yield
and related characters in Potato Var. Kufri Pukhraj. The treatment combinations comprised T1 - FP: Farmers
Practice (No treatment), T2 -Application of 20 Kg biozyme granule at the time of planting and 20 kg at the
time of earthing up along with application of biozyme liquid formulation @500 ml/ha at the time of tuber
formation. T3- Application of 40Kg biozyme granule at the time of planting and application of biozyme
liquid formulation @500 ml/ha at the time of tuber formation. The results of the study revealed that yield of
T2 was found best performing (315 q/ha) followed by T3 (295 q/ha) and T1 (255 q/ha). It was noted that T2
was earliest for first harvest (76 d) followed by T3 (82 d) and T1 (90 d). Yield increase of T2 over control was
found 23.53 per cent higher while it was higher by 15.69 per cent with T3 over control. Benefit cost ratio
for T1, T2 and T3 was found to be 4.04, 4.58 and 4.33, respectively. The results led to a conclusion that for
better growth and yield of potato, the crop may be supplemented with different formulations of biozyme in
combination with the recommended dose of fertilizers.
Key Words: Biozyme, On farm trial, Potato, Tuber, Yield.
INTRODUCTION the district is below the potential level. This might

Potato (Solanum tuberosum) is one of the most be due to excessive use of inorganic fertilizers
important crops from Solanum genus worldwide. leading to poor soil health and other factors like
It contribute substantially in providing food and cultural practices, nutrient management and
nutritional security and contains high amount of climatic factors. Biozyme is an organic storehouse
dry matter, carbohydrates, mineral, edible protein, of naturally occurring nutrients derived from
dietary fibre and vitamins. It contains 20.6% seaweed (Aschophyllum nodosum) which is known
carbohydrates, 2.1% protein, 0.3% fat, 1.1% crude for its rich possession of vital nutritional elements.
fibre and 0.9% ash. It also contains a good amount It is known to be rich in cytokinins like gibberellins,
of essential amino acids like leucine, tryptophan and auxin precursors, polysaccharides, betaines,
isoleucine etc. It is one of the most important and mannitol, organic acids, enzymes and hydrolyzed
widely cultivatable crop in S.A.S. Nagar (Mohali) proteins all of which are very useful and diversely
district of Punjab. It is grown in many parts of the used in agriculture. Aschophyllum nodosum is
district during rabi season and farmers fetches good large, brown algae of the Fucaceae family being
returns from its sale. However, potato production in the only species of the genus Ascophyllum. It
*Corresponding Author’s Email : [email protected]

contains both macronutrients (N, P and K) and at the time of earthing up along with application
micronutrients (Ca, Mg, S, Cu, Mn, Zn, Fe etc.). It of biozyme liquid formulation @500 ml/ha at
contains nutrients in naturally chelated form which the time of tuber formation. T3- Application of
helps to improve cell division and cell enlargement 40 Kg biozyme granule at the time of planting
resultant in to better chlorophyll content and thereby and application of biozyme liquid formulation
increases production. It also improves natural @500 ml/ha at the time of tuber formation.
defense system of plant which makes crop healthy. Observations were taken on various growth, yield
In addition to this, organic substances produced by and economic parameters. Selected farmers were
seaweed extract are biodegradable, non toxic, non trained on scientific cultivation of crop including
polluting and eco friendly in nature. In order to method of raising crop, intercultural operations,
improve production and quality of potato biozyme nutrient management, water management, weed
application in granular form and liquid formulation management and proper harvesting through on/
was applied in the crop. Therefore, an experiment off campus trainings. Crop was raised following
on application of biozyme was conducted in district recommended package of practices. The weather
S.A.S. Nagar (Mohali) of Punjab to come up with data of the experimental site for the growing period
best recommendations which can help farmers for of the crop is given in Table 1.
better and profitable potato farming. The land was brought to a fine tilth by repeated
ploughing and harrowing. The clods were broken
MATERIALS AND METHODS and debris was removed. The soil was levelled
Experimental site, treatments and design and beds were prepared. For cultivation of crop,
Mohali district of Punjab falls under sub- recommended package of practices were followed.
mountainous zone (30.69°N latitude, 76.72°E The seed tubers were planted during the month of
longitude) having an average altitude of 316 m from September-October. The seed rate employed was
the sea level. The present investigation was carried 30-45 q/ha. The seeds were sown at a spacing of
out at five locations of farmers’ field during 2020-21 60 cm between ridges × 20 cm between plants.
to evaluate application of biozyme granule and liquid Before fertilizer application, random soil samples
formulation on tuber yield and related characters were taken from the experimental site and were
in Potato var. Kufri Pukhraj. The area under each analyzed. 20 t of well rotten farmyard manure,
trial was 0.4 ha. The soil of the experimental site 412.5 kg of urea, 387.5 kg of single superphosphate
was deep, loose and sandy loam. The trial was and 100 kg of muriate of potash was applied in one
conducted in factorial randomized block design. ha area. All the fertilizers were applied at the time
It was observed that due to non-judicious use of of sowing except Nitrogen which is applied in two
fertilizers potato production is lower than potential equal split doses (half during field preparation and
which further leads to poor tuber size and and half during earthing up). 2-3 hoeing were done for
number of tubers/plant which greatly hampers tuber weed control. Earthing up was done about 25-30
yield and quality. To overcome this problem, an On d after planting. 7-8 irrigations were given to crop
Farm Trial (OFT) was conducted by K.V.K. S.A.S. including one immediately after planting. The crop
Nagar (Mohali) in farmers’ field during 2020-21 to was harvested when tubers developed desirable
evaluate the influence of application of biozyme marketable size.
granule and liquid formulation on tuber yield and
related characters in Potato Var. Kufri Pukhraj. The Data collection
treatment combinations comprised T1 - FP: Farmers Five plants were selected at random from each
Practice (No treatment), T2 -Application of 20 Kg plot for recording observations like Days taken to
biozyme granule at the time of planting and 20 kg harvest, No of stem/plant, Plant height (cm), Tuber

diameter (cm), Individual tuber weight (g) and acclimatization to area of cultivation which further
Yield (q/ha). Days taken for harvest were calculated improved growth and developments. The early
as days from planting to first harvest. Based on the harvest in biozyme treated plants may be due to
net plot yield, tuber yield per hectare was calculated the fact that such plants were able to build suitable
and expressed in quintal (q) per hectare. carbohydrate reserves early. The results are in close
line with those of Deepika and Tiwari (2021).
Economic analysis
The cost of cultivation and gross returns were Number of stem/plant
worked out by using prevailing market prices of Treatments had significant effect on number of
inputs and output during the period of investigation. stem/plant. T3 recorded maximum number of stem/
Labour and power cost for different operations such plant (5.60) followed by T2 (5.06) further followed by
as ploughing, weeding, irrigation, planting, bed T1 (4.70). Similar findings were reported by Bhaske
preparation and harvesting etc. along with inputs et al 2017 and John (2017). This can be attributed
such as seed and fertilizers were considered as per to the fact that seaweed extract contains cytokinins
market price. Net returns were worked out using which induced the physiological activities and
formula: Net Returns (Rs/ha) =Gross Returns (Rs/ due to this increase the chlorophyll content in the
ha)-Cost of cultivation (Rs/ha). Benefit-cost ratio plant. This positively reflected on the activity of
(BCR) was worked out by using the following photosynthesis and the synthesized materials which
formula. Benefit: Cost ratio (BCR) = Gross return positively reflected on shoot characteristics (John,
(Rs/ha)/ Total cost of cultivation (Rs/ha). 2017).
Statistical analysis was done using standard Plant height (cm)
procedure given by Panse and Sukhatme (1985). All treatments had significant effect on plant
Table 1. Weather Data of the district in growing height. T3 recorded maximum plant height (45.5
season of crop. cm) followed by T2 (42.1 cm) further followed by T1
Month Average Average Average
(36.4 cm). The augmentation in plant height is the
Temp °C Temp °C Rainfall result of intensive cell division and cell enlargement
(Max) (Min) (mm) which in turn is influenced by protein synthesis.
September 2020 38 21 121.1 Therefore, any variation in cell metabolism can
October 2020 36 12 14.0
consequently affect the plant height (Sharma et al
2016). Similar findings were reported by Kumar et
November 2020 8 33 08.90
al (2016) and Bhaske et al (2017).
December 2020 4 25 33.10
January 2021 4 24 40.00 Tuber diameter (cm)
February 2021 6 33 50.00 All treatments had significant effect on Tuber
diameter. Treatment T2 was having maximum tuber
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION diameter (7.2 cm) followed by T3 (6.6) and T1 (6.2).
The increase in tuber diameter may be due to effect
Days taken to harvest
of gibberellins which affect cell elongation. Similar
All treatments had significant effect on days
findings were reported by Sarhan (2011).
taken to harvest ( Table 2). Treatment T2 was
earliest maturing crop (76 d) followed by T3 (82 d) Individual tuber weight (g)
and T1 (90 d). It means treatment T2 took minimum All treatments had significant effect on individual
days to harvest as compared to other treatments tuber weight. Treatment T2 was having maximum
which took more days. This might be due to genetic tuber weight (106.0 g) followed by T3 (98.0 g) and
phenomenon, inherited characters and their early

Table 2. Growth, yield and yield contributing characters as influenced by different treatments in
potato.
Treatment Days taken No of stem/ Plant Tuber Individual Yield (q/ % increase
to harvest plant height diameter tuber ha) over check
(cm) (cm) weight (g)
T1 90 4.70 36.40 6.20 90.0 255 --
T2 76 5.06 42.10 7.20 106.0 315 23.53
T3 82 5.60 45.50 6.60 98.0 295 15.69
SE 0.67 0.09 1.10 0.21 1.70 4.19 --
CD (5%) 2.69 0.35 4.42 0.84 6.85 16.91 --
T1 (90.0 g). The increase in individual tuber weight found 15.69 per cent under T3 over check. This
was attributed to the effect of liquid seaweed extract might also due to biozyme which leads to efficient
which consequently resulted in improved plant absorption of nutrients and other elements which
physiological activities such as photosynthesis and raise the production and translocation of dry matter
plant nutrition (Sethi and Adhikary, 2008). Similar from source to sink.
findings were reported by Sarhan (2011).
Economics
Yield The economic analysis describes the methods
All treatments had significant effect on yield/ha.
used in analyzing the economic behaviour and
Among all treatments T2 was having highest yield the application of the results obtained to solve
(315 q/ha) followed by T3 (295 q/ha) and T1 (255 q/ the economic problems. The input and output
ha). The higher yield of T2 was primarily attributedprices of commodities prevailed during the year
due to more tuber diameter and individual tuber of demonstration were taken for calculating cost
weight. It was noticed that, the treatment which of cultivation, net returns and benefit cost ratio.
performed better in a unit area is likely to performNet profit /ha also depends upon the availability
better on large scale as the yield per hectare was of labour and a suitable market for the disposal of
calculated by multiplying yield per plot with produce. Results of the present investigation (Table
hectare factor. Biozyme application increased 3) revealed that among varieties T2 gave net return
yield because it regulates physiological processes of Rs. 4,92,500 /ha with B: C ratio of 4.58 whereas
and it also contains macro and micro nutrients and T3 gave net return of Rs. 4,53,750 /ha with B: C
other growth stimulants. Similar findings were ratio of 4.33 and T1 gave net return of Rs. 3,83,750/-
reported by (Sau et al, 2016; Hussein et al, 2016; with B: C ratio of 4.04. The total cost of production
Bhaske et al, 2017; Sahana et al, 2019). Increase was maximum for T2 (Rs. 107532 /-) followed by
in nitrogen contents was observed in potato tubers T3 (Rs. 1,04,792 /-) and T1 (94,987/-). Gross return
treated with seaweed extract. Seaweed extract also was found to be maximum for T2 (Rs.6,00,032/-)
increases phosphorus contents in the tuber which followed by T3 (Rs.5,58,542/-) and T1 (4,78,737/-).
had a stimulatory effect on root mass in the potato The cost benefit ratio of any crop is an important
plant thereby increasing nutrient uptake and tuber factor that is responsible for the growing of crop
yield (John, 2017). by a particular farmer. For the adoption of any
horticultural practice which is being adopted by a
Per cent increase over check grower it must positively influence the cost benefit
The percentage increase over check of treatment ratio. In general farmers follow those practices
T2 was found to be 23.53 per cent whereas it was which ensure decrease in cost of cultivation and

Table 3. Economic returns from different treatments in potato.

Treatment Cost of cultivation Gross Return Net return BC Ratio
(Rs/ha) (Rs/ha) (Rs/ha)
T1 94,987/- 4,78,737/- 3,83,750/- 4.04
T2 1,07,532/- 6,00,032/- 4,92,500/- 4.58
T3 1,04,792/- 5,58,542/- 4,53,750/- 4.33
thereby lead to increase in profitability. The results Hussein J M, Jamal A A, Aseel H H (2016). Effect of
were in line with results of (Sau et al, 2016, Bhaske biofertilizer EM-1 and stimulation hormone (Biozyme)
on growth and yield of Potato (Solanum tuberosum L).
et al , 2017 ; Nayak et al, 2020) who also studied Euph J Agr. Sci 8(3):41-46.
economics of biozyme application in various crops.
Nayak P, Biswas S and Dutta D (2020). Effect of seaweed
extracts on growth, yield and economics of kharif rice
CONCLUSION (Oryza sativa L.). J Pharm and Phyto 9(3):247-253.
The results of the experiment revealed that Yield Panse V G and Sukhatme P U (1985). Statistical Methods
of T2 was found to be the best (315 q/ha) followed for Agriculture Workers. Indian Council of Agriculture
by T3 (295 q/ha) and T1 (255 q/ha). Yield increase Research. New Delhi.
of T2 over control was found to be 23.53 per cent Sahana D, Srinivasa V, Devaraju, Sivaprasad M and Ganapathi
while yield increase of T3 over control was found to M (2019). Effect of bioregulators on growth, tuber yield
be 15.69 per cent. Benefit cost ratio for T1, T2 and T3 and quality of sweet potato (Ipomoea Batatus (L) Lam)
was found to be 4.04, 4.58 and 4.33, respectively. under hill zone of Karnataka, India. Int J Curr Micro and
App Sci 8(10): 1180-1185.
It can be concluded that application of 20 Kg
Sarhan T Z (2011). Effect of humic acid and seaweed extracts
biozyme granule at the time of planting and 20 kg
on growth and yield of potato plant (Solanum tuberosum
at the time of earthing up along with application L.) desiree cv. Meso J Agri 39(2): 19-27.
of biozyme liquid formulation @500 ml/ha at the
Sau S, Sarkar S, Sarkar T, Sarkar T and Ghosh V (2016).
time of tuber formation along with recommended Influential role of biozyme on yield, leaf nutrient and
doses of fertilizers is best for crop growth, yield and quality of Guava (Psidium guajava L.) cv. Allahabad
economics. Safeda. The Bio 11(4): 2679-2682.
Sethi S K and Adhikary S P ( 2008). Effect of seaweed
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1575-1579. Received on 16/1/2023 Accepted on /16/4/2023
Deepika and Tiwari S P (2021). Effect of different biozyme
concentration for maximum yield potential in capsicum
annuum L. Int J Chem Stu 9(2):432-436.
John R V O (2017). Seaweed extracts effect on potato
(Solanum tuberosum ‘BP1’) and Grape (Vitis Vinifera
var. Sultana) production. Ph D thesis. University of
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N C, Kumar A, Shahi D K, Kagarwal B K, Kumar R,
Dwivedi A K, Singh Y K, Toppo N and Sarkar A (2016).
Effect of biozyme on soil and crop biometrics in rice
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Evaluation of Different Dahlia (Dahlia variabilis L.)

Cultivars for Tuber Yield
Khiromani Nag and S K Tamrakar
Department of Floriculture and Landscape Architecture,
College of Agriculture, IGKV, Raipur (Chhattisgarh) 492012
ABSTRACT
An experiment was conducted in the Department of Floriculture and Landscape Architecture, CoA, IGKV,
Raipur from 2019-20 to 2020-21. The experiment was laid out in RBD with three replications and 20
cultivars with a view to find out the overall evaluation of different cultivars of dahlia. Result showed that
the tuber yield parameters were observed i.e. number of tubers/plant (7.96), number of tuber/ plot (113.70),
weight of single tuber (86.29 g), tuber yield/plant (86.95 g), tuber yield/plot (1.78 kg) and tuber yield (2.52
t/ ha) was observed in cv. T4 (Blackout Black).
Key Words: Blackout Black, Dahlia, Kenya Yellow, Tuber, Yield.
INTRODUCTION Gladiolus, Anthurium, Carnation and Marigold

Dahlia (Dahlia variabilis L.) is one of the most etc., but dahlia cultivation is limited only in hills
popular flowers grown in many parts of the world and plains of Eastern India (Anonymous, 2019).
for its beautiful ornamental blooms having varying In the Chhattisgarh state area under floriculture is
shades of different colours, being useful as cut 13,089 ha-1 with the production of 2,29868 MT.
flowers besides for the beautification of gardens approximately in the 2020-21. In Chhattisgarh,
(Vikas et al, 2015). They are extensively used for commercially grown major flowers like Marigold,
garden display, home decoration, cut flowers of Tuberose, Gladiolus, Roses, Gaillardia and Orchids
pompon and miniature types stay fresh in flower but there is no exact scale production of dahlia is
vases for many days and also make moderately good available (Anonymous, 2020).
garlands (Gupta, 2015). Tubers of this plant contain As Dahlia is still called an uncut diamond for
significant amount of insulin and fructose and small India, evaluation is the stepping stone in order
quantities of medicinally active compound such as to utilize any crop to its full potential. Since the
pythin and benzoic acid. performance of each genotype varies with region,
According to the National Horticulture season and growing environment, therefore testing
Board, India’s floriculture production area was the performance of the available genotypes for
305 thousand ha in 2019-20, with a cut flower suitability and adaptability take prime importance,
production of 762 thousand t. Floriculture is now as the research works on this line is meagre in
commercially cultivated in several states like Chhattisgarh plains.
Andhra Pradesh (19.1%), Tamil Nadu (16.6%), Dahlia is commercially propagated through
Madhya Pradesh (11.99%), having gone ahead of rooted cutting which are prepared through tuber.
other producing states like Karnataka, West Bengal, Quality and disease-free tubers are required to fulfil
Mizoram, Gujrat, Orissa, Jharkhand, Haryana, the demand of rooted cuttings in Chhattisgarh state.
Assam and Chhattisgarh. In India commercially The present investigation was carried out with the
grown major flowers such as Rose, Tuberose,

Table 1. Evaluation of Dahlia cultivars for tuber yield Characteristics (pooled data of three years).
(pooled data of three years, 2019-20 to 2020-21)
Treatment Treatment Number Number Weight of Tuber Tuber Tuber
of tubers/ of tubers/ tuber (g) yield/ yield/plot yield
plant plot plant (g) (kg) (t/ha-1)
T1 Gajanan Yellow 4.69 74.34 68.65 69.87 1.45 2.13
T2 Babananda Yellow 4.68 64.33 60.59 61.42 1.26 1.78
T3 Kenya Yellow 6.58 92.33 54.05 59.46 1.21 1.55
T4 Blackout Black 7.96 113.70 86.29 86.95 1.78 2.52
T5 Ankita Pink 4.08 99.47 57.53 57.85 1.18 1.53
T6 Pu Sinha Pink 4.22 89.00 63.13 63.38 1.29 1.90
T7 Raja New Blue 4.59 79.83 64.47 64.29 1.31 1.93
T8 Kenya Blue 7.45 71.03 66.47 67.36 1.38 2.03
T9 Kenya Original 6.92 75.43 74.67 75.29 1.54 2.25
T10 Anita Orange Red 3.45 58.33 51.57 51.72 1.07 1.36
with Gold
T11 Jishu Red 6.15 93.64 79.13 79.46 1.63 2.46
T12 Sachin Red 6.85 82.66 78.71 78.61 1.60 2.43
T13 Red New 5.46 61.27 61.57 60.07 1.23 1.61
T14 Matangini White 4.38 95.44 62.44 62.70 1.28 1.86
T15 S. P. Romia Roy 4.09 78.61 56.92 66.83 1.37 2.00
T16 Suparna New 4.26 71.53 74.89 71.82 1.48 2.18
Bicolor
T17 Prabhujee Bicolor 4.13 89.43 61.33 55.66 1.14 1.42
T18 Prime Minister 6.51 69.34 66.45 69.30 1.42 2.10
Bicolor
T19 Raja Bicolor 6.14 98.53 66.66 61.45 1.26 1.71
T20 Glory of India 5.98 98.02 57.69 65.24 1.33 1.95
Bicolor
SEm (±) 0.32 3.13 2.96 2.12 0.07 0.10
CD (P=0.05%) 0.92 8.97 8.50 6.09 0.21 0.29
objective to find out suitable genotypes/cultivars

Architecture, CoA, IGKV, Raipur, during 2019-
for quality planting materials with higher number of
20 to 2020-21. The soil of the research field was
tuber yield under the evaluation of different Dahlia
clay-loam and was neutral in response with the pH
(Dahlia variabilis L.) cultivars for production of
7.1. For studying the evaluation and association
tuber yield under Chhattisgarh plains, analysis of the experimental during the years all the
twenty cultivars were grown in Randomized Block
MATERIALS AND METHODS Design with three replications. Standard package
The experiment was conducted at the of practices of dahlia cultivation were followed for
Horticultural Research cum Instructional Farm, growing a healthy crop. Observations were recorded
Department of Floriculture and Landscape on five randomly selected plants, from the border

plants were avoided. The experimental plots were Red) and T12 (Sachin Red) whereas, the minimum
irrigated at an interval of one week at initial stages tuber yield/plot (1.07 kg) was observed in cultivar
and 10-12 days at later stages to maintain optimum T10 (Anita Orange Red with Gold). The tuber yield
moisture throughout the experimentation. (t/ha) of the experiment was noted that significantly
highest tuber yield (2.52 t/ha) was observed in
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION cultivar T4 (Blackout Black) which was statically
Yield Characteristics at par with cultivar T9 (Kenya Original), T11 (Jishu
From the data (Table 1), cv. Blackout Black Red) and T12 (Sachin Red). While the lowest tuber
(T4) resulted the significantly maximum number of yield (t/ha) was found in cultivar T10 (Anita Orange
tubers/plant i.e. 7.96, number of tubers/plot (113.70) Red with Gold) 1.36 t/ha.
which was noted at par with cv. Kenya Blue (T8) in Tuber yield/plant (g)/ plot(kg)/ (t/ha) was
number of tuber/plant. Whereas minimum number obtained in cultivars Blackout Black and least was
of tubers/plant was observed in T10 (Anita Orange obtained in Anita Orange Red with Gold. Tuber
Red with Gold) i.e. 3.45, minimum number of yield /plant (g)/ plot (kg)/ (t/ha) may be directly
tubers/plot ( 58.33). The tuber yield/plant may be related to production of more number of branches,
directly related to production of more plant height, there by synthesis of more photosynthates and
number of branches, there by synthesis of more ultimately good tuber yield. The similar results
photosynthesis and ultimately good tuber yield. observed in dahlia by Verma and Kulkarni (2017),
The similar results observed in dahlia by Ahmed Mahawer et al (2010) and Shukla et al (2018).
and Gul (2002) and Sree Devi (2020).
Among the different cultivars studied, the CONCLUSION
cultivar Blackout Black (T4) recorded in maximum It may be concluded that cv. Red Blackout Black
weight of tuber (86.29 g which was statistically at was most suitable for higher tuber yield with more
par with Jishu Red (T11), Sachin Red (T12). However, number for production of higher tuber number as
the weight of tuber (51.57 g) was minimum in cv. well as yield of tuber.
(T10) Anita Orange Red with Gold. Variation in the
bulb weight among the different dahlia cultivars ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
under trial might due to the genetic different Special thanks to the Dr. R. SadhuKhan,
and local environmental condition soil structure Professor in Genetics and Plant Breeding, BCKV,
and texture might have been responsible for the West Bengal for supporting with planting material.
increase in weight of tubers. The variation in tuber
weight may be due to the genotypic expression of REFERENCES
Ahmed J and Gul S (2002). Evaluation of exotic cultivars of
the cultivars. This is in accordance with results of dahlia (D. coccinea) under Rawalakot conditions. Asian
Gupta et al (2015), Manjula et al (2017), Bajaraya J Plant Sci 1(5): 565-566.
et al (2018), Singh and Singh (2018) in Dahlia. Anonymous (2019). National Horticulture Board, Gurgaon.
The cultivars exhibited that the maximum tuber Database.
yield/plant (86.95 g) was registered in cultivar T4 Anonymous (2019). Directorate Horticulture and Farm
(Blackout Black). However, the minimum tuber Forestry, Chhattisgarh.
yield/plant (51.72 g) was registered in cv. Anita Bajaraya B, Kanawjia A, Jaysawal N, Dubey A, Parveen S
Orange Red with Gold (T10). Maximum tuber yield/ and Pawaiya (2018). Performance of different cultivars of
plot was reported in cultivar T4 (Blackout Black) Dahlia (D. variabilis L.) under agro-climatic conditions
of Gwalior. J Pharmacog Phytochem 7(6): 98-102.
1.78 kg) which was statistically at par T11 (Jishu

Gupta A K, Jaiswal N K and Saravanan S. (2015). Varietal Shukla P, Prasad V, Ainarkar A A (2018). Evaluation of dahlia
evaluation of different hybrids of dahlia (D. variabilis L.) hybrids (D. variabilis L.) under allahabad agro-climate
under Allahabad agro-climatic conditions. Int J Agric Sci conditions. J Pharmacogn Phytochem 7(5): 1109-1113.
Res 5(1) 55-58. Verma J and Kulkarni B S (2017). Evaluation of Dahlia
Manjula B S, Nataraj S K, Hegde P P, Anitha G and Ayesha genotypes for growth and yield characters under dry zone
N (2017). Evaluation of Dahlia genotypes (D. variabilis of Karnataka, India. Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci 6(11):
L.) for growth, yield and quality traits under hill zone of 402-409.
Karnataka. Environ & Ecol 35 (4C): 3158—3161. Vikas D M, Patil V S and Dorajeerao A V D (2015). Evaluation
Sree Devi M, Seetharamu G, Patil B C, Hanchinamani C N, of dahlia genotypes based on vegetative and quality
Kukanoor L, Satish and Nishani S (2020). Assessment characters. Pl Archives 15(1): 283-286.
of genetic variability among dahlia (D. variabilis
L.) genotypes for productivity and quality traits. J
Pharmacogn Phytochem 9(4): 3134-3137.

Evaluation of Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) Genotypes for

Growth, Yield and Quality
M O Pavithra and S K Nisha*
Department of Vegetable Science, College of Agriculture, Vellayani,
Kerala Agricultural University, Thiruvananthapuram 695522 (Kerala)
ABSTRACT
The present investigation was conducted at Department of Vegetable Science, College of Agriculture,
Vellayani, Kerala Agricultural University, during 2020-2021 to study the performance of watermelon
genotypes for growth, yield and quality. Thirteen genotypes were evaluated with three replications in
randomized block design. Significant variation was recorded among the genotypes for all the vegetative,
flowering, yield and quality characters. Among the genotypes used, CL11 had the longest vine length, CL3
was the earliest to produce male flower (29.90 d) and CL3 was the earliest with 35.80 d for first female
flower anthesis. CL8 exhibited the highest fruit equatorial diameter (24.05 cm) and CL10 recorded highest
fruit polar diameter. The highest fruit weight was observed in CL7 (4.76 kg). The genotype CL3 produced
the highest yield (9.82 kg) and number of fruits per plant. The lowest number of seeds was observed in CL3
(219.50). The highest TSS content was observed in CL3. Based on the performance, genotypes CL3, CL6,
CL2 and CL1 were noted as good performers for yield and quality parameters.
Key words: Evaluation, Growth, Quality, Watermelon, Yield.
INTRODUCTION The effective evaluation and usage of genetic

Watermelon [Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) diversity is largely responsible for the success in
Matsum. & Nakai], cultivated in a wide range of genetic improvement. To achieve high yield, good
tropical, sub tropical and dry regions of the world quality, uniformity of produce, disease resistance,
belong to the family Cucurbitaceae. China is the abiotic stress tolerance, etc., it is necessary to
largest producer of watermelon in the world. In select superior genotypes. The farmers can use
India, watermelon is cultivated in an area of 1.01 the improved genotypes directly as varieties to get
lakh hectare with a production of 25.2 lakh tonnes maximum benefit or, selected genotypes can also
(GOI, 2018). Watermelon is fat free, low in calories be utilised in a number of genetic improvement
and regarded an excellent diet food, as well as programmes through hybridization. Genetic
being high in energy, making it an excellent energy information related to yield improvement in
booster (Altuntas, 2008). Nutritional value per 100 watermelon is limited (Kumar and Wehner, 2013).
g edible portion is 90 g moisture, 7.0 g carbohydrate, Hence, the present study was carried out to evaluate
7.0 mg phosphorous, 0.05 mg thiamine, 6.0 mg watermelon genotypes for growth, yield and quality.
ascorbic acid, 1.0 g protein, 7.0 mg calcium,
599 IU vitamin A, and 0.05 g riboflavin (Sahu MATERIALS AND METHODS
et al, 2011). Cooling, purgative, antihelminthic, The experiment was carried out at the Department
antipyretic and carminative properties are found of Vegetable Science, College of Agriculture,
in the fruit. It purifies the blood, quenches thirst, Vellayani, during 2020 - 2021. Experimental
cures biliousness, and is effective against sore eyes, site was located at 8.25 North latitude and 76.59
scabies, and itching. East longitude, at an altitude of 20 m above mean
* Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected]

Evaluation of Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) Genotypes
Table 1. Analysis of variance for characters in watermelon genotypes.

Sr. No. Source of variation Replication Genotypes Error
1. Vine length 0.014 1.633** 0.012
2. Days to first male flower 1.122 55.632** 0.695
3. Days to first female flower 0.025 75.272** 1.015
4. Fruit equatorial diameter 0.615 13.071** 0.233
5. Fruit polar diameter 0.154 29.407** 0.383
6. Fruit weight 0.004 1.307** 0.005
7. Fruits per plant 0.075 0.507** 0.035
8. Yield per plant 0.299 8.171** 0.247
9. Yield per plot 0.846 696.456** 4.332
10. Seeds per fruit 81.385 20505.949** 35.885
11. TSS 0.025 5.618** 0.145
** Significant at 1% level
sea level. The most predominant soil type at the the characters, that has to be exploited in breeding
experimental site was red loam from Vellayani programme. Nisha et al (2018) reported significant
series, which is texturally classified as sandy clay differences among watermelon genotypes for
loam. The watermelon germplasm consisting of different characters.
thirteen genotypes collected from different parts of The mean performance of genotypes for various
India were selected for the experiment. traits like growth, yield and quality parameters are
The experiment was laid out in a randomized presented in Table 2. Genotypes varied significantly
block design with three replications. The seeds were for vine length, the vine length of genotypes ranged
sown directly in the main field with a spacing of 3 from 1.40 m to 5.18 m, with a mean of 3.76 m.
m × 2 m. The cultural and management practices Among the genotypes, CL11 had the longest vine
were adopted as per recommended practices length, whereas CL2 had the shortest vine length.
(KAU, 2016). The observations were recorded on This variation in vine length could be attributed to
vine length, days to first male flower, days to first specific genetic makeup of the genotypes, inherent
female flower, fruit equatorial diameter, fruit polar properties and vigour of the crop.
diameter, fruit weight, fruits per plant, yield per In cucurbits, early days to first male and female
plant, yield per plot, seeds per fruit and total soluble flower opening are desirable parameters for early
solids (TSS). harvest to fetch more price in the market. Among
the genotypes, CL3 was the earliest to produce
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION male flower (29.90 d) which was on par with CL12
The analysis of variance revealed that the mean (31.50 d). CL7 was late and took 51.50 d for male
sum of squares due to genotypes were significant flowering. CL3 was the earliest with 35.80 d for first
for all the characters studied (Table 1). It indicated female flower anthesis, whereas CL7 took longest
that there was enough genetic variability for all of period of 60.60 d. Seven varieties flowered earlier

Table 2. Mean performance of watermelon genotypes.
156
Sr. Treatments Vine Days Days Fruit Fruit Fruit Fruits Yield Yield Seeds TSS
No. length to first to first equatorial polar weight per per per per (°Brix)
(m) male female diameter diameter (kg) plant plant plot fruit
flower flower (cm) (cm) (kg) (kg)
1 CL1 3.34 36.90 46.00 18.30 20.15 3.62 1.50 6.86 51.29 296.00 11.25
2 CL2 1.40 35.60 43.70 15.90 16.50 2.58 2.00 5.15 41.64 269.50 10.15
3 CL3 3.51 29.90 35.80 17.85 23.10 3.25 3.00 9.82 98.18 219.50 12.65
4 CL4 4.39 40.10 49.20 16.30 17.35 2.70 2.10 5.65 41.92 239.00 8.50
5 CL5 4.28 41.60 50.60 17.15 21.10 2.73 1.20 3.28 27.35 231.00 8.25
6 CL6 3.61 38.40 49.10 16.00 18.10 4.31 2.10 9.05 69.41 295.00 11.75
7 CL7 4.14 51.50 60.60 23.05 24.45 4.76 1.30 6.19 47.00 487.50 8.70
8 CL8 4.31 41.30 53.70 24.05 26.30 4.17 2.10 8.76 60.54 464.50 11.50
9 CL9 3.57 38.10 50.30 16.35 17.15 2.64 1.90 5.01 35.46 431.50 7.35
10 CL10 4.27 39.70 47.40 19.00 27.80 3.34 1.50 5.38 40.58 388.00 8.00
11 CL11 5.18 36.30 45.50 17.55 25.70 2.60 1.30 3.38 29.82 357.50 8.45
12 CL12 3.04 31.50 40.20 18.10 24.95 3.74 1.80 7.11 52.18 260.50 9.00
13 Sugar Baby 3.84 36.20 44.70 19.50 22.05 4.67 1.30 6.06 50.46 491.50 9.75
(Check)
Mean 3.76 38.24 47.45 18.39 21.90 3.47 1.78 6.28 49.68 340.85 9.64

SEm (±) 0.08 0.59 0.71 0.34 0.44 0.05 0.13 0.35 1.47 4.24 0.27
CD at 5% 0.24 1.82 2.19 1.05 1.35 0.15 0.41 1.11 4.53 13.05 0.83
than the general mean of 47.45 d. Early production Yield

of male and female flowers indicates crop earliness. Yield is the ultimate aim in any crop production
These findings are in line with Alimari et al (2017) system, the genotypes varied significantly for the
and Anumala et al (2020) in watermelon. trait yield. The genotype CL3 produced the highest
yield per plant (9.82 kg) which was on par with
Fruit Characteristics CL6 (9.05 kg) and CL8 (8.76 kg). The lowest yield
Genotypes showed significant difference for was registered in CL5 (3.28 kg) and was on par
the trait, fruit equatorial diameter. CL8 exhibited with CL11 (3.38 kg). CL3 (98.18 kg) produced the
the highest fruit equatorial diameter of 24.05 cm highest yield per plot and CL5 (27.35 kg) recorded
among genotypes. Lowest diameter was expressed the lowest. Significant difference in yield could be
by CL2 (15.90 cm) which was on par with CL6 attributed to differences in fruit weight and number
(16.00 cm), CL4 (16.30 cm) and CL9 (16.35 cm). of fruits per plant, which are important components
The fruit polar diameter exhibited a range of 16.50 of yield.
cm to 27.80 cm. CL10 recorded the highest fruit
polar diameter while, CL2 recorded the lowest. The The number seeds per fruit showed significant
shape and size of watermelon fruit are determined difference among genotypes with the lowest number
by the equatorial and polar diameters, which was in CL3 (219.50). The check, Sugar Baby recorded
directly related to consumer preferences (Mohanta the highest number of seeds (491.50) followed by
and Mandal, 2016). CL7 (487.50). These findings are in line with Jadhav
et al (2014) and Rabou et al (2021) in watermelon.
Fruit Weight Tetraploid watermelon genotypes had fewer seeds
Fruit weight is an important trait to be considered per fruit than diploid genotypes (Jaskani et al,
in any breeding programme because it has a direct 2005).
impact on yield. The data related to fruit weight Total Soluble solids content is an important
revealed significant difference among genotypes. trait which determines the quality and consumer
The highest fruit weight was observed in CL7 (4.76 preference for watermelon. The highest TSS content
kg) which was on par with the check Sugar Baby was observed in CL3 and the lowest in CL9. Six
(4.67 kg). Lowest weight of 2.58 kg was recorded genotypes exhibited higher TSS values than the
in CL2 and was on par with CL11 (2.60 kg), CL9 average of 9.640B.
(2.64 kg), CL4 (2.70 kg) and CL5 (2.73 kg). The
highest weight of fruits might be due to genetic CONCLUSION
capacity of the accessions to make available higher Thus, the present study showed that ample
assimilates for fruit development. Similar range of variation was present in watermelon genotypes
average fruit weight was recorded by More et al and therefore, selection for early and productive
(2015) (2.57 kg to 6.28 kg) in watermelon. genotypes can be practiced from the collected
The average number of fruits per plant was genotypes. The genotypes CL3, CL12 and CL2 were
1.78, with a range of 1.20 to 3.00. The highest identified as early types on the basis of flowering.
number of 3.00 fruits per plant was recorded in These genotypes can be utilized in breeding
CL3, while lowest in CL5 (1.20), this might be due programme to induce earliness in high yielding
to the genetic composition of genotypes. Mohosina genotypes by hybridization followed by selection in
et al (2020) noticed a similar range of 1.50 to 4.50 progenies. Genotype CL3, which produce highest
fruits per plant in their genetic diversity study in number fruit per plant and highest yield per plant
watermelon. can be suggested to grow commercially. Genotypes

CL6, CL2 and CL1 were also noted as good Kumar R and Wehner T C (2011). Inheritance of fruit yield in
performers based on yield and TSS content. two watermelon populations in North Carolina. Euphytica
182: 275-283.
REFERENCES Mohanta S and Mandal J (2016). Performance of watermelon

Alimari A, Zaid A and Fadda Z (2017). Genetic diversity (Citrullus lanatus) in red and laterite zone of West Bengal.
in local Palestinian watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) J Crop and Weed 12(3): 175-177.
accessions. Int J Agric Policy Res 5(10): 157- 162. Mohosina F, Mehedi M, Mahmud E, Hasan M, Noor M,
Altuntas E (2008). Some physical properties of pumpkin Rahman M and Chowdhury A (2020). Genetic diversity
(Cucurbita pepo L.) and watermelon (Citrullus lanatus of commercially cultivated watermelon (Citrullus
L.) seeds. J Agric Sci 14(1): 62-69. Lanatus) hybrids in Bangladesh. Sabrao J Breed Genet
52(4): 418-434.
Anumala V, Mandal J and Mohanta S (2020). Study on off-
season performance of some vegetable type watermelon More S G, Chudasama V R, Tekale G S, Salve S V and
(Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum and Nakai) Jarande S D (2015). Performance of different varieties
landraces. Indian J Ecol 47(4): 1135-1139. in respect of yield and quality of watermelon (Citrullus
lanatus Thunb Mansf) under North Gujarat condition.
GOI [Government of India] (2018). Horticultural statistics Ecol Environ Conserv 21: 105-108.
at a glance (2018). Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers
Welfare, New Delhi, 458p. Nisha S K, Sreelathakumary I and Celine V A (2018).
Variability, interrelationship and path coefficient studies
Jadhav P B, Saravaiya S N, Tekale G S, Patel D J, Patil N in watermelon. Indian J Hort 75(4): 619-624.
B, Harad N B and Dekhane S S (2014). Performance of
different varieties in respect of plant growth, yield and Rabou A M A and Sayd E M E (2021). Genetic variability,
quality of watermelon (Citrullus lanatus Thunb Mansf). heritability and correlation in watermelon. Egypt J Appl
Int J Trop Agric 32(3/4): 539-541. Sci 36(3): 43-58.
Jaskani M J, Kwon S W and Kim D H (2005). Comparative Sahu M, Kumar M, Kendurkar P S and Abidi A B (2011).
study on vegetative, reproductive and qualitative traits of Biochemical evolution of new watermelon (Citrullus
seven diploid and tetraploid watermelon lines. Euphytica lanatus L.) varieties grown in eastern UP. Progressive
145(3): 259-268. Agric 11(1): 180-182.
Kerala Agricultural University (2016). Package of Practices Received on 19/12/2022/ Accepted on 23/4/2023
Recommendations: Crops (15th Ed.) Kerala Agricultural
University, Thrissur, 393 p.

Extension Activities applied for Transfer of Technologies among

Farming Community of Lucknow district of Uttar Pradesh
Deepak Rai, Deep Kumar and Ram Lakhan
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, ICAR-Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh)
ABSTRACT
In India extension activities are important tools for dissemination of agricultural based technologies for
increase the production productivity of a piece of land. This investigation was an attempt to study the
impact of agricultural extension activities applied for transfer of technologies among farming community
of Lucknow district of Uttar Pradesh. This study was conducted in five adopted villages of four blocks
i.e. Gosaiganj, Mohanlalganj, Mall and Malihabad of Lucknow district. Total two hundred respondents
were randomly selected @ ten respondents from each village. On the basis of their responses relative
credibility index were calculated. In this study maximum respondents were in the age of 30-45 yr with
approximately equal participation of male and female having land holding marginal to small with low
income. The frequency of visit or contact at different agricultural agencies like KVK,FPOs, SHGs, input
dealers, district agriculture officials, NGOs, block level agriculture department and village panchayat
members were evaluated and ranked. The maximum visits 93.5 per cent was at KVK which denotes that
the respondents ranked it first among different agricultural agencies, those were working for knowledge
up-gradation. Majority of farmers participated in farmers fair (80.5%) albeit relative credibility index was
found highest for demonstration activity i.e., 1.14. It means demonstrations were most effective method of
transfer of technologies.
Key Words: Analysis Credibility, Extension, Farming, Socio-economic status, Technology, Transfer.
INTRODUCTION earning from agriculture too. (Bhatt et al, 2019).
Agriculture plays a vital role in the process of In India, UP is a significant contributor to the food
socio-economic development. In India, agriculture security of the nation. About 28% of India’s wheat
is the primary source of livelihood for about and 12% of rice is produced by the state. Sugarcane
58 per cent of the population (IBEF, 2021) and is also produced in large quantities, accounting for
approximately 70 per cent of the rural households 44% of the country’s total production. However,
depend on agriculture only. The agricultural farm distress is prevalent in the state. Given the
industry plays a significant part in the Indian enormous size of the state, its four regions namely -
economy, accounting for around 20% of Gross Western region, Eastern region, Central region and
Domestic product (GDP). Around 62 percent of Bundelkhand-will be studied in this paper. There
India’s population is reliant on it for survival (Gupta are large variations in the agricultural performance
and Nagar, 2017). Agriculture is a crucial sector in these regions of the state. Western Uttar Pradesh
of Indian economy as it contributes about 20.19 is the most progressive region in terms of its
percent of GDP (DAC&FW Annual Report, 2020- contribution to value of output from agriculture and
21). Early in the history, agriculture was done for allied activities, while Bundelkhand lags far behind
the domestic purpose only, as the time passed on (Gulati et al, 2021).
new technologies and developments were made Agricultural Extension is the basis of the
to enhance the crop production and people started transfer of agricultural technologies to farmers and

Extension Activities applied for Transfer of Technologies
Table 1. Socio-economic characteristics of the respondents. (N=200)
Sr. No. Personal characteristic Frequency Percentage
A. Age
1. Young Age (18-30yr) 56 28.0
2. Middle Age (30-45 yr) 99 29.5
3. Old Age (>45 yr) 45 22.5
B. Educational qualification
4. Illiterate 6 03.0
5. Can read only 3 01.5
6. Can read and write 9 04.5
7. Up to primary 13 06.5
8. Middle 28 14.0
9. High School 42 21.0
10. Higher Secondary 63 31.5
11. Graduate and above 36 18.0
C. Family size
12. Small (1-4) 110 55.0
13. Medium (5-8) 67 33.5
14. Large(>8) 23 11.5
D. Land holding
15. Land less (No Land) 36 18.0
16. Marginal (Up to 1.0ha) 72 36.0
17. Small (1-2 ha) 69 34.5
18. Medium (2-4ha) 18 09.0
19. Large (above 4 ha.) 05 02.5
E. Annual income
20. Low (up to Rs. 60000/-) 94 47.0
21. Medium(Rs. 60000/- to 1,50000/-) 86 43.0
22. High (Rs. 1,50000/- and above) 20 10.0
F. Social participation
23. Low social participation 78 39.0
24. Medium social participation 72 36.0
25. High social participation 50 25.0
G. Risk orientation
26. Low (score upto 15) 86 43.0
27. Medium(score 16-25) 78 39.0
28. High (score 26 and above) 36 18.0
H. Decision maker of the family
29. Men 81 40.5
30. Women 22 11.0
31. Together 97 48.5

Table2. Frequency of farmers of Lucknow district in contact with agriculture extension agencies for
knowledge upgrade. (N=200)
Sr. No. Agricultural Extension Frequency (%)
Agencies Regularly Most Some- Never Total Rank
often times visited
1. Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) 45 30 46 66 187 I
(22.5) (15.0) (23.0) (33.0) (93.5)
2. Block level agriculture 31 40 41 73 185 II
department unit (15.5) (20.0) (20.5) (36.5) (92.5)
3. Input dealer 34 52 38 56 180 III
(17.0) (26.0) (19.0) (23.0) (90.0)
4 District Agriculture officials 28 38 49 63 178 IV
(14.0) (19.0) (24.5) (31.5) (88.5)
5. Village Panchayat members 72 46 35 22 175 V
(36.0) (23.0) (17.5) (11.0) (87.5)
6. Farmer Producer Organization 29 32 47 56 164 VI
(FPO) (14.5) (16.0) (23.5) (28.0) (82.0)
7. Self Help Group (SHG) 29 48 52 31 160 VII
(14.5) (24.0) (26.0) (15.5) (80.0)
8. Non-government organization 11 23 28 79 141 VIII
(NGO) (5.5) (11.5) (14.0) (39.5) (70.5)
to persuade farmers to adopt those agricultural and extension intervention was collected through
techniques. (Altalb et al, 2015). Thus, a vigilant this personnel interview, observation and available
study of the socio-economic status of Lucknow secondary resources. Socio-economic information
district farmers is a prerequisite and need of the hour
comprises educational status, age, land holding,
for the legitimate design and well-tuned execution annual income, social participation, risk orientation
of any development plan at field level. Therefore, and decision making. Information regarding
the present study was undertaken with the objectiveextension interventions viz., demonstrations,
to assess the socio-economic status of farmers and trainings, awareness programs, field days and
their approach to extension personnel for gather farmers fair was also collected. Credibility index
the information of different extension tools used in
was calculated, out of given source of information.
transfer of technologies. The respondents were asked to indicate only
the most and least credible activity. The relative
MATERIALS AND METHODS credibility index was worked out with the following
Impact analysis of extension activities for formula (Sandhu, 1973).
transfer of technology were carried out by Relative credibility index = (X/Y) x (100/N)
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, ICAR-Indian Institute of
Sugarcane Research, Lucknow. This study was X= Number of respondents, who believed a source
on the basis of randomly scrutinized two hundred most credible,
farmers for interview from five villages from four Y= Number of respondent, who believed a source
blocks of Lucknow district. A well-structured pre- least credible,
tested interview schedule was used for collection N= Total number of respondents
of data. The information on socioeconomic status

Table 3. Involvement of respondents in transfer of technology activities of agriculture. (N=200)

Extension activities Age group of farmers (% of respondent)
18-30 years 30-45 years >45 years Total
Demonstration 22(11.0) 38(19.0) 78(39.0) 138(69.0)
Field day 17(8.5) 29(14.5) 63(31.5) 109(54.5)
Awareness program 20(10.0) 18(9.0) 56(28.0) 94(47.0)
Farmers’ fair 45(22.5) 48(24.0) 68(39.0) 161(80.5)
Training program 32(16.0) 41(20.5) 59(29.5) 132(66.0)
Average of participants 27.2(13.6) 34.8(17.4) 64.8(32.4) 126.8(63.4)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION was major factor to follow the social participation
Agricultural extension activities like and risk orientation also. Low annual income of
demonstrations, trainings, field days, awareness respondent showed low social participation and
programme, farmers fairs etc. were very low risk orientation vice versa. Another important
important tools for dissemination of technologies factor i.e., decision maker of the family. This study
among farmers and extension personnel i.e. also resulted that in Indian family together (men and
ultimately helpful for adoption and improvement women) decision were more valuable as compared
of socioeconomic status of farmers through to single one (men or women).
particular crop or technology in particular region. In Lucknow district farmers contact to Krishi
These studies were conducted in year 2020-21 on Vigyan Kendra, District agriculture officials, block
two hundred randomized selected farmers of four level agriculture department units, farmers producer
blocks i.e. Gosaiganj, Mohanlalganj, Mall and organizations, input dealers, self-help groups, non-
Malihabad. In this survey all age group respondent government organizations and village panchayat
were selected in approximately equal ratio. Where members etc. for knowledge and agriculture
maximum respondents i.e. 29.5 per cent were 30-45 schemes. In this study frequency of visit or contact
years age group followed by young age (18-30 yr) 28 at different agriculture agencies were evaluated and
per cent and old age(>45 years) were 22.5 percent. ranked. The maximum visits 93.5 percent were at
This was due to maximum involvement of middle KVK means respondents ranked it first. This was
age farmers in agriculture in comparison to other due to farmer’s satisfaction, best knowledge, easy
two age groups.Educational qualifications were also to approach regarding his all agriculture based
an important characteristic because on that basis queries. The block level agriculture department
person may response properly. In this criteria out of unit ranked second because officials only told about
200 respondents, 63 respondents belong to higher schemes mainly and for agriculture knowledge like
secondary passed and followed by 42 (high school), pesticides use, doses, crop variety, fertilizer doses
36 (Graduate), 36 (middle), 13 (up to primary), 9 etc. block level officials also dependent on KVK.
(can read and write),3 (can read only) and 6 were In this ranking, input dealers ranked third because
illiterate. The family size of 200 respondent were these were more in number and more than hundred
small (110), medium (67) and large (23). In land input dealers and their subsidiary branches found
holding of 200 respondents, maximum number in each block of Lucknow district. To pesticides as
are 72 marginal farmers followed by small, land well as fertilizers farmers contact to input dealers
less, medium and large. Three other characteristic so they also want to solve their quires from him.
i.e. annual income, social participation and risk Maximum farmers want to solve their quires from
orientation were having same trends means income reliable sources like KVK and other government

Table 4. Relative credibility of agricultural extension activities for transfer of technology. (N=200)
Extension activities Relative credibility
High(Score) Low(Score) Relative credibility index Rank
Demonstration 96 42 1.14 I
Field day 55 39 0.71 III
Awareness program 63 46 0.68 IV
Farmers fair 68 93 0.37 V
Training program 87 45 0.97 II
agencies but land less and help less farmers contact training programs, demonstrations, field day and
to input dealers. Respondent farmers of survey awareness programs. The last group i.e., 18-30 yr
ranked fourth to district agriculture officials because respondents also ranked as 30-45 years age group.
farmers feel that officials do not meet regularly On the basis of above said results relative
means only twenty eight percent regular visits credibility of agriculture extension activities used
and interaction with farmers were found. In this for transfer of technology were ranked and found
continuation village panchayat members ranked demonstration ranked first with relative credibility
fifth conveying farmers dependency on agricultural index 1.14. It means demonstrations were most
knowledge. Because these government servant effective method of transfer of technologies.
were not more educated and also had not proper Demonstrations had full package and practices along
knowledge about agriculture. The farmer producer with farmer’s involvements. This process were
organizations (FPOs), self-help groups (SHGs) and based on learning by doing and seeing by believing.
non-government organizations (NGOs) were also Training programs had second rank because farmers
part of survey as an agriculture extension agencies realized that training program were also a best way
because, now days these agencies also an important of transfer of technology, whichwere helpful in
part of agriculture extension. In overall ranking FPO improve production and productivity of different
ranked sixth followed by SHGs and NGOs. Among crops.Field days were also an important transfer
these three agencies FPO were more important of technology tools, where farmers knew about
because a FPO is an association of minimum three impact of particular technology. So, it was ranked
hundred farmers. They directly linked to each other. third. Awareness programs were also an important
Obviously they discussed and took the solution of factor, which ranked fourth because in this activity
his problem easily. large number of farmers involved and practical
In table 3 involvement of respondents in transfer aspect was lacking in this activity. So, it was not
of technologies through demonstrations, training more effective way of transfer of technology. The
programs, field day, farmers fair and awareness same results were found in farmer’s fair activity. It
programs in Lucknow district. Out of two hundred was larger group. So, it was least ranked. This study
respondents, maximum respondents belong to more revealed that KVK were best agency of Lucknow
than 45 years grouping i.e. 32.4 per cent followed by district for transfer of technologies.The involved
30-45 yr and 18-30 years age group. In the group of respondents of above forty-five years were more
more than 45 years ranked highest to demonstration sincere because they had feel more responsibility
followed by farmer’s fair, training programs, field than other age group. Demonstration and training
day and awareness programs, while 30-45 years were most effective way of transfer of technology,
age group realized farmers fair were more effective which were main mandate of KVK.
in transfer of technology tools in comparison to

CONCLUSION REFERENCES
The study revealed that due to hard work and Altalb Ahmed, Awad Talb1, Filipek, Tadeuszand Skowron
risk factor in agriculture youth was less interested and Piotr (2015). The role of agricultural extension in the
transfer and adoption of agricultural technologies. Asian
in agriculture and shift towards other allied Online J (www.ajouronline.com).3(5), 500-507.
business and service activities. Although they are
Bhatt H, Bhushan B and Kumar N (2019). IOT: the Current
having experimental nature and very keen to learn scenario and role of sensors involved in smart agriculture.
new things about scientific farming practices, easy Int J Recent Technol Eng 8(4), 12011-12023.
loan, credit facility and marketing linkages may be Department of Agriculture, Cooperation & Farmers ‘Welfare
developed for their faith in the agriculture related (DAC&FW). Annual Report (2020-21). https://
entrepreneurial ventures. Additionally, result agricoop.nic.in/en/whatsnew
oriented demonstration procedures would enhance Gulati Ashok, Terway Prerna and Hussain Siraj (2021).
the intellectuality regarding agriculture and would Performance of agriculture in Uttar Pradesh. In book:
bring about some change in the attitude of rural Revitalizing Indian Agriculture and Boosting Farmer
Incomes (pp.175-210)
youths. Therefore, extension services should be
more focused on skill development training and Gupta G and Nagar M (2017). Agriculture Sector in India: Asa
Career Int J Arts, Manage and Human 6(2): 01-06
demonstrations of advanced proven technologies at
farmers’ field. India Brand Equity Foundation (IBEF) (2021). Indian
agriculture and allied industries industry report. https://
www.ibef.org/industry/agriculture-india.aspx
Sandhu, A S (1973). Relative efficiency of four methods of
measuring credibility of farm information source. Indian
J Ext Edu 9 (1),71-74.

Farmers’ Preferences on Acceptance and Adoption of Traditional

Rice Production under Organic Farming
V Dhanushkodi1, Noorjehan AKA Hanif2, S Sangeetha3, R Nageswari4 and R Jagadeesan5
Anbil Dharmalingam Agricultural College and Research Institute, Tiruchirappalli-620027, Tamil Nadu
ABSTRACT
Persistent nutrient depletion is posing a greater threat to organic farming. Therefore, it becomes imperative to
explore the most effective organic nutrient sources for sustaining soil fertility and producing quality products.
Hence, the present investigation was carried out to promote organic farming through TNAU released liquid
biofertilizers viz., Azospirillum, Phosphate solubilizing bacteria, K Solubilizer, Zn solubilizers, PPFM
application in traditional rice under organic farming. The knowledge level of the traditional rice growers in
improved technologies was medium (36.0 %) to low (42.0 %) in before implement of the demonstration.
The knowledge level was increased from medium (36.0 %) to high (56.0 %) after implementation of the
programme. More than 68 per cent of the traditional rice growers practice panchagavya seedling dip,
liquid biofertilizer seedling dip, liquid biofertilizer foliar application, foliar application of humic acid,
foliar application of panchagavya in four critical stages etc. The results show that the applications of liquid
biofertilizers positively increased more productive tillers (17.1 numbers), additional grain yield (18%) and
straw yield (22%) compared to farmers’ practice. It was observed wide variations in grain yield (3950 kg/
ha) and durations (180 d duration) according to varieties. The majority of the respondents indicated that
organic farming grants effective utilization of natural resources for income generation (95%) followed
by nutritional security (88%). The appropriate reason for a medium to higher level of knowledge about
improved production technologies of traditional rice growers might be due to KVK interventions such as
awareness programme, demonstrations, training and field days.
Key Words: Adoption, Humic acid, Liquid biofertilizers, Panchagavya, Traditional rice, Yield.
INTRODUCTION of nutrients is required Shivani et al (2022).

Rice is one of the most important staple cereals Sustaining soil and crop productivity is a
for more than half of the world’s population, challenging issue in organic farming. To encourage
particularly in Asia. On account of the continuous increasing crop yield and soil health in organic
world energy crisis with increasing prices of farming, beneficial bacteria has been discovered
chemical fertilizer, the use of organic manures which can provide essential elements such as
as renewable source of plant nutrients is gaining nitrogen, phosphorus and potash Verma et al (2018).
importance. Although inorganic fertilizers are a Biofertilizers are an environment-friendly non-
good source of nutrients for plants, they have a bulky and low-cost agricultural input containing a
long-lasting and adverse effect on soil and the specific micro-organism in concentrated form which
environment. Therefore, to minimize these adverse is derived either from the plant roots or from the soil
effects, standardization of suitable organic sources

1&5
Anbil Dharmalingam Agricultural College and Research Institute, Tiruchirappalli-620027, Tamil Nadu
2
Agricultural College and Research Institute, Karur-639 001, Tamil Nadu
3
Horticultural College and Research Institute for Women, Trichy-620 027, Tamil Nadu
4
Tamil Nadu Rice Research Institute, Aduthurai-612 101, Tamil Nadu

Farmers’ Preferences on Acceptance and Adoption
Table 1. Effect of liquid biofertilizers on growth and yield of traditional rice.

Treatment Treatment Detail Plant No of No. of Grain Straw
height productive grains / yield (kg/ yield
(cm) tillers panicle ha) (kg/ha)
T1 Farmers’ practice (without liquid 137.9 14.9 135.4 3460 6540
biofertilizer)
T2 Farmers practice + Application of 140.5 15.6 138.7 3598 6760
Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria
(each 2 kg/ha)
T3 Farmers practice + Liquid 141.6 16.7 143.4 3757 7090
biofertilizer application (seed
treatment (@each 125ml/ha),
seedling dipping (@each 125ml/ha
and main field application (@each
500ml/ha)
T4 Farmers practice + Panchagavya 139.7 16.8 145.9 3680 6850
(3%) and Humic acid (0.4%)
T5 Farmers practice + Liquid 146.2 17.1 150.7 3950 7250
biofertilizer application(seed
treatment (@each 125ml/ha),
seedling dipping (@each 125ml/ha
and main field application (@each
500ml/ha)+ Panchagavya (3%)and
Humic acid (0.4%)
SEd 5.86 0.68 5.98 154.08 288.83
CD(p=0.05) 13.52 1.59 13.79 355.32 666.05
of the root zone. Biofertilizers are one of the best Currently, 162 countries are engaged in organic
modern tools and a gift of our modern agricultural cultivation involving 37.2 million ha Yadav (2013).
science Mishra et al (2013). Now, biofertilizers Asia covers thirty four percent of the world’s
are introduced in the form of liquid for the benefit organic producers, where India ranks 33rd in terms
of the farming community through sustaining of total land under organic cultivation. The Green
soil health. Liquid biofertilizers are the specific Revolution (1960s) focused on developing high-rice
beneficial bio-inoculants that promote the growth yielding varieties with increased yields, reducing the
and yield of crops by converting the unavailable cropping period and increased cropping intensity
form of soil nutrients into an available form for with the cultivation of 2–3 crops in the same year.
better crop growth. Recently liquid biofertilizers One of the major ecological consequences of the
like Azospirillum, Phosphate solubilizing bacteria, introduction of new high-yielding varieties through
K solubilizer, Zn solubilizer, PPFM are gaining the green revolution was the depletion in the number
importance among rice growers under normal rice of traditional rice varieties Ashraf and Lokanadan,
cultivation Poorniammal et al (2020). Besides, (2017). Now in the face of climate change, farmers
liquid-biofertilizers also induce resistance against are gradually realizing that traditional rice cultivars
biotic and abiotic stress in plants through biological inherently possess a valuable gene pool to adapt to
activity on the root surface Sivasakthivelan and climate change Krishnakutti et al (2021). Recently,
Saranraj (2013).
Table 2. Distribution of respondents based on their knowledge level . (n = 50)

Sr. No. Category Before Demonstration After Demonstration
Number Per cent Number Per cent
1 Low 21 42 6 12
2 Medium 18 36 16 32
3 High 11 22 28 56
the adoption of traditional rice for organic farmingof Agricultural Research-Krishi Vigyan Kendra,
Tiruchirappalli district with traditional rice
is increasing day by day. The objective of this study
was to create awareness of a suitable combination growing areas of Tiruhchirappalli district in Tamil
Nadu. In this study, effect of liquid biofertilizers
of organic with locally available nutrient sources in
traditional rice production and the acceptance underon sustainable soil health and yield enhancement
organic farming conditions. in traditional rice’ variety under organic farming
was compared with farmers’ practices and normal
MATERIALS AND METHODS biofertilizers during Rabi 2020 Thooyamalli
A study was carried out by the Indian Council traditional rice cultivar. Azospirillum lipoferum,
Table 3. Knowledge level of the traditional rice growers in organic rice cultivation techniques.
(n=50)
Sr. No. Technology Before Demonstration After Demonstration
Number Percentage Number Percentage
1 Use of biofertilizers @2kg/ha for seed 27 52 45 90
treatment
2 Use of Panchagavya (3%) as seed treatment 22 44 41 82
3 Use of Humic acid (0.5%) as seed treatment 15 30 43 86
4 Seed treatment (Trichoderma viride @ 4g 28 56 39 78

and Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 10 g/kg of
seeds)
5 Foliar application of panchagavya (3%) at 19 38 46 92
four critical stages
6 Foliar application of Humic acid (0.5%) at 22 44 43 86

four critical stages
7 Seed treatment with liquid biofertilizers 6 12 28 56
Azospirillum lipoferum, Phosphate
solubilizing bacteria Basillum megatherium,
K Solubilizer Basillus mucilaginosus and
Zn solubilizers (@each 125ml/ha)
8 Foliar application of PPFM (@each 500ml/ 15 30 42 84
ha) along with Panchagavya (3%), Humic
acid (0.5%)

Phosphate solubilizing bacteria Basillum level of the respondents was calculated as reported
megatherium, K Solubilizer Basillus mucilaginosus by Madhan (2002). The respondents were classified
and Zn solubilizers Pseudomonas chlororaphis into three categories such as low, medium and high
was used for seed treatment (@each 125ml/ha), using mean and standard deviation.
seedling dipping (@each 125ml/ha before planting
and main field application (@each 500ml/ha) and RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
foliar spray during tillering and panicle initiation
Yield and Income of Rice
stage (@each 500ml/ha) sprinkled over the crop.
The data (Table 1) expresses that the use of liquid
PPFM (Methylobacterium aminovorans) spray
biofertilizers panchagavya (3%) and humic acid
(@each 500ml/ha) was done during tillering and
(0.5%) has positively produced more grain yield
panicle initiation to mitigate drought. The farmer’s
in the traditional cultivar when compared to that
practice of incorporation of green manure and foliar
of the check plot. The average yield data obtained
application of panchagavya (3%) was considered as
from T5 liquid biofertilizers, panchagavya (3%)
a check plot. Initial and post-harvest soil samples
and humic acid (0.5%) treated plot revealed that
were collected from the demonstration plot and
the grain yield in traditional rice viz., 3950 kg/ha
check for analyzing soil nutrient status. Rice yield
increased substantially, high in the demonstration
and income were recorded to interpret the trial. The
plot compared to the T1 control plot (3115 kg/
responses on reasons for adoption and constraints
ha) and the average increase in grain yield was
in adoption were scored on 4 point scales fitting to
14.16 per cent. The increased grain yield might
the statements as very much (4), much (3) not so
be due to increased nutrient status and the overall
much (2) and not at all (1) important.
positive effect of liquid biofertilizer on soil health
Further, the knowledge level of FLD farmers and ecosystem in and around the rhizosphere of
with liquid bio fertilizer application technologies the crop. A similar trend in straw yield (7250 kg/
of traditional rice growers before and after the ha) also observed under T5 liquid biofertilizers
interventions of KVK was measured by adopting panchagavya (3%) and humic acid (0.5%) treated
knowledge tests Singh (1986). The knowledge plot. These findings were in agreement with the
Table 4. Reasons for the adoption of traditional rice under organic farming.
Sr. No. Developmental strategies Farmers response
M.F* S.F* B.F* Average
M.S M.S M.S M.S
1. Soil suitability 2.7 3.3 3.5 2.7
2. Climatic condition 2.9 3.9 3.0 2.9
3. Reduced input cost 3.0 3.9 3.7 3.0
4. Nutritional security 2.7 3.3 3.5 2.7
5. Effect utilization of farm outputs 2.9 3.9 3.0 2.9
6. Entrepreneurship development 3.0 3.4 3.6 3.0
7. Income security 3.5 3.9 3.5 3.5
8. Traditional practices 3.5 3.6 3.5 3.5
9. Easy for marketing 2.3 2.3 2.4 2.3
10. Less pest and disease incidence 3.2 3.0 3.3 3.2
*Where MF-Marginal farmer, SF-Small farmer, BF-Big farmer and M.S-Mean score.

results obtained by Singh et al (2018) in groundnut (36.0 %) to low (42.0 %) in before implement of the
and Sherpa et al (2019) in brinjal. Chaudhary et al demonstration programme. The knowledge level
(2015), Rahevar et al (2015) and Madhu Bala and was increased from medium (36.0 %) to high (56.0
Kedar Nath (2015) also found the same trend in the %) after implementation of the programme. This
application of multi-strain biofertilizer on growth, might be due to the fact that KVK conducted the
pod and haulm yield of groundnut. demonstration programme and extended activities
such as training programmes and field day.
Economics
The application of liquid-biofertilizers, It can be observed from the above Table 3,
panchagavya (3%) and humic acid (0.5%) that before implementation of the demonstration
favourably increased the net return and benefit- programme only around twenty seven percent of the
cost ratio in traditional rice cultivation (Figure 1). respondents had knowledge of improved traditional
The net return of Rs.157350 /ha in Thooyamalli rice cultivation practices and foliar application
with the liquid biofertilizer, panchagavya (3%) and of liquid bio fertilizers, but after implementation
humic acid (0.5%) application, which might be of the programme it has been increased to 92 per
due to the highest grain yield and market preferred cent. More than 90 percent of the respondents had
qualities (appearance & aroma) of traditional rice. knowledge of foliar application of panchagavya
From the present investigation, it can be concluded (3%) at four critical stages.
that inoculation of liquid-biofertilizer granted According to the pest management, 6 per
positive improvement in physiological traits, the cent of the respondent had knowledge on the
productivity and the profitability of traditional rice. seed treatment with liquid biofertilizers before
A similar trend was observed by Singh et al (2018) implementation of the programme. This has been
in the application of liquid NPK formulation along increased to 56 per cent. The probable reason for this
with Zn solubilizing bacteria in groundnut. increased level of knowledge might be due to the
resulting demonstration of the liquid-biofertilizers,
panchagavya (3%) and humic acid (0.5%) and
which resulted in more yield and profit. Similarly,
Asiwal et al (2005) also reported that an increase in
productivity and income gain under demonstration
over traditional practices of blackgram cultivation.
Reasons for the adoption of traditional rice
under organic farming
The majority of the respondents indicated
that organic farming grants effective utilization of
natural resources for income security (3.5%) and
traditional practices (3.5%) followed by less pest
Figure 1. Effect of liquid-biofertilizers on net return
and benefit-cost ratio in traditional rice cultivation and disease incidence (3.2%). Traditional rice is
being used by traditional healers and local farmers
Knowledge level of the Traditional rice growers in ayurveda for curing of various kinds of treatment
farmers in improving immunity, strengthening bone, curing
It could be inferred (Table 2) that the stroke, joint pain, diabetics, high blood pressure
knowledge level of the traditional rice growers and skin disease, protect from cancer and kidney
from newly released technologies was medium problems and improve digestion as they are abundant

in antioxidants, antiviral properties, vitamins and Krishnankutty J, Michael Blakeney, Rajesh K R, Kadambot H
minerals etc.,. Farmers also expressed that some of M and Siddique (2021). Sustainability of traditional rice
cultivation in Kerala, India—A Socio-economic analysis.
the traditional paddy varieties are resistant to biotic Sustainability 13:980-296
and abiotic stress (Table 4).
Madhan P (2002). Generation, dissemination and adoption
of rice varieties of RRS, Ambasamudram-An analysis.
CONCLUSION Unpub. M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis, TNAU, Coimbatore
Proficient nutrient management is essential Madhu Bala and Kedar Nath (2015). Maximization of
through organics for enhancing crop yield and groundnut (Arachis hypogaeaL.) yield by nutrient
improving soil health for long-term sustainability. management practices. J Experimental Biology and Agric
The success of organic agriculture can be Sci 3(3): 241-245
greatly influenced by the adoption of advanced Mishra D J, Singh Rajvir, Mishra U K and Shahi Sudhir Kumar
technologies like liquid bio-fertilizers and PGPRs (2013). Role of bio-fertilizer in organic agriculture: A
for crop growth and soil fertility. Use of organic review. Res J Recent Sci 2:39-41
and green manures along with liquid biofertilizers Poorniammal R, Prabhu S, Kannan J and Janaki D (2020).
Liquid biofertilizer - a boon to sustainable agriculture.
fertilizers viz., Azospirillum lipoferum, Phosphate
Biotica Res Today 2(9):915-918.
solubilizing bacteria, Basillum megatherium,
Rahevar H D, Patel P P, Patel B T, Joshi SK and Vaghela S
K Solubilizer Basillus mucilaginosus and Zn
J (2015). Effect of FYM, iron and zinc on growth and
solubilizers and PPFM has been found effective in yield of summer groundnut (Arachis hypogaeaL.) under
paddy cultivation under organic farming play a vital North Gujarat Agro-climatic conditions. Indian J Agric
role to obtain maximum grain yield, income and Res 49(3):294-296
improving soil fertility. From the study, it can be Sherpa M K, Thombare M V, Masih H, Lal A A, Ameeta
concluded that obtaining more yield in traditional Adhikari and RusamluThalai (2019). Response of liquid
rice as well as profit will be possible with liquid biofertilizers on growth and yield of brinjal (Solanum
melongenaL.) crop. J Pharmacognosy and Phytochem
bio-fertilizers and needs to be promoted among
8(5):1540-1544
the farmers to achieve success in organic farming.
Shivani K and Samir Kumar Tamrakar (2022). Effect of
Therefore, the integration of liquid biofertilizers is inorganic, organic and bio-fertilizers on performance of
the most important biological resource. Gerbera under shade net conditions. J Krishi Vigyan 11
(1) : 86-91
REFERENCES Singh N, Joshi E, Sasode D S, Sikarwar R S and Rawat G S
Agricultural Statistics at a Glance (2018). Directorate of (2018). Liquid Biofertilizer and Inorganic Nutrients Effect
Economics and Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture and on Physiological, Quality Parameters and Productivity
Farmers Welfare, Government of India of Kharif Groundnut (Arachis hypogaeaL.). Int J Curr
Ashraf A M and Lokanadan S (2017). A Review of rice Microbiol App Sci 7(9):729-735
landraces in india and its inherent medicinal values—the Singh A K (1986). Tests, Measurements and Research Methods
nutritive food values for future. Int J Curr Microbiol Appl in Behavioural Sciences. Tata Mc Graw-Hill publishing
Sci 6:348-354 company Ltd., New Delhi
Asiwal B L, Balai, L R, Akhter J. and Asiwal R C (2015). Role Sivasakthivelan P and Saranraj P (2013). Azospirillum and its
of KVK in enhancing the productivity and profitability of formulations. Int J Microbiol Res 4(3):275-287
mung bean through FLDs in Sikar district of Rajasthan.
Agric Update 10(3): 221-225 Verma N P, Kuldeep Y K and Yadav N (2018). Study of
liquid biofertilizer as an innovative agronomic input for
Chaudhary J H, Ramdev, Sutaliya and Desai L J (2015). sustainable agriculture. Int J Pure App Biosci 6(1):190-
Growth, yield, yield attributes and economics of 194
summer groundnut (Arachis hypogaeaL.) as influenced
by integrated nutrient management. J Appl Natural Sci Yadav A K. (2013). Organic agriculture prospects and
7(1):369-372 potential. Geography and You, New Delhi. 13:39–41

Impact of Farmers’ Participatory Programme on Rice

( Oryza sativa L.) Production and Economics Under Temperate
Hill Ecology
T Mubarak, S A Bangroo*1, A Shakoor , Haseeb –ur-Rehman, Shahid A Sheergojri,
Parvez A Sheikh*2 and T A Sofi*2
Krishi Vigyan Kendra Kulgam SKUAST-Kashmir at Pombay (J&K)-192233
ABSTRACT
There is a huge scope for tapping rice potential in Kashmir valley owing to congenial environment and
abundant natural resources. Productivity of rice crop is however very low compared to the potential,
particularly in the mid belts. With an aim to narrow down the yield gaps, Krishi Vigyan Kendra Kulgam
–SKUAST, Kashmir conducted 550 frontline demonstrations on rice technologies under various rice
ecologies from year 2011-2020. Results of these demonstrations revealed a significant improvement in
yield with introduction of new varieties, over those existing at farmers field. The yield superiority over
farmers’ practice ranged from 9.2 per cent to 15.8 per cent. On an average the yield was 12.7per cent
higher with the improved varieties compared to the old ones. An extension gap of 7.1 q/ ha hectare was
also recorded. Net returns were ₹99306/ha in improved practice against ₹ 89034/ha in the farmers practice,
indicating an additional income of ₹ 10272/ha with improved varieties. B:C ratio was 2.5 and 2.6 for
farmers’ and improved practice, respectively. Over the decade rice production in district Kulgam increased
by 34 % despite 2.5per cent decrease in area under rice.
Key Words: Demonstration, Impact, Paddy, Rice.
INTRODUCTION gap it is therefore important that new varieties with
Despite the fact that India has largest area under higher yield potential and resilience to biotic and
rice in the world, the productivity level of rice in abiotic stresses are developed and popularized
the country is far below the world average. There among farmers. Mountain Research Center for
exists is a gap between what we produce and Field Crop (MRCFC)-SKUAST, Kashmir did a
what can be produced at farmers’ field (Mubarak pioneer work by developing such varieties from
and Shakoor, 2019). Technology dissemination time to time. The Shalimar Rice(SR) series along
through agriculture extension system has been quite with related production technology has proven
effective in narrowing the yield gaps in rice (Sheikh quite fruitful in improving the rice production and
et al, 2014). Being staple food for majority of the productivity in the temperate valley (Sofi et al,
population of Jammu and Kashmir Union Territory 2020). During surveys conducted by the Kendra
(UT), particularly in the temperate Kashmir Valley, the rice productivity was found very less in the mid
rice gets ample research and extension attention. belts of district Kulgam compared to the potential.
The crop however, faces many challenges including In the on-farm testing of technologies by Kendra
crop diversification, land conversion to non- it was found that yields can be improved by 33per
agriculture purposes, climate change and so on. The cent in this belt and around 16 per cent in the planes.
productivity therefore is much lower than potential In this article an effort has been made to sum up the
(Mubarak and Sheikh, 2014). To bridge the yield impact of the technology dissemination in farmers’

*1 Division of Soil Science ,SKUAST-Kashmir, *2 Division of Plant Pathology SKUAST-Kashmir

Table 1: Grain yield and gap analysis of front line demonstrations on paddy over ten years
172
Year Name of technology/ Ecology No. of Area under Average yield Average %age Extension
Varieties demonstrations demonstration in Improved yield in yield gap
(ha) Practice (q/ Farmers increase (q/ha)
ha) practice
(q/ha)
2011 China-1039 /K-39 (FP) Mid Belts 82 33 57.8 50.3 14.9 7.5
K-448(IP)
2012 China-1039 /K-39 (FP) Mid belts 125 50 58.2 51.6 12.8 6.6
K-448(IP)
2013 China-1039 /K-39 (FP) Mid Belts 75 30.0 60.6 52.3 15.8 8.3
K-448(IP)
2014* China-1039 /K-39 (FP) Mid belts 98 39.0 42.6 38.3 11.2 4.3
K-448(IP)
2015 China-1039 /K-39 (FP) Mid belts 25 10.0 63.8 58.4 9.2 5.4
K-448(IP)
2016 Transplanted rice Mid belts 21 8.4 66.2 59.4 11.4 6.8
K-448 (FP)
System of rice intensification
and Zn nutrition in K-448(IP)
2017 Transplanted rice K-448 (FP) Mid belts 60 24.0 64.2 57.4 11.8 6.8
System of rice intensification

2018 Transplanted rice K-448 (FP) Lower 25 10 65.3 58.6 14.8 6.7
System of rice intensification belt
2019 K-448/SR-1(FP) Lower 25 10 73.9 65.2 13.3 8.7

Shalimar Rice (SR)-4 belt
2020 K-448/SR-1(FP) Lower 14 5.6 74.5 64.7 15.1 9.8
Shalimar Rice (SR)-4 belt
participatory mode as a case study from district RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Kulgam of Jammu &Kashmir UT. Crop yield and yield gaps
Data pertaining to the Frontline demonstrations
MATERIALS AND METHODS conducted by the Kendra (Table 1) indicate that
District Kulgam is situated at 75o 01’ east improved rice varieties performed better than the
longitude and 33o 39’ north latitude in the lap of Peer existing varieties cultivated by the farmers. The
Panchal , Himalayan Ranges. The study area falls yield advantage ranged between 9.2 and 15.8 per
between an altitude of 1650 and 1850 m amsl in cent over farmers practice in the demonstrations. On
the district. With a goal of boosting rice production, an average the yield was 12.7 per cent higher with
Krishi Vigyan Kendra-Kulgam ,SKUAST-Kashmir the improved varieties compared to the old ones.
conducted Frontline demonstration on rice varieties The latest variety Shalimar Rice-4 released in year
developed by the Mountain Research Center for 2018 after successful farmers’ participatory trials
Field Crops (MRCFC)-SKUAST, Kashmir in conducted across Kashmir valley, recorded average
farmers participatory mode. The present study yield of 74.5 q/ha, which was the highest observed
was conducted for the period 2010 to 2020, taking so far. Kirandeep et al (2020) and Sharma and
year 2010 as the baseline for impact analysis. Singh (2020) also concluded that new technology
During this period 550 Frontline Demonstrations have significant yield advantage over tradition
over an area of 220 ha throughout different rice one. Similar findings were also reported by Patil
ecologies of the district were conducted by Kendra et al ( 2017). Higher yields during 2019 (73.9 q/
in collaboration with department of agriculture. ha) and 2020 (74.5 q) may be attributed to better
In the Frontline Demonstration programme two performance of new varieties possessing higher
practices were performed at each location over and yield potential under respective ecologies. Similar
area of 0.4 ha per demonstration viz. farmers’ own kind of conclusions were drawn by Singh et al (
practice (old varieties) and improved practice (new 2014) and Asif et al (2017) during their studies. The
varieties). The crop was monitored during each yields were overall low in 2014 due to abnormal
season at different stages and necessary training weather condition during flowering period.
and awareness was imparted to beneficiary farmers.
Yield was recorded for data analysis and for overall The yield gap analysis in the present study
impact. Data of baseline year (2010) was compared revealed an extension gap ranging between 5.4 to
with the latest data available on area, production 9.8 q/ ha (Table-2). On an average the extension gap
and productivity. For economics, value of both was 7.1q/ha, which indicates that there is further
grain and paddy straw was taken into consideration, scope to enhance the rice production in the district
as paddy straw has economic value in the valley by popularizing the latest high yielding varieties
particularly for cattle and as apple packing material. developed by MRCFC-SKUAST,Kashmir. This
Extension gap, additional gains and effective gains can be achieved through collaborative efforts of
were calculated as below; extension functionaries involving KVK and line
department.
(i) Extension gap= Improved practice yield –
farmers’ practice yield Economic impact
(ii) Additional gains = Net returns (₹/ha) from Economic in terms of costs of cultivation, gross
Improved practice – Net returns(₹/ha) from and net returns, additional returns, effective gain
farmers’ practice and B:C ratio varied during different years both in
the improved technology and farmers practice. This
(iii) Effective gains= Additional returns (₹/ha) – was due to variation in cost of inputs and the price
additional costs (₹/ha) of produce due to multiple factors (Table 2 and

Fig 1&2). The cost of cultivation varied from

₹24900/ha in year 2011 in farmers’ practice
2.8
3.0
3.1
2.8
2.8
2.9
2.8
2.3
2.0
1.7
IP
B:C ratio
to ₹53068/ha in the improved practice in year

2020 . Fig 1 indicates no measure change in
the costs of cultivation from 2011 to 2017. An
FP
2.8
2.7
2.9
2.8
2.8
2.9
2.8
2.1
2.0
1.6 increasing trend however can be seen 2017
onwards. Gross and net returns showed an
Gain from
increasing trend over the years. This could

Effective
15234
IP( ₹)
9723
9308
6734
6109
5285
6434
6921
2532
4490
be due to the change in the monetary value of

farm produce, which is governed by multiple
factors.Net returns pooled over the years
were ₹99306/ha in technology demonstrated
Table 2: Economic Analysis of frontline demonstration programme on paddy at farmers’ field
Additional
from IP
returns
( ₹/ha)
against ₹ 89034/ha from the farmers practice
14562
17196
10738
10990
9109
8100
9506
9931
5466
7120
indicating an additional income of ₹ 10272/

ha. The higher additional returns and effective
gain obtained under improved varieties could
147232
146452
129749
117564
113816
be due to high yield potential under existing

82539
85200
65096
57806
47610
IP
Net returns
ecology, timely execution of field operations,

( ₹/ha)
monitoring of demonstration plots and on spot

advisories. Vinay Gaur and Jadav (2020) also
132670
129256
106574
104310
119011
73430
77100
55165
52340
40490
FP
concluded their study with similar results. The

highest benefit: cost ratio (3.1) was registered
during year 2018. This was attributed to higher
200300
195694
171739
160012
154688
114615
111739
value of paddy straw due to its increased

93796
86640
75140
Gross returns
IP
demand. On an average B:C ratio was 2.5

( ₹/ha)
and 2.6 for farmers’ and improved practice,

respectively.
180899
176536
159571
103700
144766
142110
99630
80855
78240
65390
FP
Over all impact in the district

Area, Production and productivity of the
base line year were compared with the existing
Additional
cost in IP
(Fig.3). The data indicates that rice production

4839
1962
1430
2815
3072
4256
3000
3010
2934
2630
increased by 34 per cent over the base line,

despite 2.5 per cent loss of area under paddy,
from 16411 ha to 16000 ha due to conversion
Improved
( ₹./ha)
Practice
to horticulture of non-farm activities . The

53068
49242
41990
29415
40872
42448
29200
28700
28834
27530
(IP)
increase in production was attributed to higher

productivity of the crop which improved
Input cost
from 4.8t/ha in 2010 to 6.7t/ha at present.

Farmers
Practice
The increase in the district rice productivity

48229
47280
40560
26600
37800
38192
26200
25690
25900
24900
(FP)
was 39.6per cent which is substantially

higher. It may be attributed to the adoption of
latest varieties of rice and related package of
2020
2019
2018
2015
2016
2017
2014
2013
2012
Year
2011
practices being popularized by the agriculture

extension agencies at district level, involving Kirandeep, Sharma Manoj and Singh Rajbir (2020). Effect
both the Krishi Vigyan Kendra and agriculture of different sowing techniques and varieties on yield of
Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). J Krishi Vigyan 9 (1): 92-
development department. Shalimar rice -4 variety, 98
which was released in 2018 is spreading fast in the
Mubarak T and Sheikh F A (2014). Protected nursery aided
lower parts of the district and has reported a yield popularization of Jehlum – a high yielding rice variety
of >10 t/ha at farmers’ field. This indicates a further in mid altitude temperate conditions of Kashmir valley. J
scope for improvement in the rice production with Krishi Vigyan 3 (1): 71-74.
the horizontal spread of this variety in the coming Mubarak T and Shakoor A (2019). Impact assessment of
years. technological interventions for reducing yield gaps in
Rice ( Oryza sativa L.) under temperate hill ecology. J
CONCLUSION Krishi Vigyan 7 (2) : 140-143
Rice being the staple food of the people of Sandeep Suresh Patil, Mahesh Mavanjee Mahale and
Kashmir Valley will remain a top priority of Sudeshkumar Shivajorao Chavan (2018). Impact of
frontline demonstrations (FLDs) on oilseed crops in
agriculture research and extension. The area is South Konkan Coastal Zone of Maharashtra. Current
shrinking day by day due to diversification into Agric Res J 6 (3): 355-364
other sectors especially horticulture and non- Sharma Manish and Singh Yashwant (2020). Influence of
agriculture activities indicating that we need to frontline demonstrations on yield, yield contributing
get more from less land. To meet the demand, characters and economics of radish (Raphanus sativus
the present productivity must not only sustain L.). J Krishi Vigyan 8(2): 192-196.
but increase in future. So demonstration of all the Sheikh F A, Mubarak T, Hameed-Ullah Itoo1, Bhatt Z A,
proven technology capsules pertaining to different Tariq A Sofi and Bangroo S A (2014). Technological
interventions to increase the production and productivity
rice ecologies in farmers’ participatory mode is
of rice (Oryza sativa L.) in mid altitude temperate
vital. ecologies of Kashmir. Res J Agric Sci 5(6): 1242-1245
Najeeb R Sofi, Ashaq Hussain, Asif B Shikari, Sofi M D,
REFERENCES Teeli N A, Mohiddin FA and Bhatt NA(2020). Rice crop
Asif M Iqbal, Parray G A, Sheikh F A, Ashaq Hussain, in Kashmir Valley: historical perspective, challenges and
Najeeb S, Bhat Z A, Shikari A B, Ganai M A, Aziz opportunities for sustainable production and livelihood
Mujtaba, Tasneem Mubarak, Misger F A and Zargar M improvement. SKUAST J Res 22 (1): 1-18
A ( 2017). Frontline Demonstration Programme: An
effective transfer tool for adoption of B. rapa production Vinay Gaur and Prabhatsinh Jadav ( 2020). Impact of
technology under temperate agro climatic conditions of demonstrations on productivity and profitability of
Kashmir Valley. Cruciferae Newsletter 36: 23-25 greengram in Gandhinagar district of Gujarat. J Krishi
Vigyan 8 (2): 174-177.

Impact of Self Help Groups on Psychological

Empowerment of Women
Minaxi Bariya1, Neha Tiwari2,Jiju Vyas3 and Kiran Chandravadiya4
College of Agriculture,
Junagadh Agricultural University, Mota Bhandariya, Amreli – 365610 (Gujarat)
ABSTRACT
A woman is said to be psychologically empowered when she has the power to increase her own self-reliance,
self confidence, self esteem and self-strength. The means of achieving psychological empowerment are
economic freedom, freedom of action, ability and involvement in decision-making, self-esteem, gender
equality, improvement in health and knowledge etc. The present investigation was carried out in Amreli
district of Gujarat State. Five talukas of Amreli district selected purposively where self help groups were
formed under the Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP). Ten villages were randomly
selected from five selected talukas. From each village 9 SHG members and 9 Non SHG members were
selected. The results showed that there was highly significant difference in the mean values of SHG members
and Non SHG members in case of self confidence, self esteem and decision making.
Key Words: Empowerment, Members, Psychological, Woman.
INTRODUCTION economic mobility and power and status in society.

Women are now entering the labour force Women’s empowerment would be able to develop
in large number in many areas to ensure rural self-esteem, confidence, realize their potential and
transformation. The image of women in the society enhance their collective bargaining power. A self-
is fast changing but difficult to define clearly help group is a small economically homogeneous
the changing shape of the image. In the past, the affinity group of the rural poor voluntarily coming
programmes for development of women, especially together to save small amount regularly, which
rural women were generally welfare and relief are deposited in a common fund to meet members
oriented. Women were primarily beneficiaries emergency needs and to provide collateral free loans
and not participants in programmes intended decided by the group. (Jha, 2004). They have been
for their development. Recent trend is a shift in recognized as useful tool to help the poor and as
viewing women as participants in the process of an alternative mechanism to meet the urgent credit
development rather than as beneficiaries. This needs of poor through thrift (Rao, 2003) SHG is a
means that properly motivated women can choose media for the development of saving habit among
to be involved in decision-making in their own the women (Rajamohan, 2003). These enhance
development and that of the community to which the equality of status of women as participants,
they belong (Upreti and Upreti, 2000). decision-makers and beneficiaries in the democratic,
Empowerment can serve as a powerful economic, social and cultural spheres of life. (Jain,
instrument for women to achieve upward social and 2003). Psychological Empowerment has been
Corresponding Author Mail: [email protected]

1
Asso. Professor, College of Agriculture, JAU, Mota Bhandariya (Amreli) - 365610,
2
Scientist, KVK, JAU, Amreli - 365601, 3Senior Scientist and Head, KVK, JAU, Nana Kandhasar and 4Assistant Professor, College of Agri-
culture, Anand Agricultural University, Jabugam–391155

operationalised as an individual’s cognitive state confidence scale developed by Heartheton and

characterized by a sense of perceived control, Polivey (1991) was used in the present study which
competence, and goal internalization. Psychological consisted of 8 items. The items were to be answered
Empowerment is thus considered as a multi-faceted by the respondents as either ‘yes’ or ‘no’. The ‘no’
construct reflecting the different dimensions of response 0 score was assigned and for ‘yes’ response
being psychologically enabled, and is conceived 1 score was given. The final score was worked out
of as a positive integrate of perceptions of personal by summing scores obtained by respondent for all
control, a proactive approach to life, and a critical statements. The respondents were categorized in
understanding of the socio-political environment, five groups as under.
which is rooted firmly in a social action framework The respondents were grouped into five
that includes community change, capacity building, categories for self confidence as under:
and collectively.
Sr. No. Category Score
The empowered woman is able to exercise
1 Very less (0.0 to 1.6 score)
her judgment independently and correctly in
2 Less (1.7 to 3.2 score)
democracy. Empowerment is expected to develop
confidence in one self and have faith in one self. 3 Medium (3.3 to 4.8 score)
Empowerment directly affects the life of women 4 High (4.9 to 6.4 score)
positively. The life style, social status, struggle 5 Very High (Above 6.4 score)
against injustice, opposition to various kinds
Self Esteem
of harassment in the society etcare the inbuilt
Self esteem is how SHG women value
qualities of women empowerment. In the light of
themselves to the world and how valuable they
the above facts, in an enlightened society both the
think we are to others. Five statements pertaining
government and non-governmental organizations
to self esteem were asked (Appendix). The score of
are playing a meaningful, fruitful and effective
‘five’, ‘four’, ‘three’, two and ‘one’ was assigned
role in undertaking various activities for women’s
to ‘SA’, ‘A’, ‘UD’, D and SDA’ to each statement,
empowerment. Therefore, the study was carried out
respectively. In order to obtain total score for self
with the objective to know the impact of SHGs on
esteem the score an individual could obtain was 25
psychological empowerment of women.
and minimum was 5. The final score was worked
out by summing scores obtained by respondent for
MATERIALS AND METHODS all statements. On the basis of arbitrary method
In the study the scale empowerment of women the respondents were categorized in five groups as
through self-help groups was utilized (Bariya, under:
2016). The components of self-confidence, self-
esteem, and decision-making were used to measure Sr. No. Category Score
psychological empowerment women. These 1 Very less (00.0 to 04.0 score)
components were chosen to evaluate the level 2 Less (04.1 to 08.0 score)
of empowerment experienced by women who 3 Medium (08.1 to 12.0 score)
participated in self-help groups. 4 High (12.1 to 16.0 score)
5 Very High (Above 16.0 score)
Self confidence
Self confidence indicates the extent of feeling Decision making ability
of SHG woman own ability and resourcefulness For effective decision making, a SHG women
in carrying out any activity in the SHG activities must be able to forecast the outcome of each option
which a SHG women desire to undertake. The self as well, and based on the all these items, determine

which option is the best for that particular situation.

low level of self confidence followed by 18.89 per
For measurement of decision making ability, cent with very low level of self confidence and only
structured schedule was developed in the present 7.78 per cent were medium level of self confidence.
study which consists of 10 items. The item wise The independent sample ‘Z’ test showed that there
response was recorded in form of ‘yes’ or ‘no’. Thewas highly significant difference in the mean values
‘no’ response is given 0 score and ‘yes’ response of SHG members (4.51) and Non SHG members
was assigned 1 score. The final score was worked (2.93) in case of self confidence. In case of SHG
out by summing scores obtained by respondent for members it can be concluded that majority of the
all statements. The respondents were categorized inrespondents were medium to high level of self
five groups as under: confidence and can be because that microfinance
Sr. No. Category Score
movement had a good impact on members, in
their ability to express their feelings and has made
1 Very less (0.0 to 2.0 score)
people more confident to express themselves and
2 Less (2.1 to 4.0 score)
also majority of the SHG members were medium
3 Medium (4.1 to 6.0 score) level of education along with medium level of
4 High (6.1 to 8.0 score) risk orientation, innovativeness and achievement
5 Very High (Above 8.0 score) motivation might be the probable explanation for
A purposive, multistage sampling and random this type of finding. In case of Non SHG members
sampling technique were used for the study. Five might be low level of education.
talukas of Amreli district were randomly selected This finding was similar with the findings
where SHGs were formed under Integrated reported by Bariya et al (2017), Bariya et al (2020),
Watershed Management Programme. Two villages Mehta et al (2011) and Singh and Mehta (2012).
from each taluka were purposively selected where
SHGs are conducting their livelihood activities Self esteem
more than four years under IWMP. The respondents The study of self esteem is measured using a
were selected from self help groups. In addition, five-point scale on as strongly agree, agree, neutral,
from each village nine women (n = 90) who were disagree, and strongly disagree. It is indicated from
not members of SHG were studied for comparative that majority of the SHG members were medium
purposes. The data were collected by personal to high level of self esteem i.e., 58.89 per cent and
interviews using a pre-tested structured schedule. 34.44 per cent, respectively. Only 6.67 per cent
On the basis of arbitrary method the respondents were low level of self esteem and no one was in the
were categorized. very low and very high category.
While in case of Non SHG respondents it was
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION different that about three-fourth (74.44 %) of the
Self confidence respondents were low level of self esteem followed
It was evident (Table 1) that in case of SHG by medium level (25.56 %) of self esteem. The
members slightly more than three-fifth (63.33 independent sample ‘Z’ test showed that there was
%) of the respondents were medium level of self highly significant difference in the mean values of
confidence followed by 28.89 per cent were high SHG members (11.69) and Non SHG members
level of self confidence, only 7.78 per cent were (8.48) in case of self esteem. It can be concluded
low level and no one was from very high level of from the above result there was a difference between
self confidence and in case of Non SHG members view about their self esteem, the SHGs members
nearly three-fourth (73.33 %) of the women were feel satisfied with their families they also have
positive attitude towards the life and can balance

Table 1. Distribution of the respondents (SHG and Non SHG members) according to their self
confidence. n=180
Sr. Category SHG Member n=90 Non SHG Member n=90
No. F P F P
1 Very Low (0.0 to 1.6 score) 00 00.00 17 18.89
2 Low (1.7 to 3.2 score) 07 07.78 66 73.33
3 Medium (3.3 to 4.8 score) 57 63.33 07 07.78
4 High (4.9 to 6.4 score) 26 28.89 00 00.00
5 Very High (Above 6.4 score) 00 00.00 00 00.00
Total 90 100.00 90 100.00

Mean 4.51 2.93
Mean difference 1.59
Z value 12.68**
F= Frequency P= Per cent
the responsibilities well as compared to Non SHGs of decision making, respectively. Whereas, in case
respondents. This finding was in agreement with of Non SHG members’ more than three-fifth (67.78
that of Bariya et al (2017), Bariya et al (2020) and %) were low level of decision making and nearly
Gajbhiye (2012). same respondents were from medium and very low
level of categories (16.67 and 15.56 %). No one
Decision making
was from the categories of high and very high. The
Rural women play a key role in the agriculture,
independent sample ‘Z’ test indicated that there
livestock management and household activities.
was highly significant difference in the mean values
They have role in decision making particularly
of SHG members (4.69) and Non SHG members
in matters related to children education, family
(3.47) in case of decision making.
planning, agriculture, livestock management,
family and social function, buying and selling land, In case of SHG members it might be due
property and household goods, amount to be spent to medium level of education, medium mass
on food material, health and hygiene practices, media exposure and involving income generating
amount to be spent on religious activity, household activities. This shows a clear impact as SHG women
savings and adoption of business/occupations. members were participating in the decision making
as a result of their participation in the SHG program
The distributional analysis pertaining to decision
and their status has improved since the joining of
making of the respondents mentioned in Table 2
SHG’s and availing microfinance. This finding was
indicated that exactly three-fifth (60.00 %) of the
similar with the findings reported by Anonymous
SHG members were involved in medium level of
(2002), Amutha (2011), Bariya et al. (2017), Bariya
decision making followed by low and very low level
et al (2020), Blay (2011), Gajabhiye (2012), Parihar
with 25.56 per cent and 7.78 per cent, respectively
et al (2012) and Lokhande (2013).
and only 6.67 per cent were involved in high level

Table 2. Distribution of the respondents (SHG and Non SHG members) according to their decision
making . n=180
Sr. Category SHG Member n=90 Non SHG Member n=90
No. F P F P
1 Very Low (0.0 to 2.0 score) 07 07.78 14 15.56
2 Low (2.1 to 4.0 score) 23 25.56 61 67.78
3 Medium (4.1 to 6.0 score) 54 60.00 15 16.67

4 High (6.1 to 8.0 score) 06 06.67 00 00.00
5 Very High (Above 8.0 score) 00 00.00 00 00.00
Total 90 100.00 90 100.00
Mean 4.69 3.47

Mean difference 1.22
Z value 6.43**
F= Frequency P= Per cent
CONCLUSION Management Programme on empowerment of women. Ph. D.

There was a great impact of SHGs on Thesis (Unpublished), Junagadh Agricultural University,
Junagadh.
psychological empowerment of women. The
SHG women members were more psychological Bariya M K, Chhodvadia H C, Patel Hansa, Parmar Sujata
and Vyas Jiju (2017). Study on proile characteristics of
empowered as compared to Non SHG members. It women self help group members. J Krishi Vigyan 5(2):
was because of increased general exposure due to 154-159.
their social participation, extension participation, Bariya M K, Patel Hansa, Chandravadia K U and Chovatia
mass media exposure and the awareness of women J V (2020). Empowerment of women through self help
rights. Social urge of women has been satisfied and groups in Amreli district of Gujarat. J Krishi Vigyan 8
their self-confidence and self esteem has naturally (2) : 60-64.
improved. These are the major contributing Blay V A (2011). Empowerment of women through
factors for the empowerment of women. It can participation in women Self Help Groups in the Kumasi
metropolis. M.Sc.(Development policy and Planning)
be recommended that SHGs are contributing
Thesis (Unpublished). Kwame Nkrumah University of
significantly in increasing self confidence;self Science and Technology, Kumasi.
esteem and decision making ability and therefore
Gajbhiye P (2012). An impact study of SHGs organised and
such local organizations should be promoted. promoted by NGO on women empowerment. M.Sc.
Thesis (Unpublished).DA-IICT, Gandhinagar.
REFERENCES Jain R (2003). Socio-economic impact through self help
Anonymus (2002). MYRADA, Mysore, Paper presented on groups. Yojana. 47 (7):11-12.
the seminar of SHG –bank linkage programme at New
Delhi. 17-47 p. Jha A (2004). Lending to the Poor: Designs for Credit. EPW,
35 (8 & 9) :21-23.
Amutha.(2011). Socio-economic impact through self help
groups. J Econ and Sustain Dev 2(6): 89-94. Lokhande M A (2013). Micro finance for women
empowerment - A study of self-help groups-bank linkage
Bariya, M. K. (2016). Impact of self help groups promoted programme. Int Center for Business Res 2:159-166.
under Integrated Watershed

Mehta S, Mishra H and Singh A (2011). Role of SHGs in socio- Rao V M (2003). Women self help groups, Profiles from
economic change of vulnerable poor of Jammu region. Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka”, Kurukshetra 50(6): 26-
In: International conference on economics and Finance 32.
Research, IPEDR,IACSIT Press, Singapore,4:519-523. Singh A and Mehta S (2012). Impact of SHGs in Jammu,
Parihar P Kher, S K Slathia, P S and Ahmed N (2012). Impact India. The Romania Econ J 46:167-204.
of self help groups on rural women in Jammu district. Upreti H C and Upreti Nandini (2000). Women and Problems
Indian Res J Ext Edu Special Issue (I): 112-114. of Gender Discrimination, Pointer Publishers, Jaipur, p.
Rajamohan S(2003). Activities of self help groups in 153.
Virudhunagar district-A Study, TNJC, p. 25-29.

Impact of Climate Change on Crop Water Requirement of

Rice in Central Zone of Kerala : An Assessment Using
CROPWAT Model
Harithalekshmi V* and B Ajithkumar
Department of Agricultural Meteorology,
Kerala Agricultural University, Mannuthy, Thrissur 680 651 (Kerala)
ABSTRACT
The study was to investigate the possible impact of climate change on crop water requirement of rice in
central zone of Kerala during different time period and future climates 2030, 2050 and 2080. Climate
data for the years 2030, 2050, 2080 were collected from MarkSim DSSAT weather file generator under
Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) 4.5 scenarios. The crop water requirement of rice for
different seasons during these periods was predicted using CROPWAT 8.0 model by assuming same crop
management practices for all these years. It was found out that evapotranspiration, effective rainfall and
irrigation requirement showed different trends in different seasons during 2030, 2050, and 2080. In virippu
season percentage deviation of irrigation requirement from that of 2021 value was found to be 180. 7,
179.0, 181.0 for the years 2030, 2050, 2080, respectively. In mundakan season percentage deviation of
irrigation requirement from that of 2021 was found to be -40. 4, -41.1, -29.8, respectively. In puncha
season percentage deviation of irrigation requirement from that of 2021 was found to be -5.4,-5.3,-3.6 for
the years 2030, 2050, 2080, respectively. The increase in irrigation requirement during virippu season in
future compared to 2021 might be due to decrease in effective rain fall during this period and the decrease
in irrigation requirement in future compared to 2021 during puncha and mundakan season might be due
to increase in effective rainfall during this period. Considering the probability of increase irrigation
requirement during virippu season in future, proper water management strategies should be adopted to
sustain farmer’s income in addition to current irrigation management practices.
Key Words: Climate, Crop, Evapotranspiration, Irrigation, Rainfall , Requirement, Water.
INTRODUCTION water balance, evaporation and effective rain fall.

Rice is the major crop cultivated in Thrissur FAO Land and Water Development Division have
district with an area spread of 21564 ha and a developed CROPWAT model to determine crop
production of 1611 t (ECOSTAT, 2019). It is a semi evapotranspiration and yield responses to water
aquatic plant with a water requirement of 1200- (Smith, 1992). CROPWAT model was used to
1500mm. Hence, rice production is entirely depends evaluate crop water requirement of rice at different
on the availability of water. Even though the mean planting dates in Thrissur district of Kerala (Vysakh
annual rainfall in Kerala is 3000mm, its temporal et al, 2016). The possible implications of climate
distribution is uneven, resulting in five to six months change on crop water requirement of rice can be
of dry spell (Surendran, 2014). Water shortage estimated using CROPWAT model. Investigations
might have serious consequences in rice production. on response of irrigation water requirements for
Climate change will affect irrigation requirement rice to climate change are beneficial to develop
of rice by changing physiology, phenology, soil adaptation strategies to climate change like long
Corresponding Author’s Email id: [email protected]

Impact of Climate Change on Crop Water Requirement of Rice
Table 1: Effective rain fall received (mm/day) during base line and future climates under RCP 4.5
and 8.5
Season RCP 4.5 RCP 8.5
2021 2030 2050 2080 2021 2030 2050 2080
Virippu 769.1 719.5 721 682.4 864.3 813.3 861 862.27
Mundakan 233.7 488.8 432.3 448.8 174 218 208.3 237.9
Pucha 13.5 90 88.1 83.9 11.2 76.9 84.2 85
term water resource development and planning and coefficient, duration of each stage and rooting
thus ensure food security and the sustainable use of depth for short duration rice variety was given as
water resources. This study aims to estimate crop input. Reference evapotranspiration (ET0), crop
water requirement of rice (Oryza sativa L.) for three water requirement, effective rainfall and irrigation
different crop seasons during 2020 and projected requirement was estimated using CROPWAT model
climates of 2030, 2050, and 2080 to understand the developed by the Land and Water Development
possible impact of climate change on crop water Division of FAO, Italy. Crop water requirements
requirement of rice in Central Zone of Kerala. (ETcrop) for rice (short duration) three agricultural
seasons viz. Virippu, Mundakan and Puncha for
MATERIALS AND METHODS baseline and future climates of 2030, 2050 and
Study area 2080 were estimated from ETo (calculated by the
The data required for the experiment was model) and crop coefficients (Kc, given as input to
collected from Vellanikkara, The station is located the model), based on well-established procedures
at 100 32’ N latitude and 760 20’ E longitudes at an (Doorenbos and Pruitt, 1977), according to the
altitude of 22 m above mean sea level. following equation:
ETcrop = Kc × ETo
Climate change projections
Among the four representative concentration RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
pathways (RCP), RCP 8.5, RCP 6, RCP 4.5 and Using CROPWAT model, effective rainfall, crop
RCP 2.6 that describe possible future climates, India evapotranspiration (ETc) and irrigation requirement
follows RCP 4.5 (Garg et al, 2015). NorESM1-M were calculated for three agricultural seasons were
model was found to represent the Indian monsoon calculated for 2021, 2030, 2050 and 2080 were
as well as air temperature in a better way (Garg calculated.
et al, 2015).In this study, the projected daily
weather data since 2021-2080 was simulated using Effective rainfall
NorESM1-M global climate model under RCP The effective rainfall received during the
4.5 and 8.5 scenarios. Projected daily weather baseline period (2021) and future climate of 2030,
data was downloaded from MarkSim DSSAT 2050 and 2080 under RCP 4.5 and 8.5 were estimated
weather file generator (http://gisweb.ciat.cgiar.org/ and represented in Table 1. The effective rainfall
MarkSimGCM/). received was more during virippu season compared
to mundakan and puncha season under RCP 4.5 and
Estimation of crop water requirement using 8.5 scenarios. Under RCP 4.5, the effective rainfall
CROPWAT model received during mundakan season was found to be
Daily weather data on maximum temperature, decreasing in future climate where as in case of
minimum temperature, rainfall and bright sunshine mundakan and puncha maximum effective rainfall
hours were given as input. Crop data like crop

Table 2: Crop evapotranspiration (ETc) (mm/day) during base line and future climates under RCP
4.5 and 8.5
2021 2030 2050 2080 2021 2030 2050 2080
Virippu 349.8 357 375.1 366.7 829.5 948.2 936 989
Mundakan 517 543.2 502.9 566.7 957 998.1 1011.8 1039
Pucha 618.4 640.2 643 664.4 680.4 771.2 963.7 1021.1
was received in 2030 compared to other periods. was recorded in virippu season but the irrigation
Effective rainfall received during both mundakan requirement was found to increase in future
and puncha in all the three future climates were climates. Maximum irrigation requirement in
higher compared to the base line period i.e., 2020. mundakan and puncha season was observed in
Under RCP 8.5, maximum effective rainfall was 2020, the amount of irrigation water required was
received during base line period i.e., 2020. The reduced in future climates. In a similar way Makar
effective rainfall received during virippu season was et al (2022) estimated irrigation water requirement
less in 2030. Under both scenarios effective rain fall for wheat, citrus and berseem using CROPWAT 8
received during future climate was less than that of model in Alexandria city.
baseline period (2021). The change in the effective
rainfall pattern was also noticed by Chen and Liu Percentage deviation in irrigation water
(2022). They suggested that the effective rainfall requirement of future climates from 2021
increased in flooding season and it decreased during Percentage deviation in irrigation water
dry season. Similary, in this study, when comparing requirement from 2021 during each season
both the RCPs the effective rainfall during virippu under RCP 4.5 was calculated for 2030, 2050
season was more under RCP 8.5 compared to RCP and 2080. The results were depicted in Figure
4.5, whereas in other two seasons (mundakan and 1. The percentage deviation was positive during
puncha) effective rainfall received was higher virippu season. Irrigation requirement was found
under RCP 4.5. to be increased by 180.7 percent, 179 percent
and 181 percent during 2030, 2050 and 2080,
Crop evapotranspiration respectively. The percentage deviation was positive
Table 2 represents crop evapotranspiration during mundakan and puncha season. Irrigation
received during the baseline period (2020) and requirement for mundakan season was found to be
future climate of 2030, 2050 and 2080 under decreased by 40.35 per cent, 41.14 per cent and 29.8
RCP 4.5 and 8.5. Among the three seasons crop per cent during 2030, 2050 and 2080, respectively.
evapotranspiration was more during puncha season Irrigation requirement for puncha season was found
and crop evapotranspiration in all seasons were to be decreased by 5.4 per cent, 5.3 per cent and 3.6
found to be increasing in future climates of 2030, per cent during 2030, 2050 and 2080, respectively.
2050 and 2080 under both RCPs. Figure 2 explains the same under RCP 8.5 scenario.
Under RCP 8.5 scenarios the percentage deviation in
Irrigation requirement irrigation water was positive during virippu season,
Irrigation requirement was calculated by irrigation requirement was found to be increased
the model for baseline period of 2021 and future by 5.6 percent, 107.6 percent and 151.9 percent
climates of 2030, 2050 and 2080 under RCP 4.5 during 2030, 2050 and 2080 respectively. Irrigation
and 8.5 and presented (Table 3). Compared to the requirement was found to be decreased in mundakan
other two season minimum irrigation requirement and puncha season. A decrease of 10.3 percent,

Table 3: Irrigation requirement (mm/day) during base line and future climates under RCP 4.5 and
8.5
2021 2030 2050 2080 2021 2030 2050 2080
Virippu 35.9 100.8 100.4 101 257.9 272.3 535.4 649.7
Mundakan 419 249.4 246.6 294.8 493 442 382.1 385
Pucha 703.5 665.8 665.7 678.9 1002.8 991.3 988.7 960.4
Figure 1: Percentage departure in irrigation requirement Figure 2: Percentage departure in irrigation requirement
calculated for baseline and future climate during three calculated for baseline and future climate during three
seasons under RCP 4.5 seasons under RCP 8.5
Figure 3: Monthly effective rainfall during base line Figure 4: Monthly mean temperature (0C) during base
and future climates line and future climates
22.5 percent and 21.9 percent were estimated in future climates of 2030, 2050 and 2080 compared
mundakan season and a decrease of 1.1 percent, 1.4 to 2021, whereas the amount of effective rainfall
percent and 4.2 percent were estimated in puncha received during virippu season reduced in future
season. The decrease in irrigation requirement was climates that may be reason for increased irrigation
more in mundakan season compared to puncha requirement in future climates (Figure 3). Monthly
in future climates. The decrease in irrigation mean temperature was calculated during 2021,
requirement during puncha and mundakan season 2030, 2050 and 2080 and were represented in Figure
was attributed to increased effective rainfall in 4. From the figure it was evident that mean monthly

temperature was more in future climate compared Doorenbos J, Pruitt W O (1977). Crop water requirements,
to base line period. According to the findings of Irrigation and Drainage Paper 24, FAO Rome, 179p.
McCabe and Wolock (1992), based on irrigation ECOSTAT (2019). Annual review of crop statistics system
model, the increase in mean annual water use was in Kerala through the scheme for improvement of crop
statistics 2017-2021, Department of Economics and
strongly associated with increase in temperature. statistics, Government of Kerala, 132p.
The warming of climate is consistently associated
Garg A, Vimal M and Dholakia H (2015). Climate change
with changes in the hydrological cycle like changing and India: adaptation gap (2015) – A Preliminary
precipitation pattern and intensity. Increase in mean Assessment, Working paper of Indian Institute of
monthly temperature combined with the decline in Management, Ahamedabad (IIMA) W.P. No. 2015-11-01.
effective rainfall during the month of June, July and Makar R S, Shahin S A, El-Nazer M, Wheida A and Abd
August (Figure 3 and Figure 4) might be the cause El-Hady M. (2022). Evaluating the impacts of climate
of increase in irrigation requirement during virippu change on irrigation water requirements. Sustainability
season. 14 (22):14833
McCabe G J and Wolock D M (1992). Sensitivity of irrigation
demand in a humid-temperature regeion to hypothetical
CONCLUSION
climate change. Water Resour 28 (3):533-543
The study suggested that climate change have
Saseendran, S A, Trout T J, Ahuja L R, Ma L, McMaster G S,
serious implications on irrigation requirement of
Nielsen D C, Andales A A, Chávez J L and Ham J (2015).
rice by influencing precipitation pattern and crop Quantifying crop water stress factors from soil water
evapotranspiration. Warming of atmosphere is measurements in a limited irrigation experiment. Agric
also associated with changes in components of Syst 137:191-205.
hydrological cycle. There is a substantial future Smith M (1992). CROPWAT: A computer program for
increase of irrigation requirement during virippu Irrigation planning and management. FAO Irrigation and
season and a decrease during mundakan and puncha Drainage paper No. 46. Rome: FAO, pp. 126
season. The increase in irrigation requirement may Surendran U, Sushanth C M, George Mammen Joseph E J
influence negatively unless the proper irrigation is (2014). Modeling the impacts of increase in temperature
on irrigation water requirements in Palakkad district – a
given. Proper water management strategies should case study in humid tropical Kerala. J Water Clim Cha
be adopted during virippu season in addition to 5(3):471–487.
current practices to adapt the impact of climate Vysakh A, Ajithkumar B and Satish J V. (2016). Effect of dates
change and sustain farmers income. of planting on crop water requirement of rice in Kerala. J
Agrometeorol Special issue: 51-54.
REFERENCES Received on 3/1/2023 Accepted on 25/4/2023
Chen F W and Liu C W (2022). Assessing the impact and
adaptation of climate change on effective rainfall for
agricultural water management, Taiwan Water Conserv,
6(1):1-29

In-vitro Evaluation of Fungicides Against

Radial Growth of A. brassicae
Mohammad Akram and Mujeebur Rahman Khan
Department of Plant Protection, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202002 (U.P.)
ABSTRACT
Eight commercially available fungicides were evaluated in-vitro for their efficacy to inhibit radial growth
of Alternaria brassicae using poison food technique. All the fungicides evaluated were found to be
significantly effective at all their tested concentrations, however, Propiconazole and Hexaconazole were
the most effective to exhibit cent percent inhibition in radial growth of A. brassicae, even at their lowest
tested concentration (50 ppm). Complete inhibition of mycelial growth of test pathogen was also recorded
in case of Vitavax and Flusilazole but at their relatively higher concentration (150 ppm). Azoxystrobin +
Difenoconazole and Propineb were the next best fungicides in terms of mycelial inhibition at all the tested
concentrations i.e., 50, 100, 150 and 200 ppm. Efficacy of fungicides like Propiconazole, Hexaconazole,
Azoxystrobin + Difenoconazole and Propineb remained constant with 100% inhibition at their higher
concentrations, i.e., 200 ppm. Mancozeb was found to be least effective with maximum mycelial inhibition
of 86.08% at 200 ppm, however, the lower concentrations like 50, 100 and 150 ppm exhibited 53.33%,
54.74% and 64.61% radial growth inhibitions, respectively.
Key Words: Chemical, Fungicide, Growth, Mustard.
INTRODUCTION mild to severe form have been reported from all the
Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) is considered continents of the world, including India.
to be a leading oil seed crop in tropical and temperate In India, the occurrence of this disease is
regions, both in terms of global acreage as well as a common problem in every mustard field of
production. Among all the pests and pathogens almost all the parts of the country, however,
reported on this crop, Alternaria brassicae (Berk.) severe incidence has been reported from major
causing Alternaria leaf blight or black leaf spot is mustard growing states namely, Himachal Pradesh,
one of the most serious threat which is known to Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
cause severe losses both in terms of yield and oil Bihar and Madhya Pradesh. There are no any
content at all the growth stages (Kohl et al, 2010). reliable management practices available against
This disease is reported to cause an average yield this pathogen, but chemical tools are found to be
loss of 30-45% worldwide (Ahmad and Ashraf, promising up to some extent. In the view of its
2016). The pathogen may cause damage to crop devastating nature and significance of the crop, it
in various ways i.e., shattering of pods, decreased is necessary to figure out effective fungicides and
seed quality, hampered weight and oil content their appropriate dosage in order to suppress the
seed produced. The infected seeds also exhibit a colonization of fungi in mustard crop. Therefore,
significant reduction in vigor and germination. in this experiment eight commercially available
Besides this, the well-developed infected leaves fungicides were evaluated in-vitro for their effective
come up with reduced photosynthetic ability of the concentrations in inhibiting the radial growth of
plants which ultimately affects seed weight and oil A.brassicae.
content. The incidence of this serious disease in

In-vitro Evaluation of Fungicides Against Radial Growth
Table1. In-vitro effect of different concentrations of chemical fungicides on radial growth of A.

brassicae at 7 days.
Treatment 50 ppm 100 ppm 150 ppm 200 ppm
Radial Inhibition Radial Inhibition Radial Inhibition Radial Inhibition
Growth (%) Growth (%) Growth (%) Growth (%)
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
a g a g a f a f
Control 90 0 90 0 90 0 90 0
e c d d e b e b
Azoxystrobin + 15.43 82.85 10.3 88.55 7.43 91.74 1.06 98.81
Difenoconazole
e c e c f a f a
Flusilazole 15.13 83.18 9.46 89.48 0 100 0 100
g a g a f a f a
Hexaconazole 0 100 0 100 0 100 0 100
b f b f b e b e
Mancozeb 42.26 53.03 39.56 56.03 30.36 66.25 11.26 87.48
c e c e c d c d
Metalaxyl + 35.3 60.77 28.08 68.81 25.06 72.14 9.5 89.44
Mancozeb
g a g a f a f a
Propiconazole 0 100 0 100 0 100 0 100
d d d d d c d c
Propineb 19.8 78 10.06 88.81 8.43 90.62 7.13 92.07
f b f b f a f a
Vitavax 6.3 93 5.3 94.11 0 100 0 100
SED 0.19 0.21 0.09 0.10 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.04
LSD(P<0.05) 0.43 0.48 0.21 0.23 0.11 0.12 0.08 0.09
MATERIALS AND METHODS sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) for 1 minute followed

The infected plant material was visually by three consecutive washing with sterile distilled
examined and collected randomly from mustard water. These surface sterilized pieces were then
crop cultivated in experimental fields of Department kept between two layers of sterilized blotting papers
of Plant Protection, Aligarh Muslim University, to remove excess moisture, and thereafter placed in
India. The plants with characteristic symptoms the Petri plates containing solidified PDA medium,
were identified and infected leaves and siliquae which were later incubated at 25±1°C for seven
with small, circular, brown, necrotic leaf spots, days. The fungus was sub-cultured by the single
with characteristic spots were collected and kept in spore isolation technique (Ricker and Ricker,
clean poly bags. The specimens were preserved for 1936) followed by multiple sub-culturing. The pure
future use and further studies. The brought samples cultures were further stored and maintained on PDA
were subjected to washing under tap water before slants for further studies.
preliminary microscopic studies. The infected The isolated fungus, cultured on PDA was further
leaves and siliquae were also kept into moist subjected to cultural and morphological studies
chamber to observe the sporulation on naturally and identified as A. brassicae. The morphological
infected parts. For further studies, the associated characters were noted by observing the microscopic
pathogen was isolated on potato dextrose agar slides prepared from the fungal culture, the slides
(PDA, HiMedia®, India) by the tissue segment were stained by lactophenol/ cotton blue and
method, as described by Rangaswami (1958). The covered with glass cover slip. The morphological
washed leaves with typical symptoms of A. blight observations in terms of mycelial structure and
were cut into small pieces of 1.0 to 1.5 cm (bearing conidial structure (i.e., shape, size, septation, beak
diseased tissue along with healthy tissues). The length) were taken at 10X, 40X and 100X (Awasthi
pieces were further surface sterilized with 0.1% and Kolte, 1989; Simmons, 2007).

The effect of eight fungicides viz., Propineb, and Hexaconazole at 50, 100, 150 and 200 ppm.
Flusilazole, Propiconazole, Hexaconazole, However, Flusilazole and Vitavax caused 100%
Vitavax, Azoxystrobin + Difenoconazole, inhibition in the fungus colonization at 150 and
Metalaxyl+Mancozeb and Mancozeb was tested at 200 ppm. The inhibition was 89.48% and 94.11%
four concentrations i.e., 50, 100, 150 and 200 ppm. due to the treatment of Flusilazole and Vitavax,
The efficacy of these fungicides and concentrations respectively at 100 ppm concentration and 83.18
were evaluated in terms of per cent radial growth and 93.0%, respectively at 50 ppm. Results
inhibition of A. brassicae on potato dextrose agar indicated that Metalaxyl+Mancozeb and Mancozeb
medium using poison food technique (Dubey at 150 and 200 ppm can control the pathogen better
and Patel, 2001). To prepare the poisoned media at initial stage of infection. However, Propiconazole
the fungicides were weighted according to their and Hexaconazole can manage the pathogen
required concentrations and mixed with 100 ml of completely with 100% inhibition even at 50 ppm.
autoclaved Potato Dextrose Agar and then poured Present results were supported by Valvi et al
into 90mm sterilized petri plates (20 ml each). (2019) due to effective inhibition percent recorded
After solidification of the medium each plate was in Propiconazole, Difenoconazole, Azoxystrobin
centrally inoculated with 5mm disc taken from a and Mancozeb treatments. Rajesha et al (2020)
week-old culture of A. brassicae. identified effective 100% inhibition rate of A.
Each treatment, alongwith control (Petri plates brassicae in case of Difenoconazole and Propineb
with no fungicides) was maintained in triplicate. The at 500 ppm and Azoxystrobin and Propiconazole at
inoculated Petriplates were incubated at 25±2°C, 750 ppm. The observations from investigation of
until the control Petri plates are completely covered Prasad et al (2009) and Meena et al (2004) regarding
with the growth of the test pathogen. The efficacy efficacy of combination of chemical fungicide,
of each treatment was figured out by calculating who observed that application of fungicide in
the percent inhibition of the radial growth by using combination is most effective to reduce the growth
formula proposed by Vincent (1947) of A. brassicae. Results reported by Yadav (2003)
and Godikand Pathak, (2002) on the efficacy of
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION systemic and non-systemic fungicides against
This in-vitro study was conducted to ascertain Alternaria leaf blight of mustard are in confirmation.
the potential of commercially available fungicides However, radial growth obtained in present study
and to determine their effective concentration in Metalaxyl+Mancozeb and mancozeb treatment
against A. brassicae. The observations were were recorded in contrary with only 26.00 mm and
recorded in terms of radial growth and percent 28 mm radial growth at 125 ppm in study conducted
growth inhibition and are presented in Table 1 and by Singh et al (2017). Study also exhibited the
Plate 1. The results revealed that all the fungicides significant effect of Mancozeb in controlling the
tested were superior to the control and significantly growth of pathogen. Effect of fungicide varies
inhibited growth of the A. brassicae at all their from one isolate to another isolate of pathogen; this
tested concentrations. It was noted that percent could be the reason for slight variation in the result
radial growth inhibition of the pathogen was directly obtained.
proportional to the increasing concentration of all
the tested fungicides. Significant per cent inhibition CONCLUSION
was recorded in Azoxystrobin + Difenoconazole It has been concluded from the present
as compared to control at 7 days after incubation. investigation that propiconazole and hexaconazole
Complete suppression of A. brassicae radial growth were effective in showing100% growth inhibition
(100% inhibition) was recorded with Propiconazole of A.brassicae at 50,100,150 and 200 ppm at 7-days

Each value is an average of 3 replicates. Value within a column followed by same letter are not significantly
different at (P≤0.05) according to Tukey test.
Plate 1: Mycelial growth A. brassicae on PDA media poisoned with fungicide

T1= Azoxystrobin + Difenoconazole, T2= Flusilazole, T3= Hexaconazole, T4= Mancozeb, T5= Metalaxyl
+ Mancozeb, T6= Propiconazole, T7= Propineb, T8= Vitavax

after inoculation. Although, vitavax and flusilazole Rajesha G, Nakkeeran S, Indumathi T, Adhipathi P and
have also exhibited 100% growth inhibition at 150 Chandrasekar A (2020). Evaluation of different fungicides
against Alternaria macrospora Zimm. inciting leaf blight
and 200 ppm at 7 days after inoculation. These in cotton under in vitro. Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci 9(9):
fungicides need to be tested further under field 1051-1058.
conditions against A. brassicae in order to achieve Rangaswami G (1958). An agar block technique for
the confirmation. isolating soil micro-organisms with special reference to
Pythiaceous fungi. Sci Cult 24: 85.
REFERENCES Riker A J and Riker R S (1936). Introduction to research
Ahmad A, Ashraf Y (2016). In vitro and In-vivo management on plant diseases, St. Louis, Chicago, New York and
of Alternaria leaf spot of Brassica campestris L. J Plant Indianapolis, John’s Swift Co., 117p.
Path Microbiol 7: 365.
Simmons E G (2007). Alternaria: An Identification manual.
Awasthi R P & Kolte S J (1989). Variability in Alternaria CBS Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Series No.6, Utrecht,
brassicae affecting rapeseed and mustard. Indian The Netherlands. p.775.
Phytopath 42: 275.
Singh A, Tomar D S, Nayak M K and Srivastava A K (2017)
Dubey S C and Patel B D K (2001) Chemical management of Screening of systemic and non-systemic fungicides
Alternaria blight of Broad bean. Seed Path Microbiol 12. against Alternaria blight of mustard (Brassica juncea).
Godika S and Pathak A K (2002). Efficacy of some fungicides Ann Pl Soil Res 19(3): 266-270
against white rust and Alternaria blight disease of Valvi H T, Saykar A D and Bangar V R (2019). In vitro and
mustard. Res Plant Dis 17 (1): 138-140. in vivo field efficacy of different fungicides against
Köhl J, Van Tongeren C A M, Groenenboom‐de Haas, B. H., Alternaria brassicae (Berk.) sacc. causing Alternaria leaf
Van Hoof R A, Driessen R & Van Der Heijden L (2010). spot of cauliflower. J Pharmacog and Phytochem 8(2),
Epidemiology of dark leaf spot caused by Alternaria 1333-1337.
brassicicola and A. brassicae in organic seed production Vincent, J M (1947). Distortion of fungal hyphae in the
of cauliflower. Plant Pathol 59(2): 358-367. presence of certain inhibitors. Nature 159 (4051): 850-
Meena P D, Meena R L, Chattopadhyay C & Kumar A (2004). 850.
Identification of critical stage for disease development Yadav M S (2003). Efficacy of fungi toxicants in the
and biocontrol of Alternaria blight of Indian mustard management of Alternaria blight and white rust of
(Brassica juncea). J Phytopathol 152(4): 204-209. mustard. J Mycol Plant Pathol (India) 33 (01), 176-178.
Rajendra P, Maurya K K and Srivastava S B L (2009). Eco- Received on 28/12/2022 Accepted on 10/3/2023
friendly management of Alternaria blight of Indian
mustard, Brassica juncea L. J Oilseeds Res 26(1):

Impact of Training on Knowledge Levels of Goat Rearing

Farmer’s in Bundi District of Rajasthan
G S Meena*1, Deepak Kumar1, K Mahajani1, R K Bairwa2, Roop Singh2,
Anita Kumari Meena3 and R K Meena4
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Bundi, Rajasthan
ABSTRACT
Goat husbandry is one of the important enterprises that enhance the income of rural households by providing
gainful employment. To measure the farmer’s knowledge towards goat farming study was conducted in
Bundi District of Rajasthan. Seventy-two trainees of goat farming were selected for pre and post training
evaluation test. All the goat farmers were imparted 10 day’s trainings on different aspects of goat farming.
The study revealed that before training, only 2.94 per cent of the trainees were having high level of
knowledge and 79.41 per cent low level of knowledge on goat farming. After acquiring training 70.58 per
cent of farmers possessed high level of knowledge and 23.52 per cent moderate level of knowledge towards
improved goat husbandry practices. The awareness perceived by farmers about breeding, feeding, health,
marketing and housing management was significantly (P<0.05) higher after training. The study suggested
that such training programme proved beneficial to farmers for improving their knowledge and attitude
towards goat farming in the district.
Key Words: Goat farming, Impact, Knowledge, Practices, Training.
INTRODUCTION the impact of goat farming training programmes on

Goat farming plays a vital role in the economic improvement of knowledge level of goat rearing
development of rural household and upliftment farmers and entrepreneurs.
of weaker sections of society. In present scenario,
India is facing the food and nutritional insecurity MATERIALS AND METHODS
and rural youth also facing the problems of The present study was conducted on the goat
unemployment. According to Global hunger index rearing farmers of Bundi District of Rajasthan,
report 2021(Anonymous, 2021), country slipped at those who participated in the trainings organized
101th palace among 116 countries, this is indicating by KVK Bundi during 2020 and 2021. Seventy-
the challenges in our country in reference to food two trainees of goat farming were selected and pre
and nutrition. Goat meat known as chevon is an and post training evaluation testing performed. All
excellent source of animal protein which can the goat farmers were imparted 10 days trainings
eradicate the problems of malnutrition among the on goat farming. Trainings were designed to cover
country. Well planned and structured trainings all aspect of theory classes and leaning by doing
programs are needed for successful and profitable through practical and also conducted exposure
goat enterprise. Training and development lead to visit of CSWRI Avikanagar Tonk and progressive
improved profitability and more positive attitudes goat farmers of Bundi District. These trainings
towards profit orientation (Singh, 2012). Keeping in were designed according to need based of trainees
this view, the present study was undertaken to study and focused on goat breeding management, health
*Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected]

1
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Bundi; 2Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kota
3
Rajasthan College of Agriculture, Udaipur & 4Krishi Vigyan Kendra- Hindaun, 323001

Table 1. Effect of education on change in knowledge level due to training.

Parameter Level of Education Number of trainees Per centage
(n=72)
Middle 21 29.16
Matric 29 40.27
Education
Senior secondary level 16 22.22
Graduation 6 8.33
management, feeding management, housing enhanced after training.

management, reproduction management and Well planned and proper breeding techniques
marketing strategy of goat farming. A set of 34 played a key role in successful goat farming. The
questionnaire containing information on different knowledge of trainees (Table 3) about Indian
aspects of goat farming were presented to goat and exotic breeds of goat (69.44 %) improved
farmers. The data were analyzed through paired’ significantly (P<0.05) after training (95.83 %). Only
test/ANOVA (Snedecor and Cochran, 1994) using 61.11 per cent trainees knew about age of puberty
the software package SPSS version 16 (SPSS, in goats, which is improved significantly (P<0.05)
2007). after training (94.44%). Knowledge about age of
first kidding, gestation period, kidding interval and
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION age of breedable bucks were 52.77, 58.33, 62.5 and
The results revealed that 26.16, 40.27 and 22.22 41.66 per cent which was improved significantly
per cent respondents were educated up to middle, (P<0.05) to 97.22, 83.33, 95.83 and 100 per cent,
metric and senior secondary level, respectively and respectively after training. Trainees (34.72%) didn’t
only 8.33 per cent trainees were graduate (Table 1). know about proper method of heat detection in
The data regarding knowledge level of goat trainees animals which was improved after training (80.55
about goat farming (Table 2) indicated that 79.41 %). Balanced and economical feeding was the base
per cent trainees belonged to low level of knowledge of successful goat farming. The study on knowledge
category. After acquiring training on goat farming, of farmers regarding feeding practices revealed
70.58 per cent (P<0.01) goat keepers possessed that in pre training evaluation, 36.11 per cent were
high level of knowledge and 23.52 per cent trainees knowing about method of correct feeding, after
possessed moderate level of knowledge about training 98.61 per cent farmers learned about proper
improved goat husbandry practices (Table 2). It feeding methods. The data revealed that before
indicated that farmer’s trainings were an efficient training, knowledge about time of offering water,
way to improve their knowledge. Sharma et al concentrate, types of offering feed grain, time of
(2014) also found that knowledge of the farmers offering feed and types of goat manger were 58.33,
Table 2. Distribution of goat owners based on their knowledge levels. (n=72)

Knowledge level Number of participants
Pre -Training Post -Training
Low (<17 score/<50%) 27 (79.41%) 2 (5.88%)
Moderate (17 to 25.5 score/50%-75%) 6 (17.6%) 8 (23.52%)
High (>25.5 score/>75%) 1 (2.94%) 24 (70.58%)

Table 3. Impact of training on knowledge levels of trainees on different aspects of goat farming.
Sr. No Parameter Correct responses (%) Mean correct responses
Pre training Post training Pre training Post training
A. Breeding Management
1. Breeds of goat 50 (69.44%) 69 (95.83%) 0.694 0.958
2. Age of puberty 44 (61.11 %) 68 (94.44%) 0.611 0.944
3. Age of first kidding 38 (52.77 %) 70 (97.22%) 0.527 0.972
4. Gestation period 42 (58.33%) 60 (83.33%) 0.583 0.833
5. Kidding interval 45 (62.5%) 69 (95.83%) 0.625 0.958
6. Age of breedable bucks 30 (41.66%) 72 (100%) 0.416 1.00
7. Detection of heat 25 (34.72%) 58 (80.55%) 0.347 0.805
B. Feeding management
8. Concentrate required 21 (29.16%) 43 (59.72%) 0.291 0.597
9. Method of feeding 26 (36.11%) 71 (98.61) 0.361 0.361
10. Time of offering water 42 (58.33%) 68 (94.44%) 0.583 0.944
11. Protein content of concentrate 15 (20.83%) 35 (48.61%) 0.208 0.486
12. Types of feed grain 20 (27.77%) 67 (93.05%) 0.277 0.930
13. Times of offering feed 18 (25.00%) 65 (90.27%) 0.250 0.907
14. Types of goat manger 30 (41.66%) 67 (93.05%) 0.416 0.930
C. Health Managements
15. Vaccination schedule 03 (4.16 %) 50 (69.44%) 0.416 0.694
16. External parasite control 10 (13.88%) 42 (58.33%) 0.583 0.833
17. Internal parasite control 04 (5.55%) 38 (52.77 % 0.555 0.527
18. Symptoms of diseases 05 (6.94%) 42 (58.33%) 0.694 0.583
19. Seasonable diseases 07 (9.72%) 40 (55.55%) 0.555 0.361
20. Treatment of sick animal 04 (5.55%) 35 (48.61%) 0.555 0.486
21. Knowledge about veterinary services 03 (4.16 %) 52 (72.22%) 0.416 0.722
22. Source of infestation 04 (5.55%) 62 (86.11%) 0.555 0.861
23. Quarantine of sick animals 05 (6.94%) 69 (95.83%) 0.694 0.958
24. Deworming Schedule 10 (13.88%) 68 (94.44%) 0.138 0.944
D. Housing Management
25. Direction of shed 18 (25.00%) 65 (90.27%) 0.250 0.907
26. Space requirement 10 (13.88%) 50 (69.44% 0.138 0.694
27. Cleaning method of shed and floor 30 (41.66%) 67 (93.05%) 0.416 0.930
28. Site selection of shed 30 (41.66%) 68 (94.44%) 0.416 0.944
E. Marketing Knowledge
29. Time of selling 21 (29.16%) 70 (97.22%) 0.291 0.972
30. Age of selling for meat purpose 34 (47.22%) 70 (97.22%) 0.472 0.972
31. Age of selling for breeding purpose 09 (12.5%) 67 (93.05%) 0.125 0.930
32. Selling according to weight 55 (76.38%) 71 (98.61%) 0.763 0.986
33. Selling according to breed 10 (13.88%) 68 (94.44%) 0.138 0.944
34. Selling of milk for medicinal purpose 22 (30.55%) 71 (98.61%) 0.305 0.986

20.83, 27.77, 25 and 41.66 per cent respectively, CONCLUSION

which were not appropriate for well nourishment of The scientific and proper knowledge is
goats whereas after acquiring training, knowledge needed for any successful enterprise. The present
level of goat farmers increased to 94.40, 48.61, study revealed that knowledge levels of farmers
93.05, 90.27 and 93.05 per cent, respectively. Data towards scientific goat farming was low and there
(Table 3) indicated that knowledge about common was significant (P<0.05) improvement in their
health management practices like vaccination knowledge after attending training on various
schedule, external parasite control, internal parasite aspects of goat farming, traditionally as well as
control, symptoms of diseases, seasonable diseases, scientifically. Hence, this study suggests that the
treatment of sick animal, knowledge about frequency of such training programmes should be
veterinary services, source of infection, quarantine increased.
of sick animals and deworming schedule was low
but there was a significant (P<0.05) improvement REFERENCES
in their knowledge after training on various aspects Anonymous (2021). Global hunger index report 2021, chapter
of goat keeping. Singh and Jadoun (2013) also - 01 pp: 13
reported positive improvement in the knowledge Aparna and Hundal, J S (2016). Impact of specialized trainings
status of the respondents after getting the training. of dairy farming on the knowledge level of farmers in
Punjab. Vet Sci Res J 7 (2): 79-82.
The knowledge on housing management
Noor K B N and Doha K (2011). Investigating training impact
practices like direction of shed, space requirement, on farmer’s perception and performance. Int J Humanities
cleaning methods and site selection of shed revealed Soc Sci 1(6): 145-152.
very low in pre training evaluation, in assessment Sharma M, Singh G and Keshava (2014). Impact evaluation
of post training the knowledge of trainees about of training programmes on dairy farming in Punjab state.
these practices increased significantly (P<0.05) to Indian Res J Ext Edu 14(1): 105-108.
90.27, 69.44, 93.05 and 94.44 per cent, respectively. Singh H (2012). Training and development: A prominent
Noor and Doha (2011) also reported that training determinant for improving HR productivity. Int Conf
had positive effect on the farmer’s perception and Manage and Edu Innov, IPEDR, Vol.37 IACSIT Press,
Singapore.
performance. Proper marketing skills and techniques
were also very necessary to make a profitable goat Singh R and Jadoun Y S (2013). Knowledge and adoption
level of animal husbandry practices among self-help
enterprise. The knowledge of farmers in term of
group women. Vet Pract 14 (1): 582-584.
marketing was found very low. Before training the
Snedecor G W and Cochran W G (1994). Statistical Methods.
basic marketing knowledge like time of selling, (8th edn.) Oxford and IBH Publications, New Delhi.
age of selling for meat purpose, age of selling for
breeding purpose, selling according to breed and
selling of milk for medicinal purpose was 29.16,
47.22, 12.5, 13.88 and 30.55 per cent, respectively
and found a significant (P<0.05) improvement
to 97.22, 97.22, 93.05, 94.44 and 98.61 per cent,
respectively after training. Aparna and Hundal
(2016) reported significantly high knowledge score
on breeding, feeding and management aspects after
acquiring training.


Lalita Rani1, Nisha Arya2 and Suman Sodhi3
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kurukshetra-136118
Department of Textile and Apparel Designing, COHS, CCSHAU, Hisar-125004 (Haryana)
ABSTRACT
The present study is based on economically deprived community of the Bhanjdas of Bargodam, Kalka
and Bowana villages, who usually depends on bamboos growing in the surrounding forest areas for
sustenance. These communities were traditionally practicing the bamboo basketry from three generations.
Their earning depends upon the growth of the bamboos in the forest areas. The earning could be enhanced
further if they market the produce themselves instead of entrusting the job to money lenders, who charge
exorbitant commission. The present study was conducted on 60 households in Kalka region, Panchkula
(Haryana) selecting twenty respondents from each village. The monthly earnings from making baskets
of different sizes ranged from Rs.2500-3000/- for baskets of the largest size to Rs.1500-1800/-for baskets
of the smallest size. The study also indicated that direct selling of baskets by villagers could increase the
monthly earnings of the community.
Key Words: Bamboo, Economically deprived, Employment, Forest, Traditional basketry.
INTRODUCTION be enhanced further if they market the produce
The Indian forest has 125 indigenous as well as themselves instead of entrusting the job to money
exotic species of bamboo belonging to 23 genera. lenders, who charge exorbitant commission.
Bamboo forests occupy an area of around 10.03 Joint Forest Management (JFM) has emerged
million ha, roughly 12.8 per cent of the total forest as an important forest management strategy and the
area in the country. Bamboo as a resource is used area under JFM now exceeds 14 million ha or 18
extensively as a source of sustainable livelihood per cent of the forest land. The JFM forests of the
in many parts of the country. The Bhanjdas of country are being managed by around 63,000 JFM
Bargodam, Kalka, and Bowana depends on bamboos groups. Although this large area has the potential
from the surrounding forest areas for sustenance. to meet a substantial part of the country’s forest
The Bhanjdas have benefited tremendously from product requirements, it is yet unclear whether JFM
the Joint Forest Management (JFM) programme forests can or even should be managed to yield any
since their monthly quota of bamboos has more commercial produce (Sarin, 1996).
than doubled, even as royalty has been reduced to
less than one-fourth. This helps to enhance their A very important institutional implication
income and, consequently, their sustainable living for the HFD in the context of JFM is the change
standards. Members of forest department claimed required in style of functioning, structure, and
that the ecology of surrounding forests will improve culture of the forest department. It is the cooperative
owing to the care taken by them while extracting relationship between the state and the local people
bamboos (they cut only three-year old bamboos and that the future direction of forest administration
decongest the congested clumps). The earning could lays. It was the only feasible option for meeting the
twin objective of ecological security and livelihood
DES Home-Science*, Assistant Professor**
1
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kurukshetra-136118
2,3
Department of Textile and Apparel Designing, COHS, CCSHAU, Hisar-125004

Table 1. Distribution of the respondents according to age and education. (n=60)

Sr. No. Age (in years) Frequency Per centage
1. Below 35 04 06.66
2. 35-45 10 16.66
3. 45-55 20 33.34
4. 55-65 26 43.34
Education
5. 1-5th 28 46.66
6. 6-8th 18 30.00
7. 10-12th 12 20.00
8. Graduation 02 03.34
security (Dhar 1994). According to TERI 1999b in the hilly belt of the Shivaliks. For their sustenance
studied on the issue of bamboo basket practicing and employment, this community is solely
has been found that monthly earnings from basket dependent on the bamboo from the forest areas for
making of different sizes ranged from 396 rupees making baskets. After formation of the state of the
(largest size) to 425 rupees (smallest size). Further, Haryana, the Haryana Forest Department (HFD)
15 days of employment was created every month has been issuing permits for bamboo extraction
from basket making. The study also indicated that to the Bhanjda settlements in Bargodam, Kalka,
direct selling of baskets by villagers could increase and Bowana to assist the development of these
the monthly earnings of the community. communities. Due to increasing population pressure
coupled with economic growth and the growth of
MATERIALS AND METHODS the market economy, jeopardized the ecological
The present study was conducted on 60 rural sustainability of the bamboo ecosystem in this area.
women who are engaged in making of bamboo
basketry for earning in Kalka region, District Socio-personal traits of the respondents
Panchkula (Haryana). For the present investigation, The socio-personal traits of the respondents
Kalka region (Haryana) was purposively selected, including age, education, domicile (region), type
mainly because of the striking selection of and size of the family and family income provide
utilitarian basketry products and special creative fairly good understanding of their background.
and imaginative craftsmanship of Kalka. The Distribution of the respondents according to their
present research has been conducted for basketry socio-personal traits has been presented in the
items for daily routine. The required data for the Table 1.
present study have been collected both from The maximum percentage of respondents i.e.,
primary and secondary sources. Primary data have 43.34 per cent were in age group 55-65 yr. The
been collected through the “Survey Method” with minimum number of the respondents i.e., 6.66 per
the help of structured questionnaire. Sixty rural cent was young (below 35 yr) who were making the
women artisans were covered in this survey. bamboo baskets. The data pertaining to education
revealed that the respondents were not highly
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION educated. It was interesting to note that 46.66 per
Bhanjdas community of Haryana cent women respondents were educated only up to
Bhanjdas, the basket making community of 1-5th class. Only 3.34 per cent of the respondents
Haryana, live mostly in the northern part of the state were found educated up to graduation level.

Table 3. Distribution of the respondents according to income and technical know-how. (n=60)
Sr. No. Income Frequency Per centage
1. 3000-5000 15 25.00
2. 5000-7000 15 25.00
3. 7000 and above 30 50.00
Learned craft from
4. Inherited 55 91.66
5. Learned from friends or others 05 8.34
It was observed that 50 per cent respondents various sections of the community as well as between
belonged to income range of Rs. 7000/- and above community and government officials. Hence, there
per month while 25 per cent respondents belonged is a need for capacity building of local communities
to income group of Rs 3000-7000/- per month. and a need for a management structure, which will
be based on equity.
Mode of learning of the skill
According to 91.66 per cent of the respondents,
basketry making was their ancestral work. Only
8.34 per cent of the respondents learned this craft
from their friends and others.
Regeneration of degraded forests policies
Joint Forest Management programme in
Haryana Shivaliks, and Hill Resource Management
Societies (HRMS) were formed comprising the
Bhanjdas communities of Bargodam, Kalka, and
Bowana. An MOU was signed between the HRMS
and the HFD for protection and management or
regeneration of degraded forests in lieu of shearing
the forest resources. Different studies showed on
assessing the impact of this unique model of joint
management, revealed that there has been marked
improvement in the socio-economic conditions in
those areas where HRMS has been formed. The
bamboo forest areas under joint management of the
society worked better and can sustain the supply
of the bamboos to Bhanjdas in future. This unique
system of management of bamboo resources in the
Shivalik involves a dynamic process of change,
socially, economically and environmentally as
well. Livelihood issues of local communities are
primarily integrated in the joint forest management
policies. However, land tenurial issues are not fully
settled and create insecurity among communities. Fig. 1. Rural women making bamboo baskets
Power relations and equity issues still exists among from the bamboo sticks

Table 4. Monthly income from bamboo baskets.

Sr. Variable Sizes of the baskets
No. Largest Large Medium Small
1. Bamboo stalk requirement per day (number) 5.00 4.30 4.00 3.00
2. Number of baskets made per day (number) 5 8 10 12
3. Selling price of the baskets (in rupees) 20 15 10 5
4. Monthly income in months (in rupees) 2500-3000 2200-2000 2500-3000 1500-1800
The data (Table 4) show that different government forest departments have struggled over
variables effects the incomes of the respondents the control of forest resources. State bureaucracies
from the bamboo basket making as most of the have prevailed in circles of law and political power
basketry products varied in sizes. In respect of the in their attempt to dominate nearly one‐quarter of
requirement of the bamboo stalks of the different India’s land area, but forest villages, because of
sizes of the baskets 5 number of the bamboo stalks their traditional rights, number, and proximity, have
were required for making of the one largest bamboo maintained their position as the principle resource
basket while small size of the bamboo basket was user. This case study provides an example of the
prepared with 3 number of the bamboo stalks. The new types of co‐management systems beginning
number of baskets developed by respondents per to evolve in India. Reviewing the experiences of
day i.e., 5 numbers in largest size baskets while the Haryana Forest Department and rope‐making
12 numbers of small baskets were prepared by the communities, the authors identify points of conflict
respondents in a day. In spite of these, the large and compromises emerging as new management
and medium size of the basketry was developed by agreements are formulated. Points of tension are
respondents i.e., 8 to 10 baskets per day. Further, 15 identified as communities attempt to compete with
days of employment was created every month from paper mills and local contractors for grass cutting
basket making. The study also indicated that direct leases. It is suggested that the grass leases be part
selling of the baskets by villagers could increase of an integrated watershed management agreement
the monthly earnings of the community depending that provides incentives to local communities to
upon the demands in the market. Selling price of the enhance the productive and sustainable use of the
baskets were Rs 20/- for largest bamboo baskets, Rs larger forest ecosystem.
15/- for large, Rs 10/- for medium bamboo basket
and Rs 5/- for small size of bamboo basket. Monthly CONCLUSION
income was found to be quite less, it accounted The bamboo forest areas under joint
for about Rs. 2500-3000/- for largest and medium management of the society are worked better
bamboo baskets, Rs. 2200-2000/- for large size of for upliftment of the rural women through their
the baskets while Rs. 1500-1800/- for small size of bamboo basketry craft and can sustain the supply
the bamboo baskets (Figure 1). of the bamboos to Bhanjdas in future. This unique
The traditional procurement of bamboo system of management of bamboo resources in
materials was regularized under JFM programme. the Shivalik forests involves a dynamic process
At present, each household is given a permit of of change, social, economic and environmental as
100 bamboos per month (from 15 September to well. Livelihood issues of local communities are
15 June) at a concessional royalty of 7 rupees. For primarily integrated in the joint forest management
more than a century in India, rural communities and policies.

REFERENCES
Dhar S K (1994). Rehabilitation of Degraded Tropical Forest
Watersheds with People’s Participation. Joint Forest
Management Series No. 16. Haryana Forest Department
and Tata Energy Research Institute, New Delhi.
Sarin M (1996). Joint Forest Management. The Haryana
Experience. Environment and Development Series.
Centre for Environment education, Ahmadabad.
TERI(1999b). Study on Joint Forest Management (TERI
Project Report No 98 SF 64). Tata Energy Research
Institute. New Delhi.

Influence of Rhizobium Inoculation on Yield, Growth Attributes

and Soil Fertility in Garden Pea
Ibajanai Kurbah, Bandana and N S Kaith
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Shimla at Rohru, Shimla-171207
Dr YS Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan (HP)
ABSTRACT
The field experiment was conducted during rabi 2020-2021 at experimental farm of Krishi Vigyan
Kendra, Rohru district Shimla to study the effects of Rhizobium application in pea crop on its yield, yield
attributes and soil nutrient status. The experiment comprised of five treatments i.e., Farmers’ practice (T1),
recommended dose of fertilizers (T2), 100 % NPK (T3), 75% N+ 100% PK+ Rhizobium (T4) and 60%
N+100% PK+ Rhizobium (T5). The experiment was laid out in a randomized block design with three
replications. The highest number of pods per plant, pod length, pod weight and yield were recorded in
T2 whereas highest number of seeds per pod was found in T4. Results revealed that 25per cent reduction
in chemical nitrogenous fertilizer in combination with biofertilizers (T4) give significantly similar yield,
number of pods per plant, pod length, seed per pod and pod weight in comparison to T2.
Key Words: Integrated nutrient management, Nutrients, Pea, Rhizobium, Soil, Yield.
INTRODUCTION et al, 2012; Bai et al, 2016; Muniz et al, 2017). Pea
Nitrogen is a major nutrient that is required (Pisum sativum L.) is one of the most important
in relatively large amount for proper growth and pulse crops that is popularly grown as vegetable
development of plants. It is one of the limiting in Shimla district of Himachal Pradesh. It is an
nutrients in Indian soils. Even though nitrogen is integral part of apple orchard cultivated during the
about 79% in the atmosphere, it requires to be fixed by rabi season. The average productivity of the state
certain microorganisms. Biofertilizer is a substance is comparatively higher than the national average
that contains living organisms that can either fix productivity (Anonymous, 2018). Nitrogen fixation
atmospheric nitrogen or solubilize soil phosphorus is sensitive to nitrogen level in soils and therefore,
or produce growth hormones for improving the soil the objective of this study was to compare the effects
fertility and as an alternative to reduce use of chemical of Rhizobium inoculation and nitrogen fertilizers
fertilizers. Biological nitrogen fixation is a process on growth and yield of garden pea.
that fixes atmospheric N in certain plants with the
help of micro-organism either through symbiotic MATERIALS AND METHODS
or non-symbiotic relationship. This biologically The field experiment was conducted during
and symbiotically fixed N decreases dependence rabi season 2020-2021 at the experimental farm of
on chemical fertilizers and therefore, reduces cost Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Rohru district Shimla. The
of cultivation and sustains soil health. Rhizobium site of the experimental farm is situated on 31.2151º
is the most important genus of the symbiotic N latitude and 77.7230º E longitude at 1525 m
microorganisms in leguminous crops. Symbiotic above the sea level. The experiment comprised of
relationship between pea crop and Rhizobium has five treatments (Table 1) i.e Farmers’ practice (T1),
been widely studied by many researchers (Kumari recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF, T2), 100 per
Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected], [email protected]

Table 1 Details of treatments.

Sr. No Treatment
1. Farmers Practice (no application of fertilizers) T1
2. Recommended dose (RDF) i.e., 100 kg/ha urea, 375 kg/ha SSP and 100 kg/ha MOP + 200 q/ T2
ha FYM
3. 100% NPK of RDF without FYM application T3
4. 75% N + 100% PK of RDF+ Rhizobium seed treatment T4
5. 60% N + 100%PK of RDF +Rhizobium seed treatment T5
cent NPK (T3) of RDF, 75% N+ 100per cent PK+ The data were subjected to statistical analysis
Rhizobium (T4) and 60per cent N+100per cent PK+ using the technique of analysis of variance for
Rhizobium (T5). The experiment was laid out in a randomized block design for interpretation of
randomized block design with three replications. results as outlined by Gomez and Gomez (1984).
Application of FYM, P and K source of fertilizers
were done during land preparation. Nitrogen RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
application was done in split doses i.e., the first half Effect on yield attributes
applied during land preparation and the second dose The effect of different nutrient management
was again divided equally and was applied after a on growth parameters is shown in table 2. The
month of sowing and the last dose applied after number of pods per plant, pod length, pod weight
flowering. Rhizobium inoculant was developed by was found highest in T2 (100% NPK + FYM).
Department of Soil Science and Water Management The highest number of pods per plant in T2 was
of Dr YS Parmar University of Horticulture and found significantly similar with T3 (100 % NPK)
Forestry, Nauni, Solan. For seed treatment, sticker and T4 (Rhizobium treatment + 75% N + 100%
solution was prepared and pea seeds were mixed PK). Similarly, there was no significant differences
thoroughly and then air dried. The seed coated with between T2, T3 and T4 with respect to pod length
rhizobial cells were then sown in the field. and pod weight. The seeds per pod was found
Plant parameters such as number of pods maximum in T4 with the value of 10.13 and was
per plant, pod length, number of seeds per pod significantly at par with T2, T3 and T5. The results
and pod weight were recorded from 10 random showed that reduction of chemical fertilizer N by
plants and yield was recorded on plot basis. After 25per cent can be substituted by application of
harvest, soil samples were collected for analysis biofertilizers. Similar findings were reported by
of soil parameters viz., soil reaction (pH), organic Qureshi et al (2015) and Sharma et al (2016).
carbon and soil available nitrogen (N), phosphorus
(P) and potassium (K). The methods used were Effect on yield
potentiometric method for soil pH (Jackson, 1973), The highest yield (184.7 q/ha) was recorded in
Walkey and black titration method for soil organic T2 which was statistically similar with treatment
carbon (Walkley and Black, 1934), soil available T3 and T4 and lowest yield in T1 (166.7 q/ha).
N by extraction using alkaline KMnO4 (Subiah Application of Rhizobium along with chemical
and Asijah, 1956), extraction by 0.5 M NaHCO3 fertilizer improved the yield and other yield
colorimetric method for soil available P (Olsen et attributing characters. Thus, it can be concluded that
al, 1954) and extraction by 1 N NH4OAc flame chemical fertilizers can be replaced by integrated
photometric method for soil available K (Jackson, use of chemical fertilizers and biofertilizers for
1973). yield. The findings agree with the finding of Sharma

Table 2 Effect of integrated nutrient management on yield attributes and yields of garden pea.
Treatment Number of pods Pod length (cm) Seed per pod Pod weight (g) Yield/ ha (q/ha)
per plant
T1 13.47 8.77 6.60 4.86 166.67
T2 17.80 11.63 10.07 6.59 184.67
T3 16.13 10.43 9.20 6.02 178.67
T4 16.27 10.13 10.13 5.97 180.67
T5 14.40 9.53 8.87 5.26 175.67
CD 1.80 1.59 1.53 1.06 8.71
et al (2016); Kumari et al (2012) and Qureshi and CONCLUSION

Bashir (2016). The results revealed that combined application
of chemical fertilizers and biofertilizers has
Effect on soil nutrient status positive effect on yield, yield attributes of pea and
Soil reaction ranged between 5.60 to 5.80 soil nutrient status. Application of Rhizobium can
and all treatments were significantly similar. Soil reduce dependence on chemical fertilizers. It may
organic carbon was found highest in T2 followed be concluded that integrated nutrient management
by T5, T4, T1 and T3. The lowest value in T3 must can be considered one of the best management
be due to zero application of organic manure. Data practices to improve yield and soil fertility.
also revealed that RDF treatment recorded the
highest value of soil available N, P and K. The
REFERENCES
maximum value of soil available N, P and K was Anonymous. (2018). National Horticultural Board. http/www.
481.0, 46.7 and 271.3 kg/ha respectively. Combined nhb.gov.in
application of chemical fertilizers and rhizobium Bai B, Suri Vinod K, Kumar Anil and Choudhary Anil
improved the soil nutrient status in comparison to K (2016). Influence of Glomus–Rhizobium symbiosis on
farmers’ practice. The soil available N, P and K productivity, root morphology and soil fertility in garden
in RDF treatment were statistically at par with T3 pea in Himalayan acid Alfisol. Commun Soil Sci Plant
Anal 47(6): 787-798.
and T4. This proved that chemical fertilizers can
be compensated by Rhizobium application. This De Nirmal, Singh Rajiv Kumar, Kumar Ajeet and Singh J
(2006). Effect of Organic inputs and biofertilizers on
finding was in close agreement with the study of De biomass, quality and yield parameters of vegetable pea
et al (2006); Sharma et al (2015); Singh et al (2016) (Pisum sativum L.) Int J Agric Sci 2 (2): 6-8.
and Bai et al (2016). Gomez GA and Gomez AA (1984). Statistical Procedures for
Agricultural Research. John Wiley and Sons, New York
p 680.
Table 3 Effect of integrated nutrient management on soil nutrient status.

Treatment pH SOC (%) N (kg/ha) P (kg/ha) K (kg/ha)
T1 5.67 0.67 313.7 28.0 243.3
T2 5.67 0.99 481.0 46.7 271.3
T3 5.60 0.53 480.7 41.3 266.7
T4 5.80 0.74 397.0 41.0 269.3
T5 5.80 0.75 293.0 42.3 266.0
CD NS 0.25 94.2 8.8 15.9

Jackson ML (1973). Soil Chemical Analysis. Prentice Hall. Sharma N, Thakur KS, Kumar M and Kansal S (2016). Effect
Inc. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA. of conjoint application of biofertilizers, organic manures
Kumari Anupma, Singh ON and Kumar Rakesh (2012). Effect and inorganic nutrients on growth, yield, quality and
of integrated nutrient management on growth, seed yield economics of pea. Green Farming 7(1): 138-142.
and economics of field pea (Pisum Sativum L.) and soil Sharma Vishal, Bindra, Gupta Ajay, Khalsa Gurpreet Singh
fertility changes. J Food Legumes 25(2): 121-124. (2015). Influence of various sources of nutrients on yield
Muniz AW, Costa MD, Enilson Luiz Saccol De Sa, Fiuza AB and quality of garden pea under dry temperate conditions
and Brose E (2017). Symbiotic efficiency of Pea (Pisum of HP. J Hill Agric 6(2). 189-192.
Sativum) Rhizobia association under field conditions. Singh Mandhata, Deokaran and Bhatt B (2016). Effect
African J Agric Res 12(32): 2582- 2585. of integrated nutrient management on soil fertility,
Olsen SR, Cole CV, Watanabe FS and Dean LA (1954). productivity and profitability of garden pea. J Krishi
Estimation of available phosphorus by extraction with Vigyan 5(1): 29-33
sodium carbonate. U.S.D.A. Circ No. 939: 19-33. Subbiah B V and Asija G L (1956). A rapid procedure for the
Qureshi F, Bashir U and Tahir Ali (2015). Effect of integrated determination of available nitrogen in soils. Current Sci
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yield of field pea (Pisum Sativum L.) cv. Rachna. Legum Walkley A and Black I A (1934). An examination of the
Res 38(5):701-703. Degtjareff (wet acid) method for determining soil organic
Qureshi Fozia and Bashir Uzma (2016). Effect of integrated matter and a proposed modification of the chromic acid
nutrient management on sustainable production and titration method. Soil Sci. 37: 29-38.
profitability of field pea (Pisum Sativum L.) and soil Received on 21/12/2022 Accepted on 10/3/2023
fertility in subtropical conditions. Legum Res 39(1): 101-
105.


Subin K Mohan 1, Anand Raju 2, Baby Roshni 2, Anoop E P 2, Mevin Sabu 2, Demian C Johnson 3
College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, Thrissur, Kerala-680651
ABSTRACT
An explorative research design was selected for the study. The study was conducted among 60 respondents
of 3 block-panchayats purposively using a multi-stage sampling technique viz., Ollukkara, Chalakkudy and
Wadakkanchery of Thrissur district in Kerala. The respondents of the study were farmers who cultivated
and sold fodder for livelihood at the time of data collection. An institutional support system refers to any
organizational or institutional agency working in the study area having a direct or indirect influence on the
process of entrepreneurship among fodder cultivators. A semi-structured interview schedule was developed
for the purpose and the data thus collected were analysed using SPSS 21.0. The majority (55%) of
respondents received moderate institutional support (with a mean score of 11.5 - 17.7). The results indicated
that the institutional support of various agencies was moderate and that the entrepreneurs expected a higher
level of support. Organizational-level changes are needed to sort this out. On the other hand, appropriate
extension efforts have to be taken to disseminate such information to the entrepreneurs.
Key Words: Entrepreneur, Entrepreneurship, Farmer, Fodder, Institutional Support System
INTRODUCTION agencies. The support systems aid in the emergence

Human resources are still untapped in India and development of the entrepreneur by channelling
and this could be made achievable through their energy into various duties linked to their
entrepreneurship development. The development business.
of entrepreneurship among rural people is being The value of fodder production is now widely
acknowledged as a strategy for achieving total acknowledged and its unavailability is one of
farming community growth. Entrepreneurship the major constraints in the dairy sector. Due to
motivation among farming communities could the ever-increasing human population and the
alleviate their poverty and unemployment. pressing demands of most small and marginal
“Entrepreneur is one who starts or assumes control farmers for food, fiber, and commercial crops,
of a business or other independent enterprise, often the area under fodder has been unable to rise
employing innovation and more than an ordinary over the last 20 yr (Meena, 2015). The potential
3 degree of risk” (Machindra, 2021). Institutional farmers can come together, form groups, and start
innovation in the provision of services and inputs farming activities with assistance from banks or
is critical for the sustainable development of other financial institutions with technical support
smallholder farmers. An institutional support (Gitte et al, 2021). Fodder entrepreneurship has
system refers to any organizational or institutional potential scope in places like Kerala where there
agency having a direct or indirect influence on the less availability of common lands for grazing. The
process of entrepreneurship. The various policies study was undertaken to analyze the support that
and schemes of government assistance for rural farmers received from various institutions and their
industry development are put into action by various perceptions pertaining to it.
1
Assistant Professor, Department of Vety & A.H. Extension.
2
B.V.Sc & A.H. Students 3
M.V.Sc Students

Table 1. Extent of support received from various institutions as perceived by the fodder
entrepreneurs n=60
Sr. No. Level of institutional support f per
cent
1 High support (>17.7) 12 20
2 Moderate support (mean score of 11.5 - 17.7) 33 55
3 Low support (<11.5) 15 25
Mean: 14.62, SD: 3.10, SE: 0.401
MATERIALS AND METHODS received low support (25% with a mean score
An explorative research design with a multi- of less than 11.5 and respondents who received
stage sampling technique was adopted for the study. high support (20% with a mean score of more
Thrissur district of Kerala State was purposively than 17.7). The extent of support from various
selected because there was an emerging trend institutions was also assessed as low, medium, and
among the farmers of Thrissur district in adopting high categories, the weighted score was calculated,
fodder cultivation as an entrepreneurial unit as ranked, and based on this State departments were
per expert opinion and available secondary data. ranked first followed in rank order by family and
The study was conducted at the block-panchayat other members, NGOs, Research institutes/ KVKs,
level. Three block panchayats viz., Ollukkara, commercial banks, NABARD funding through
Chalakkudy and Wadakkanchery were selected various agencies, relatives, and money lenders.
from the Thrissur district using a purposive Fodder scarcity is a constraint in dairy production,
sampling technique where there was an increasing and fodder entrepreneurship could be a possible
trend of fodder entrepreneurship, as per relevant remedy. State departments focus on the area, but
secondary data. The respondents of the study were still, the fodder entrepreneurs received moderate
fodder entrepreneurs who cultivated and sell fodder institutional support is worth alarming.
for livelihood at the time of data collection. Twenty
respondents will be randomly selected from the Frequency of contact
selected block panchayats, thus a total number Majority (66%) of the respondents belonged to
of 60 respondents will be selected for the final the category with a moderate frequency of contact
(11.9-18.8) with various institutions followed
study. An institutional support system in the study
was operationally defined as any organizational by the category with a high frequency of contact
or institutional agency working in the study (more than 18.8) with various institutions (18%)
and low frequency of contact (less than 11.5)
area that has a direct or indirect influence on the
entrepreneurship process of fodder cultivators. A with various institutions (16%) respectively. The
semi-structured interview schedule was developed frequency of institutional contact was also assessed
for the purpose. The collected data were analysed as very often, often and seldom categories, the
using SPSS 21.0, interpreted, and reported. weighted score was calculated, ranked, and based
on this State departments were more frequently
contacted institutions, followed in rank order by
family, commercial banks, research institutes/
Extent of support KVKs, NABARD funding through various
Majority (55%) of the respondents received agencies, Cooperative societies, NGOs, Private
moderate institutional support (with a mean score money lenders, and relatives. State departments
of 11.5 - 17.7), followed by respondents who

Table 2. Classification of the institutions based on the extent of support received as perceived by the
fodder entrepreneurs. n=60
Sr. family/agencies Extend of support Frequency Percentage Weighed Rank
No. score
1. Family and other Low (1) 24 40 108 II
farmers Medium (2) 24 40
High (3) 12 20
2. State departments Low 24 40 114 I

Medium 18 30
High 18 30
3. RIs and KVKs Low 37 61.7 88 IV
Medium 18 30
High 5 8.3
4. NABARD funding Low 46 76.7 80 VI
through various Medium 8 13.3
agencies High 6 10
5. Commercial banks Low 45 75 82 V
Medium 8 13.3
High 7 11.7
6. Relatives Low 49 81.7 75 VII
Medium 7 11.7
High 4 6.7
7. NGOs Low 34 56.7 101 III
Medium 11 18.3
High 15 25
8. Private money Low 54 90 66 VIII
lenders Medium 6 10
High 0 0
Table 3. Frequency of institutional contact as perceived by the fodder entrepreneurs n=60

Sr. No. Frequency of contact f per cent
1 High frequency of contact (>18.8) 11 18
2 Moderate frequency of contact (mean score of 11.9-18.8) 40 66
3 Low frequency of contact (<11.9) 9 16
Mean: 15.33, SD: 3.44, SE: 0.444

Table 4. Ranking of institutions based on frequency of contact as perceived by the fodder

entrepreneurs n=60
Agencies Frequency of contact Weighed Rank
Very often often Seldom score
Commercial bank 46 3 11 155 III
State departments 52 3 5 167 I
Cooperative societies 24 24 12 132 VI
NABARD funding through various agencies 26 29 5 141 V
Private money lenders 13 25 22 111 VIII
Research institutes/ KVKs 37 18 5 152 IV
Family and other farmers 42 12 6 156 II
NGOs 22 22 16 126 VII
Relatives 13 14 33 100 IX
Table 5. Usefulness of institutions as perceived by the fodder entrepreneurs n=60

Sr. No. Useful f per cent
1 Very useful (>16.6) 15 25
2 Moderately useful (mean score of 9.6-16.6) 37 62
3 Less useful (<9.6) 8 13
Mean: 13.13, SD: 3.5, SE: 0.452
Table 6. Ranking of institutions based on the usefulness of its support as perceived by the fodder
entrepreneurs. n=60
Sr. No. Agencies Perceived usefulness Weighed Rank
Less useful Very score
useful useful
1. State departments 18 21 21 117 I
2. Commercial banks 17 21 22 115 II
3. Research institutes/KVK 12 21 27 105 III
4. NGOs 9 22 29 100 IV
5. NABARD funding through various agencies 9 21 30 99 V
6. Family and other farmers 5 25 30 95 VI
7. Cooperative society 8 13 39 89 VII
8. Private money lender 1 6 53 68 VIII
9. Relatives 1 4 55 66 IX

Table 7. Classification of institutions based on the nature of support received as perceived by the
fodder entrepreneurs. n=60
Sr. Type of help Financial Technological Motivational Input No help
No.
f % f % f % f % f %
1. Commercial banks 34 56.67 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 26 43.33
2. NGOs 31 51.67 3 5.00 2 3.33 2 3.33 22 36.67
3. State departments 24 40.00 20 33.33 20 33.33 13 21.67 21 35.00
4. Research institutes/KVKs 0 0.00 22 36.67 15 25.00 26 43.33 1 1.67
5. NABARD funding 45 75.00 4 6.67 0 0.00 0 0.00 10 16.67
through various agencies
6. Friends and other farmers 24 40.00 6 10.00 22 36.67 0 0.00 8 13.33
7. Relatives 18 30.00 1 1.67 27 45.00 5 8.33 9 15.00
8. Private money lenders 53 88.33 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 6 10.00
9. Cooperative societies 18 30.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 42 70.00
Table 8. Institutions preferred by fodder producers in an organized credit system for credits/ loans
n=60
Sr. No Criteria Nationalized Cooperative Private
banks societies banks
1. Easy Access 23 30 7
2. Processing Time 20 33 7
3. Interest Rate 15 40 5
4. Easiness for payment 17 38 5
5. Familiarity with the institution 20 33 7
6. Total score 95 174 31
7. Weighted Score 19 34.8 6.2
have various projects related to fodder production, order by commercial banks, research institutes/
this could be the reason for the high frequency of KVKs, NGOs, NABARD funding through various
contact with the State departments. But, it’s worth agencies, family, cooperative societies, private
mentioning that entrepreneurs have a moderate money lenders, and relatives.
frequency of contact with supporting institutions.
Nature of support
Perceived usefulness Among the nature of support from various
The majority (62%) of respondents perceived the institutions, the majority (83.33%) of the
institutions which support fodder entrepreneurship respondents received financial support from private
as moderately useful (9.5 - 16.6), followed by money lenders followed by NABARD funds
respondents who perceived it as very useful (>16.6, through various agencies. Most of the respondents
25%), and finally, respondents who perceived it as (36.67%) received technological support from
less useful (<1.5, 13%). Among the criteria, State research institutes followed in rank order by State
departments were ranked first followed in the rank departments. Motivational support was received

Table 9. Financial institutions’ preference for organized credit system as perceived by the fodder
entrepreneurs n=60
Sr No. Preference level f %
1 Highly preferred (>11.7) 7 11
2 Moderate preferred (mean score of 6.1-11.7) 40 66
3 Less preferred (<6.1) 14 23
Mean: 8.93, SD: 2.83, SE: 0.37
from relatives by most (45.00%) of the respondents support fodder entrepreneurs in the corresponding
followed by friends and other farmers (36.67%). mandates. This is worth alarming. Fodder
Most of the respondents (43.33%) received entrepreneurship is not only a mitigating measure
inputs from research institutes followed by state for the unavailability of fodder but also a potential
departments. The findings were similar to those of scope for sustainable livelihood development
Kephe et al (2022). Among the organized agencies through entrepreneurship activities. The results of
preferred by fodder entrepreneurs for credit facilities, the study could help in revising the existing policies
cooperative societies ranked first with an average of the support institutions. There exists a potential
score of 34.80 followed in rank order by nationalized scope for future research in the same area in other
banks (19.00) and private banks (6.20). But it was parts of the country and also an in-depth analysis
quite alarming that the majority of respondents of the institutional support systems in other areas
didn’t receive any help for cooperatives pertaining of the entrepreneurship activities pertaining to the
to fodder entrepreneurship from the cooperatives livestock sector.
societies, which needed to be sorted out (Table 7).
The majority (66%) of the respondents belonged to REFERENCES
the category which moderately preferred (6.1-11.2) Gitte M J, Meshram S J, Sawant B T, Patil S V, Naik B V,
the aforesaid institutions for loan/economic support Dhamgaye H B and Arekar J S (2021) Study on Aqua-
entrepreneurship in Litopenaeus vannamei Culture in
followed by the category which less preferred Raigad district of Maharashtra. J Krishi Vigyan 9 (2):
institutions (23.00%, < 6.1) and a category with 221-224 DOI: 10.5958/2349-4433.2021.00041.6
highly preferred institutions (> 11.2) for loan/ Kephe P N, Ayisi K K and Petja BM (2020) A Decision
economic support (11%). Support System for Institutional Support to Farmers
in the Face of Climate Change Challenges in Limpopo
CONCLUSION Province. Heliyon. 3:6(11) doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.
e04989. PMID: 33195830; PMCID: PMC7644883.
Timely institutional support needs to be
in place to promote the development of social Machindra P K (2021) Entrepreneurial Behaviour of Rural
Youth about Agri Entrepreneurship. M.Sc. thesis, College
entrepreneurship. The present study analyses the
of Agriculture, Parbhani. 154p.
prevailing institutional support system in fodder
entrepreneurship. The perceived level of extent of Meena D K (2015) A Comprehensive Study on Fodder
Production and its Utilization Pattern in Semi-Arid Zone
institutional support, usefulness, frequency, and of Rajasthan. PhD thesis, NDRI, Karnal, 187p.
even for financial institutes among organized credit
systems were moderate. Some institutions didn’t

Knowledge Index on Scientific Poultry Farming

among Online Trainees
T R Induja1, Bimal P Bashir2, Anjali K Babu2, G N Chethan3,
S Alimudeen1 and T A Arul Sabareeswaran1
Department of Veterinary and Animal Husbandry Extension Education,
College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Pookode, Wayand-673576 (Kerala)
ABSTRACT
Indian poultry sector is a profitable industry with enormous growth potential. Poultry farming is regarded as
a crucial self-employment tool since it provides a wide range of opportunities for generating income among
socio-economically weaker section. During and after COVID -19 pandemic, many extension services
provided through technology enabled webinars to the farmers. The Department of Veterinary and Animal
Husbandry Extension Education, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Pookode organized webinars
for poultry farmers in July 2021. The present study was aimed to measure the farmer’s knowledge about
scientific poultry farming practices. The data were collected from 70 farmers by using semi-structured
interview schedule through google form. The overall knowledge index was 66.86 per cent. Most of the
farmers possessed medium level of knowledge about scientific poultry farming practices (60.0%). Further,
80.57 per cent of the farmers were having knowledge about breed and breeding management in poultry
farming.
Key Words: Farmers, Knowledge Index, Poultry, Webinar.
INTRODUCTION it was 63 units/annum (Economic Survey, 2021-

India is the third-largest egg producer in the 2022). A healthy adult human needs at least 180
world after China and the USA and the fourth-largest eggs and 10 kg of chicken annually, which means
chicken producer in the world after China, Brazil the Indian poultry sector is loaded with immense
and the USA (FAO). The value of the Indian poultry business potential and is now growing at a rate of
industry is approximately Rs. 80,000 crores and is 8-10 per cent per annum. During the years 2021–
broadly divided into two sub-sectors: one is a highly 2022, the nation exported 320,240.46 MT of
organized commercial sector that accounts for about poultry products to the world for a total of Rs.
80 per cent of the total market share and the other 529.81 Crores/71.04 USD Millions with major
is an un-organized sector with about 20 per cent of export destinations to Oman and Maldives
the total market share (Ministry of Agriculture & (APEDA, 2022).
Farmers Welfare, Government of India, 2015–16). As a consequence of COVID-19, farmers
Backyard poultry offers high-quality protein in the can also receive extension consulting services
form of meat and eggs, which reducing malnutrition through a technologically advanced webinar.
among rural poorer. Reducing poverty, improving Department of Veterinary and Animal husbandry
nutrition, and increasing revenue among rural poor Extension Education, College of Veterinary and
families are the main goals of the development of Animal Sciences, Pookode and Directorate of
backyard poultry systems. (Budharam et al, 2021). Entrepreneurship, Kerala Veterinary and Animal
In 2021, the nation’s per capita egg availability was Sciences University jointly organized many
reported to be 90 units/annum, while in Kerala,
1
M.V.Sc. Scholar 2
Asstt. Professor 3
Ph.D. Scholar

Table 1. Distribution of respondents according to their knowledge level. n=70.

Sr. No. Knowledge category Frequency Per cent
1. Low knowledge level (<13.17 score) 17 24.29
2. Medium knowledge level (score between 13.17 to 20.25) 42 60.00
3. High knowledge level (>20.25 score) 11 15.71
Mean=16.71, Standard deviation= 3.54
webinars for different categories of farmers during Medium knowledge level = Scores between (Mean
and after pandemic. With this background, the knowledge score – Standard deviation to (Mean
study was conceived with the objective to measure knowledge score + Standard Deviation))
the knowledge level of poultry farmers in Kerala on High knowledge level = Scores above (Mean
scientific poultry farming practices. knowledge score + Standard Deviation)
MATERIALS AND MEHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

For the present study semi-structured interview The data (Table 1) revealed that the majority
schedule was prepared in consultation with the (60%) of the poultry farmers belonged to medium
subject matter specialist and published literature. level knowledge category, followed by the low
Investigator-made knowledge test was developed level knowledge category (24.29%) whereas, only
to measure the knowledge about scientific poultry 15.71 per cent of the respondents were having a
farming practices and was formulated based on high level of knowledge about the scientific poultry
the package of practices recommendations in 2016 farming practices. According to Jat and Yadav
published by Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences (2012), the majority of respondents had a medium
University. The data were collected through google level of knowledge, which is in agreement with the
forms. The responses were given scores. One results. The high and medium levels of knowledge
score was given for each correct answer and a zero among the farmers may be because of the high
score for the wrong answer. The collected data levels of literacy, extension orientation, and social
were tabulated and analysed by using appropriate participation. According to Bashir et al( 2022)
statistical analysis. The knowledge index of each training can also prove to improve the knowledge
respondent was calculated by using the following level of trainees in their core competent area as well.
formula:
The knowledge of the farmers was assessed
Total knowledge score under five domains of poultry farming such as
Knowledge obtained selection and management, breeding management,
x 100
Index (KI) = Maximum obtainable feeding practices, health care and vaccination and
score housing management. A perusal of data (Table 2)
The mean and standard deviation of the scores showed that the majority (80.57%) of the farmers
of all the respondents were computed for classifying were having high knowledge index regarding
the knowledge level of the farmers. The farmers breeding management practices, followed by
were categorized into three levels of knowledge i.e. knowledge about health care and vaccination
low, medium and high. The following considerations (77.71%). The knowledge regarding selection and
were made for categorization. management and feeding practices were 75.71 and
58.33 per cent respectively. Knowledge level on
Low knowledge level = Score below (Mean housing management was lower (45.42%) compared
knowledge score – Standard Deviation) to other farming practices. This contradicts the

Table 2. Practice-wise comparison between knowledge levels of poultry farmers.

Sr. No. Particular Knowledge Index(%)
1 Selection and management 75.71
2 Breed and Breeding management 80.57
3 Feeding practices 58.33
4 Health care and vaccination 77.71
5 Housing management 45.42
Table 3. Knowledge level of poultry farmers about Selection and management practices of poultry
farming.
Sr. No. Component of knowledge The percentage of The percentage of
respondents giving the respondents giving the
correct answer wrong answer
1 Days required for hatching chicken egg in 88.57%, 21 days 30 days,18 days (11.43%)
hatcheries
2 Criteria for selection of hatching egg 81.43%, No crack in eggshell, Egg
All the above size, Egg should be clean
(18.57%)
3 Number of turning of egg required in the 47.14%, 4-6 10,2,0 (52.86%)
incubator
4 Method to monitor the egg fertility 85.71%, Candling Cleaning, Turning
(14.29%)
findings of Sihag et al (2021) who reported that the It can be inferred (Table 5) that the majority of
majority of the poultry farmers knew the housing the farmers (81.43%) knew about the importance of
management of poultry. feeding maize for meeting the energy requirement
The data in table 3 explained that comparatively of poultry, 74.29 per cent had knowledge about the
the farmers had good knowledge about the days for daily feed requirement of the adult birds, nearly
hatching the chicken egg in hatcheries (88.57%). 72.86 per cent knew that the soybean used as the
Followed by knowledge about candling, the method protein source in poultry feed and 51.43 per cent
to monitor egg fertility (85.71%), criteria for the knew about the importance of calcium feeding
selection of hatching eggs (81.43%), the number of of laying hen and 35.71 per cent and 34.29 per
turning eggs required in the incubator (47.14%). cent had knowledge about factor determining the
feed requirement of an adult bird and feeding of
It was observed that the respondents had good
chick starter respectively. These findings were in
knowledge about the different breeds of poultry like
accordance with the findings obtained by Babu
Thallesheri (88.57%), Gramasree (87.14%) and
(2013) and Bunkar (2016).
Kadaknadh (81.43%). Also, the farmers were well
aware of the ratio of males and females in poultry It was noted 6 that the farmers had good
houses (85.71%). There was a misunderstanding knowledge about health care practices like
among the farmers about the reason behind the Newcastle disease vaccination in poultry (87.14%),
rapid growth of broiler birds, only 60 per cent of poultry diseases like coccidiosis (78.57%), whereas
the farmers knew that genetic factor is responsible only 45.71 per cent of the farmers knew about the
for the rapid growth of the broiler birds. age of poultry for R2B vaccination of poultry and

Table 4. Knowledge level of poultry farmers about Breed and breeding management of poultry
farming.
respondents giving respondents giving the
1 Ratio of males and females in poultry 1:10 (85.71%) 1:01, 2:1, 10:1 (14.29%)
houses
2 Reason behind the rapid growth of broiler Genetics (60%) GH, All the above (40%)
chicken
3 Indigenous breed of poultry Thallesheri (88.57%) Thallasheri, Gramapriya,
Gramalakshmi (11.43%)
4 Poultry breed with black-coloured skin Kadaknadh (81.43%) Gramapriya, Aseel,
and body Thallasheri (18.57%)
5 Backyard poultry breed developed by the Gramasree (87.14%) Astrolop, Wight Leghorn,
KVASU All the above (12.86%)
Table 5. Knowledge level of poultry farmers about feeding practices of poultry farming
respondents giving respondents giving the
1 Factor determining the feed requirement in Body wt (35.71%) Age, Health, Feather
poultry growth (64.29%)
2 Main ingredients in the feed of laying hen Calcium (51.43%) Protein, Energy, Vitamin
(48.57%)
3 Chick starter can be fed up to what age 8 wk (34.29%) 4weeks, 6 weeks, 10
weeks (65.71%)
4 The highest amount of energy in poultry Maize (81.43%) Wheat, Rice, Finger millet
feed is provided by (18.57%)
5 Main ingredient that provides protein in Soybean (72.86%) Wheat, Maize, Bran
broiler feed (27.14%)
6 Feed requirement of poultry in cage system 120g (74.29%) 30g, 50g, 70g (25.71%)
majority (84.29%) of the farmers had knowledge poultry house. 50 per cent of the farmers were
having knowledge about the measures to reduce
about the zoonotic potential of Avian Influenza and
deficiency of calcium in poultry. These findings the heat stress in poultry, but 34.29 per cent of
were in accordance with the findings obtained by the farmers knew about the effect of heat stress in
Bunkar et al (2021). poultry. These findings are in accordance with the
The data(Table 7) showed that 58.57 per cent findings obtained by Babu (2013) and Kumar et al
of the farmers had knowledge about the optimum (2017).
temperature for poultry farming and the equipment
used for measuring the relative humidity. It was CONCLUSION
found that only 25.71 per cent of the farmers had It can be concluded that the majority of the
knowledge about the maximum length of the poultry farmers belonged to the medium level of

Table 6. Knowledge level of poultry farmers about health care and vaccination of poultry.
respondents giving correct respondents giving
answer wrong answer
1 Leg weakness and thin eggshell in poultry Calcium (84.29%) Iron, Potassium,
is caused by Manganese (15.71%)
2 Age of poultry for R2B vaccination in 8 wk (45.71%) 6 wks, 1st day (54.29%)
poultry
3 Zoonotic diseases in poultry Avian Influenza (84.29%) Marecks disease,
Coccidiosis, IBD(15.71%)
4 Blood in faeces is a symptom of Coccidiosis (78.57%) Gout, Fowl pox, Avian
Influenza (21.43%)
5 Lasota vaccine used for the prophylaxis ND (87.14%) CRD, IBD, AI (12.86%)
of
Table 7. Knowledge level of poultry farmers about housing management practices of poultry.
Sr. No. Component of knowledge The percentage of The percentage of respondents
respondents giving giving the wrong answer
correct answer
1 The optimum temperature for 22⁰c-30⁰c (58.57%) 10⁰c-20⁰c,10⁰c-30⁰c, 35⁰c-50⁰c
rearing poultry (41.43%)
2 Equipment is used to measure the Wet and dry bulb Clinical thermometer, Laboratory
relative humidity thermometer (58.57%) thermometer, Minimum and
maximum thermometer (41.43%)
3 Heat stress in poultry will cause Thin eggshell (34.29%) Increased feed intake, Increased
egg production, Reduced water
intake (65.71%)
4 The maximum length of poultry Not more than 9 m As per the availability of land, 30
shed (25.71%) m, 100 m (74.29%)
Measures taken to reduce heat All the above (50%) Reduce the bird density, Provide
stress in poultry more water, Give feed in morning
and afternoon (50%)
knowledge, followed by the low level of knowledge REFERENCES

and less than one-fourth of the farmers were Babu P (2013). Knowledge and adoption level of commercial
having a high level of knowledge. The study also poultry farmers about scientific broiler farming in
Midwestern plain zone of Uttar Pradesh. Thesis, M.V.Sc.
revealed that the maximum knowledge was found Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, UP.
with respect to breed and breeding management
Bimal P, Bashir, Bipin K C and Anjali K B (2022). Effect
followed by health care and vaccination, selection of training on knowledge gain of livestock inspectors. J
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farmers possessed poor knowledge about housing Budharam J L, Choudhary and Lekhu K (2021). Practices
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Bunkar H S (2016). Problem and prospects of recommended Jat S M and Yadav J P (2012). Knowledge level of poultry
poultry farming practices in Jaipur district of Rajasthan. farmers about recommended poultry farming practices.
Ph.D. Thesis, Sri Karan Narendra Agricultural University, Indian Res J Ext Edu 12(1): 51-54.
Jobner, Jaipur. Sihag P, Sharma K C and Sharma R A and Badhala B S
Hanuman Sahay B, Bangarwa G S and Surendra K (2021). Measurement of knowledge of beneficiaries
(2021). Knowledge level of poultry farmers regarding about backyard poultry farming practices. J Progressive
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Microbiol App Sci 10(01): 820-838
Khandekar N and Sharma R P (2000). Investigation on
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Poul Sci XXXV (3): 262-265.

Knowledge level of Human-Avian Conflict Affected Farmers

M Assan Kasim1, K Senthilkumar2*, P Thilagar3 and SPrathaban4
Post Graduate Research in Animal Sciences, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and
Animal Sciences University (TANUVAS)
ABSTRACT
The present study was conducted in Thanjavur and Coimbatore districts of Tamil Nadu, which was purposively
selected considering the highest incidence of crop losses due to peacock and parakeet, respectively. In these
districts, two villages per district were selected. A total number of 150 farmers (120 HAC affected farmers
and 30 HAC unaffected farmers) were identified for the present research work to collect the primary data.
Nearly one-half of the farmers possessed medium level of knowledge with regard to various Human Avian
Conflict (HAC). It was observed that the mean knowledge scores for human-peafowl conflict, human-
parakeet conflict and HAC unaffected farmers were 23.20, 17.75 and 12.75 respectively. Human-peafowl
conflict farmers had high knowledge on HAC.
Key Words: Avian, Birds, Crop, Conflict, Human, Knowledge, Loss.
INTRODUCTION harvesting. The problem of crop damage by birds

Rice, one of the most important cereal crops is faced by the farmers and the losses due to crop
worldwide, has the potential to play a significant role depredation by birds are significant in terms of
in achieving global food security. However, several the gross crop yield (Canavelli et al, 2014). The
biotic and abiotic stresses seriously jeopardize this cropland species are mostly depend on grains,
potential. According to Oerke (2006), about 15 per seeds, fruits, green vegetation of the crop plants
cent of global rice production is lost to animal pests and grasses, insects, other arthropods, and rodents
(arthropods, nematodes, rodents, birds, slugs and found in the soil, crops, and other plants. Birds
snails). Kale et al (2014) revealed that wide varieties create negative impact on most of the agricultural
of crops attracted by the birds which may leads to activities. The presence of insectivorous birds
significant damage to the crop yield. Black vultures in croplands is beneficial to farmers up to some
have been identified by U.S. livestock producers extent. In Tamil Nadu, as a common remedy to the
as a threat through depredation of neonate cattle problem, attempts are regularly being made by the
(Kluever et al, 2020), horses (Equus ferus caballus), famers to reduce crop losses from birds. But most
sheep (Ovis aries), goats (Capra aegagrus hircus), of the farmers follow the traditional practices for
domestic swine, and farm-raised deer (Odocoileus controlling birds. Keeping these points in view, the
virginianus; Lowney, 1999; Avery and Cummings, current study was carried out with the objective
2004). Birds can cause damage to the crops in of assessing the knowledge human-avian conflicts
all stages right from, sowing and planting till among the farmers in the study area.
* Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected]

1- Veterinary Asst. Surgeon, Kadaiyanallur, Tamil Nadu, 2- Assistant Professor, Post Graduate Research in Animal Sciences, Tamil Nadu
Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (TANUVAS), Kattupakkam3- Associate Professor and Head, Dept. of Veterinary and Animal
Husbandry Extension, Veterinary College and Research Institute (VCRI), Tirunelveli,
4- Former Dean, VCRI, Tirunelveli

MATERIALS AND METHODS questions were selected to conduct the knowledge

Data pertaining to the incidences of human – test. Each respondent was given a score of 1 for a
avian conflicts (HAC) throughout Tamil Nadu was correct answer and is zero for incorrect responsive
collected and utilized to identify the avian species total knowledge score of each respondent was
(Peacock and Parakeet) causing HAC. Further, calculated by summing up the number of items
based on the secondary data sources, Thanjavur correctly answered by an individual. Based on
and Coimbatore districts was purposively selected the scores obtained, being the maximum possible
considering the highest incidence of crop losses score of 10 and minimum possible score of zero,
due to peacock and parakeet, respectively.For HAC the respondents were arbitrarily classified into three
affected farmers selected from Thanjavur district, group viz., low, medium and high based on mean
Thanjavur block was selected purposively based and standard deviation.
on human-avian conflict incidences. Further, from
Thanjavur block, Vallampudur and Monnaiyampatti RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
villages were chosen for the present study. Knowledge is a crucial component that plays a
Similarly, from Thondamuthur block, two villages vital role in the behaviour of an individual which
namely Alanthurai and Madampatti were selected. form the basis for adoption of technology. The
By applying simple random technique, 30 farmers distribution of respondents of different HAC in
were selected from each village, thus a total of 120 terms of knowledge level is presented in table1.
farmers were selected from the identified districts. Table. 1 Distribution of HAC affected farmers
For HAC unaffected farmers selected purposively according to their knowledge level on different
from two villages of Thanjavur block viz., Alakudi aspect of HAC
and Kalvirayampettai. By applying simple random
technique, 15 farmers were selected from each Sr. Level of Bird species
village, thus a total of 30 farmers were identified No. Knowledge on Peafowl Parakeet
HAC (n=60) (n=60)
from Thanjavur district. Finally, a total of 150
farmers (120 HAC affected farmers and 30 HAC 1. Low 12 (20.0%) 17 (28.0%)
unaffected farmers) were identified for the present 2. Medium 35 (58.0%) 22 (37.0%)
research work to collect the primary data based on 3. High 13 (22.0%) 21 (35.0%)
the objective set forth. By keeping the objective in It could be seen that 58.0 and 37.0 per cent of
view, it was decided to collect data from the farmers
the farmers had medium knowledge on HAC due to
to study about the knowledge of the human-avian peafowl and parakeet species, respectively. Further,
conflict on various aspects. low (20.0%) and high (22.00%) knowledge was
Knowledge is those behaviour and test observed among farmers regarding HAC caused
situation which emphasized the remembering by peafowl. Considering HAC by parakeet species,
either by recognition or results of ideas, material farmers had low (28.0%) and high (35.0%) level of
and phenomena. The data was collected through knowledge.
structured interview schedule. A total of 68
knowledge questions on HAC were selected based Knowledge level of farmers on human-peafowl
on the connotation, references and literatures. The conflict situations
difficulty and discriminative indices were found in The ten knowledge items with regard to human-
the selection of knowledge questions. Questions peafowl conflict were ranked based on their mean
having discrimination index of 0.4 and above rank in descending order in the table 2. It could
were selected. The discrimination index for all be observed from table that four knowledge items
the 68 questions were worked out and finally 10 viz., peacock is the national bird of India (6.23),

Table 2. Knowledge level of farmers on human-peafowl conflict situations

Sr. No. Statement Mean rank Rank
1. Peacock is the national bird of India 6.23 I
2. Killing of peafowl is punishable under the wildlife protection act 6.07 II
1972
3. Wild adult peafowl can fly 5.90 III
4. The Indian Peafowl eats seeds, crops, insects and small reptiles 5.82 IV
5. Damage percentage depending upon type of crops 5.82 IV
6. Peafowl kill snakes 5.82 IV
7. Collection of fallen feather was legal or not 5.57 V
8. Peacock does not shed the feather throughout the year 4.90 VI
9. Damage percentage depends upon seasons 4.82 VII
10. Female peafowl don’t have colourful feathers 4.07 VIII
killing of peafowl is punishable under the wildlife knowledge items were concerned with the more
protection act, 1972 (6.07), wild adult peafowl can physiological and scientific information of peafowl
fly (5.90) and damage percentage depending upon which might be the reason for obtaining low means
type of crops (5.82) occupied the first four positions. score for these items.
This was followed by the items viz., collection of
fallen feathers was legal (5.57), peacock does not Knowledge level respondents on human-
shed the feather throughout the year (4.90), damage parakeet conflict situations
percentage depends upon seasons (4.82), female With respect to the mean rank of the respondents
peafowl does have colourful feathers (4.07) ranked on the knowledge items on human-parakeet conflict,
from V to IX, respectively. The above observations the knowledge statements viz., killing of parrots is
might be due to the reason that respondents had punishable under the wildlife protection act 1972
more opportunity of exposure to the information (6.81), parrot have predators (6.14), the wild parrot
regarding the social nature of the peafowl. Since eat seeds and fruits (5.89) has topped three ranks,
all the respondents possessed television sets, there respectively. Contrary to this, Ballejo et al (2020)
was every chance of watching programmes related observed that male farmers with the highest level
to peafowl’s social activity telecast by various of education prefer to use lethal strategies against
channels including NAT GEO (Tamil) and would scavenger birds.
have gained more knowledge in this regard. In It was also evident from table 3 that the different
Sri Lanka, about 30% out of the total informants species of parrots laid same coloured eggs (5.14),
suggested seasonal climate change and agricultural damage percentage depends upon seasons (5.06)
pattern as the root causes for the dynamics of and some species of parrots like to eat clay (4.31),
peacock population in the area (Herath et al, 2021) were ranked VI, VII and VIII respectively. The
The respondents had poor knowledge on the intrusion of parakeet into the agricultural field was
item viz., damage percentage depends upon seasons scarce and the damage caused by them was moderate
(4.82), female peafowl does not have colourful when compared to other avian species. This might
feathers (4.07) and these items secured the last be the reasons for farmer’s level of knowledge in
two positions from VII to VIII, respectively. These HAC caused by parakeet.

Table 3. Knowledge level of farmers on human-parakeet conflict situations.

Sr. No. Statement Mean rank Rank
1. Killing of parrots is punishable under the wildlife 6.81 I
protection act, 1972
2. Parrot have any predators 6.14 II
3. The wild parrot eat seeds and fruits 5.89 III
4. Parrot unique from other birds 5.73 IV
5. Rearing of parakeet is illegal 5.39 V
6. Live span of parakeet is forty 5.39 V
7. Damage percentage depending upon type of crops 5.14 VI
8. Different species of parrots laidsame coloured eggs 5.14 VI
9. Damage percentage depends upon seasons 5.06 VII
10. Some species of parrots like to eat clay 4.31 VIII
Overall knowledge on human-avian conflict third of the farmers possessed medium level of
between affected and unaffected farmers knowledge with regard to various HWC.
The knowledge test was administered to the
respondents on different HAC situations. The mean CONCLUSION
score of the knowledge level of the respondents It could be stated that nearly one-half of the
were analyzed through Kruskal-wallis test and the farmers possessed medium level of knowledge
results are presented in table 4. It could be observed with regard to various Human Avian Conflicts. It
that the mean knowledge scores for HAC affected was observed that the mean knowledge scores for
farmers and HAC unaffected farmers were 20.47 human-peafowl conflict, human-parakeet conflict
and 12.75, respectively. The highest mean was and HAC unaffected farmers were 23.20, 17.75
found to be 20.47 which implied that the knowledge and 12.75, respectively. Human-peafowl conflict
gained by the respondents with regard to human- farmers had high knowledge on HAC.
peafowl conflict was high followed by parakeet.
It may therefore be stated that highest knowledge ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
level among the respondents were found with HAC The authors are thankful to the farming
affected farmers. It was also supported by the community for sharing the information on the
Chi square value of 21.12 which was found to be Human-avian conflict. The authors are also thankful
statistically highly significant (P < 0.01). Similarly, to the Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences
Senthilkumar et al (2020) documented nearly two- University for permitting to conduct this study as
part of his M.V.Sc., thesis.
Table 4. Significant difference between knowledge on human avian conflictaffected and unaffected
farmers.
Characteristics of farmers HAC N Mean Rank Chi square value P value
Overall knowledge level of HAC affected
villagers towards HAC farmers 120 20.47
HAC 21.12 0.000**
unaffected 30 12.75
farmers

REFERENCES Kale M A, Dudhe N, Kasambe R and Bhattacharya P (2014).

Avery M L and Cummings J L(2004). Livestock depredations Crop Depredation by birds in Deccan Plateau, India. Int J
by black vultures and golden eagles. Sheep and Goat Res Biodivers Conserv 1-8
J 19:58–63 Kluever B M, Pfeiffer M B, Barras S C, Dunlap B G and
Ballejo F, Plaza P I and Lambertucci S A (2020). The conflict Humberg L A (2020). Black vulture conflict and
between scavenging birds and farmers: Field observations management in the United States: Damage trends,
do not support people’s perceptions. Biol Conservat 248, management overview, and research needs. Hum Wildl
108627. Interact 14: 8.
Canavelli S B, Branch L C, Cavallero P, González C and Lowney M S (1999). Damage by black and turkey vultures in
Zaccagnini M E (2014). Multi-level analysis of bird Virginia, 1990–1996. Wildlife Soc Bull 27 (3) :715–719
abundance and damage to crop fields. Agri Eco Env 197, Oerke E C (2006). Crop losses to pests. The J Agri Sci 144(1):
128-136. 31-43.
Herath H M N T, Gunathilake K L W I and Chandrasekara, Senthilkumar K, Mathialagan P and Manivannan C (2020).
CM K N K (2021). A Site-Specific Study on Peacock Socio-Economic profile of the human-wildlife conflict
and Human Conflict—A Case Study from Jayanthipura affected farmers of Tamil Nadu. J Krishi Vigyan 8(2):
Grama Niladhari Division, Polonnaruwa—Sri Lanka. 260-265.
Multi-Hazard Early Warning and Disaster Risks 211-
221. Received on 3/9/2022 Accepted on 13/4/2023

Marketing Pattern and Price Spread of Berseem (Trifolium

alexandrinum ) Seed in Punjab
Kajal Agnotra1, Raj Kumar2 and Sangeet Ranguwal3
Department of Economics and Sociology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004
ABSTRACT
The study was conducted in Punjab state during the agricultural year 2018-19. It was found that about
39 per cent of total seed produced was sold at the village level followed by self-retainment (35.35%),
sale in nearby market (22.41%) and distinct market (3.45%). The market channel-I (Seed producer - seed
user, was the most efficient with marketing efficiency (ME) of 84.17 followed by channel-V i.e. Seed
producer- Milkfed- seed user (13.28), channel-II i.e. Seed producer- seed dealer- seed user (7.75) and
channel-III i.e. Seed producer- wholesaler- seed dealer- seed user (5.32). The seed producers were getting
a substantial margin through contract farming with Milkfed (channel-V).. Concept of village-based fodder
seed bank may be introduced through establishment of fodder seed villages/farmers, fodder seed producer
organizations/groups with facilities for seed processing and storage. On marketing front, fluctuation of
price emerged as the most important hindrance to the seed producers followed lack of market information,
variability in production, etc., Generating awareness about new varieties, incentives and assured market can
play an important role in creating demand and consequently seed production of berseem.
Key Words: Berseem, fodder, Marketing, Price, Producer, Seed,
INTRODUCTION population pressure, expansion of cultivable area,

Livestock sector plays a fundamental role in the etc. The result of these factors is severe decline
economy by providing employment to about nine in feed and fodder. Additionally, limited land
per cent of the population in India (Bhardwaj et al, holdings, inappropriate agronomic practices, lack
2020). Dairying plays a main role to enhance the of timely inputs and poor seed production methods
income of the farmers which in turn depend on the at the farm level also contribute to the seed shortage
adequate supply of quality fodder. For the rearing problem (Anwar et al, 2012).
of improved breeds of livestock, the production of Berseem (Trifolium Alexandrinum L.) is a
higher quality of fodder is essential. Green fodder, leguminous winter (rabi) season forage crop which
nutritionally balanced and palatable constitute basic besides having many forage quality traits like
ration for milch cattle and farm animals for higher high crude protein (20%) digestibility 65%) and
milk production and work efficiency respectively, palatability, is also multi cut in nature providing high
apart from reducing feed and over-head costs quantum green fodder for a long duration (Malviya,
(Dahiya and Tomar, 2018). The livestock population 2018). Because of high yielding nature, it is grown
had increased by 4.7 per cent i.e., from 512 million over the vast area and its seed has huge demand in the
to 536 million during 2012-19, but the grazing market (Khalil and Jan, 2000). The cost of feeding
land is declining day by day due to many factors milch animals can be reduced by using berseem in
like industrialization, urbanization, migration,

1
M.Sc. (Agricultural Economics) scholar, Department of Economics and Sociology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004
2
Principal Extension Scientist (Agricultural Economics), 4
3
Agricultural Economist,

Marketing Pattern and Price Spread of Berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum ) Seed in Punjab
place of mineral concentrate (Kumar et al, 2021; personal interview method relating to berseem
Akila and Lakshmi, 2020). An all-berseem ration is seed production and method of sale along with
adequate for milch animals yielding up to 6-7 litres constraints faced in production and marketing.
of milk daily (PAU, 2021). The timely availability To work out the price spread of berseem seed
of seed to the farmers helps in timely sowing and through different marketing channels, different
realization of its full potential as fodder. The prices market intermediaries were selected from the
of seed fluctuate drastically during harvesting and prevailing market channels in Punjab. Hence,
sowing. There is also an impact of seed quality a sample of 10 intermediaries was taken. Data
on production potential. In developing countries, related to the method of procurement of berseem
fodder production has many folds restricted by land seed and its distribution, various costs incurred by
dearth, the inadequacy of standard seed (Tufail et intermediaries during the marketing of berseem
al,2019), and unawareness about fodder production seed were collected. The marketing efficiency of
technology and usage (Kamanzi and Mapiye, 2012). each marketing channels was worked out.
Non-availability of good quality seeds especially in
case of the improved varieties is the major reason Statistical analysis
for slow adoption of improved forage production Price spread: The economic efficiency of the
technologies (Chauhan et al, 2017; Legheri et al, marketing system can be measured in terms of
2018). price spread. Price spread in the case of seed can be
Punjab state is among the leading states defined as the difference between the price paid by
producing berseem with wheat being the main the consumer farmers (seed user) and price received
competing rabi season crop. The state has about by the producers (seed producer). It involves
one-fourth of the total area of fodder crops and marketing costs and margin of the different market
livestock contributes approximately forty percent intermediaries involved in the marketing channel.
(40%) to the annual income of small farmers. The In the present study, price spread was worked out
current livestock population of the state is 81.2 lakh by using ‘Mode’ method. From both the selected
(62.4 lakh adult) with a fodder supply of 31.4 kg districts, five market channels were selected
per animal per day which is far from satisfactory. randomly to work out the price spreads.
Based on 40 kg green fodder per adult animal per Marketing efficiency: In order to examine the
day, approximately 911 lakh tonnes of fodder is marketing efficiency of each marketing channel,
required (PAU, 2021). In this backdrop, the present Acharya’s modified method was used (Acharya and
study was carried out to study the marketing aspects Agarwal, 2014) which is stated as:
of Berseem seed for taking the advantage of higher RP = FP + MC + MM
demand in the market along with measures to
Where;
promote berseem seed production in the state.
MME = Modified marketing efficiency
MATERIALS AND METHODS RP = Retail price of berseem seed/ Seed user’s
The study was conducted in two districts of purchase price/(Rs/q)
Punjab namely Ludhiana and Gurdaspur which
FP = Net price received by the berseem seed
were selected randomly. Further, 20 berseem seed
producer (Rs/q)
producers from each selected district were chosen
randomly. Thus, a total of 40 seed producers MC = Total marketing costs (Rs/q)
were selected for the study. The primary data MM = Total marketing margin (Rs/q)
were collected using a pre-tested schedule by

Table 1: Disposal pattern of berseem seed by berseem seed producers in Punjab, 2018-19
S. No. Disposal pattern Sold to whom Quantity Share in total
(q) production (%)
1. Sale in village Fellow farmers, relatives 90 38.79
2. Retained for self-use - 82 35.35
3. Sale in nearby market Seed dealers, 52 22.41
wholesalers, Milkfed
4. Sale in distant market Other states 8 3.45
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In the study area, five main prevailing marketing
The results of the collected information from channels of berseem seed were identified through
the selected berseem seed producers are presented which the commodity passes from producer to the
as below: end user (Table 2).
Disposal pattern of berseem seed followed by Channel-I (Seed producer - seed user) was
the respondents observed to the most preferred channel as 46.15 per
The analysis of data revealed that the out of the cent seed was being sold through this channel. This
total seed produced by the sampled seed producers, is the direct channel through which the produce
about 39 per cent was sold directly to seed users is being sold to the seed user directly by the seed
within the village itself which points toward the producer. In Channel-II, Channel-III and Channel-
huge demand existing for the seed (Table 1). IV, the berseem seed is sold through private
intermediaries and the quantity handled through
Further, about 35 per cent of seed was self- these channels has been worked out to be 18.91,
retained for use in the next season. It was observed 15.52 and 11.72 per cent of total seed sold in the
that about 22 per cent seed produced was sold study area, respectively. It was also observed that
in nearby markets to seed dealers, wholesalers, institutional sources play least role in the supply
Milkfed, etc. Some quantity of seed (3.45%) was of berseem seed as only about 8 per cent berseem
also sold in the distant markets (other states). All seed was distributed through this channel. It may
this indicates towards heavy demand of the berseem be mentioned here that the role of Department
seed as whole production is being sold in the same of Animal Husbandry, Punjab was found to be
year. fading with time. The department had produced
Marketing channels of berseem seed and distributed just 150 kg berseem seed during
Marketing of a commodity is an important part 2016-17 and 115 kg during 2017-18. Afterwards
of every production process. Marketing channels it stopped its production. The main reason behind
refer to a part through which a commodity move this was the shortage of working staff as against
from the producer to ultimate consumer. It is desired 112 Fodder Development Officers vacancies, only
that the movement of goods from producer to nine were posted at the state level (Department of
consumer should be at the minimum cost consistent Animal Husbandry, Punjab). In a similar study,
with provision of services. An efficient marketing the penetration of seed from the formal system in
system is a prerequisite for sustaining the tempo of developing countries such as Pakistan has been
increased agricultural production. very weak, supplying less than 20 per cent of the
seed used by farmers, with the remaining seed

Table 2. Seed distribution through different marketing channels in Punjab, 2018-19.

Sr. Particular Channel Quantity
No. handled
(%)
1. Directly by seed Channel-I: Seed producer (producer) - seed user (consumer) 46.15
producer to seed user
2. Through private seed Channel-II: Seed producer- seed dealer- seed user 18.91
dealers to seed user Channel III: Seed producer- wholesaler- seed dealer- seed user 15.52
Channel IV: Wholesaler of distant market - seed dealer- seed 11.72
user
3. Through institutional Channel V: Seed producer- institutional sources- seed user 7.70
sources* to seed user
*Includes Milkfed, Punjab Agricultural University, State Department of Animal Husbandry and authorized
dealers
being sourced through the informal supply system of packing material (0.11%), weighing (0.01%) and
(Bishaw and Gastel, 2008). imputed value of time spent (0.18%). It was also
observed that the price of berseem seed was not pre
Price spread of berseem seed in different fixed by the seed producer, it was determined on
marketing channels mutual conversation and trust basis. The net price
It is very pertinent to study the marketing costs, received by the producer was Rs. 22137 per quintal
margins and hence, the price spread of different and the per cent share of producer in consumer’s
marketing channels to improve the market structure rupee was 98.82 per cent. As the net price received
for the berseem seed. It is helpful to improve the by the producer was the highest in this channel, it
marketing efficiency by taking into account the was the most favoured channel by the producers to
seed producer’s share in the price paid by seed sell their produced seed.
user (consumer’s rupee) and explore the further
improvements in the existing market structure. Channel-II: Seed producer- seed dealer- seed
user
Channel-I: Seed producer- seed user Channel II came out to be the second most
As already mentioned, this channel (channel-I) common channel for marketing of the berseem
involving sale of berseem seed directly to the seed seed. In this channel, berseem seed reached from
user (fellow farmers, relatives, etc.) was the most its producer to end seed user through seed dealers
prevalent channel in the study area and major part of prevailing in the market. The net price received by
total production was marketed through this channel the producer in this channel was Rs. 20518 (Table
only. It was observed that the seed producer sold the 4).
produce directly to the seed user at the price of Rs
22400 per quintal (Table 3). Marketing costs incurred by the producer on
cleaning and grading, weighing, bagging and
Analysis of different cost components indicated sewing, loading and unloading, transportation, and
that the total marketing costs incurred by the producer imputed value of time spent were worked out to be
farmer was Rs 263 per quintal which included Rs 389 per quintal having 1.68 per cent share in the
cleaning and grading (0.74%), labour (0.15%), cost price paid by the seed user. The purchase price of

Table 3. Price spread of berseem seed in marketing Channel-I (Seed producer- seed user).
Sr. No. Particular Value Share in consumer’s
(Rs/q) price (%)
1. Producer’s sale price/ seed user’s purchase 22400 100.00
price
2. Marketing expenses borne by the producer 263 1.18
3. Net price received by the producer 22137 98.82
Note: Marketing expenses include cleaning & grading, labour charges, cost of packing material, weighing
and imputed value of time spent by the producer.
Table 4. Price spread of berseem seed in marketing Channel-II (Seed producer- seed dealer-
seed user).
Sr. Particular Value Share in consumer’s price
No. (Rs/q) (%)
I. Producer’s sale price/ dealer’s purchase price 20907 90.24

II. Marketing expenses borne by producer
i) Cleaning and grading 166 0.72
ii) Weighing. bagging, sewing, loading/unloading 39 0.17
and cost of driver
iii) Cost of bags 40 0.17
iv) Transportation 88 0.38
v) Imputed value of time spent 56 0.24
Sub-total (i to v) 389 1.68
III. Net price received by the producer 20518 88.56
IV. Marketing expenses borne by dealer
1. Purchase price of dealer 20907 90.24
2. Loss due to undersize seed @12% 2509 10.83
3. Gain due to sale undersize seed 2160 9.32
i) Actual price of seed for dealer (1+2-3) 21256 91.75
ii) Cleaning and grading charges 93 0.40
iii) Packing cost 48 0.21
iv) Sub-total (i to iii) 21397 92.36
v) Interest on sub-total (iv) @9% for 3 months 481 2.08
vi) Rent of shop/ godown 134 0.58
vii) Storage losses @ 0.5% 104 0.45
viii) Permanent labour charges 88 0.38
ix) Electricity bill and license fee 19 0.08
Total cost borne by the dealer 1316 5.68
V. Marketing margin of dealer 944 4.07
VI. Dealer’s sale price/seed user’s purchase price 23167 100.00

Table 5. Price spread of berseem seed in marketing channel-III (Seed producer – wholesaler - seed
dealer - seed user)
Sr. No Particular Cost Share in consumer’s
(Rs/q) price (%)
A Producer’s sale price/ wholesaler’s purchase price 20160 85.79

(raw seed @ Rs18000 per q)
B Marketing expenses borne by producer
1. Cleaning and grading 150 0.64
2. Weighing, bagging and sewing, loading/unloading, 189 0.81
transportation and imputed value of time spent
3. Cost of packing material 40 0.17
Sub-total (1 to 3) 379 1.61
C Net price received by the producer 19781 84.17
D Marketing expenses borne by wholesaler
i) Purchase price of wholesaler 20160 85.79
ii) Loss due to undersize seed @12% 2419 10.29
iii) Gain due to sale undersize seed 2040 8.68
1. Actual purchase price of wholesaler (i+ii-iii) 20539 87.40
2. Cleaning and grading charges 75 0.32
3. Packing cost 45 0.19
4. Sub-total of items 1 to 3 20659 87.91
5. Interest on item No. 4 465 1.98
6. Rent of shop/ godown 22 0.09
7. Storage [email protected]% 101 0.43
8. Labour charges 15 0.06
9. Electricity bill and license fee 5 0.02
Total cost borne by wholesaler 1107 4.71
E Margin of wholesaler 733 2.73
F Wholesaler sales price/ Dealer purchase price 22000 93.62
G Expenses borne by dealer
1. Interest on purchase price @9% for 3 months 495 2.11
2. Transportation cost and imputed value of time spent 106 0.45
3. Rent of shop/ godown 146 0.62
4. Permanent labour charges 96 0.41
Total cost borne by the dealer 852 3.62
H Margin of Retailer 648 2.76
I Retailer’s sale Price/ seed user’s purchase price 23500 100.00
Note: One quintal of pure berseem seed can be obtained from 112 kg of raw seed

Table 6. Price spread of berseem seed in marketing channel-IV (Wholesaler of distant market seed
dealer- seed user)
Sr. No. Particular Value Share in consumer’s
(Rs/q) price (%)
A Wholesaler sale price/ Dealer’s purchase price 24667 92.50
B Marketing expenses borne by dealer
1. Purchase price of dealer 24667 92.50
2. Interest on item No. 1 (@ 9% for three months) 555 2.08
3. Rent of shop/godown 130 0.49
4. Labour charges and imputed value of time spent 117 0.44
6. Transportation cost during buying 116 0.43
Total cost (1 to 8) 934 3.50
C Actual purchase price of dealer (A+B) 25601 96.01
D Dealer’s margin 1066 3.99
E Dealer’s sale price/seed user’s purchase price 26667 100.00
the dealer was Rs. 20907 per quintal. However, after marketing expenses borne by wholesaler were
considering losses due to undersized seed it worked to the tune of Rs. 1107 per quintal of berseem
out to be Rs. 21256 per quintal. Total marketing seed. The wholesaler sold the produce to the seed
costs incurred by the dealer was Rs 1316 per quintal dealer at a price of Rs. 22000 per quintal. Hence
(5.68%) which included loss due to undersize seed, the margin of the wholesaler turned out to be Rs.
gain due to sale of undersize seed, cleaning and 733 per quintal. The seed dealer further sold the
grading, packing, rent of shop, storage losses, cost produce to the end consumer at a price of Rs. 23500
of labour charges, electricity and license fee. The per quintal. The total marketing cost incurred by the
marketing margin of seed dealer was 4.07 per cent seed dealer were worked out to be Rs. 852 (3.62%
(Rs 943/q). The purchase price of seed user/ sale share in consumer’s price). Hence the net margin of
price of seed dealer was found to be Rs 23167 per the seed dealer was Rs. 648 per quintal (2.76% in
quintal. the consumer’s rupee).
Channel III: Seed producer - wholesaler- seed Channel IV: Distant market (Wholesaler of
dealer- seed user distant market - seed dealer- seed user)
In this channel, berseem seed producers sell In Punjab, the berseem seed is also purchased
the seed to the wholesalers from which private from distant markets of other states like Haryana
seed dealers purchase it and further sell to ultimate and Delhi through dealers of the distant markets. It
consumers (seed users). The producers received was observed that the local seed dealers purchased
price of Rs 20160 per quintal from the wholesalers. seed from the distant market dealer at an average
The producers’ share in consumers’ rupee was price of Rs. 24667 per quintal which accounted for
85.79 per cent (Table 5). The marketing expenses 92.50 per cent of the consumer’s purchase price
borne by the producer were Rs. 379 per quintal (Table 6).
which included cleaning and grading, weighing, The purchase price of these dealers was more as
bagging and sewing, cost of packing material, compared to other channels. These dealers purchased
loading/unloading, transportation, driver cost. The the seed in packed form, hence they themselves did
Table 7. Price spread of berseem seed in marketing channel channel-V (Seed producer- Milkfed-
seed user).
Sr. No. Particular Value Share in consumer’s price
(Rs/q) (%)
A Producer’s sale price/ Milkfed’s purchase price 24640 94.26
(raw seed @ Rs. 22000/q)
B Marketing expenses borne by producer
1. Cleaning and grading 144 0.55
2. Weighing, bagging and sewing, bags cost and 69 0.27
imputed value of time spent
3. Certification fees 163 0.62
Total expenses (1 to 3) 376 1.44
C Net price received by the producer 24264 92.82
D Marketing expenses borne by Milkfed
i) Purchase price of Milkfed 24640 94.26
ii) Loss due to undersize seed@12% 2957 11.31
iii) Gain due to sale undersize seed 2520 9.64
1. Actual purchase price of Milkfed (i+ii-iii) 25077 95.93
2. Cleaning, grading and packing cost 114 0.43
3. Sub-total of items 1 to 3 25191 96.37
4. Interest on item No. 4 @9% for 3 months 567 2.17
5. Loading/unloading, transportation and labour 132 0.50
Total cost borne by Milkfed 1249 4.78
E Marketing margin of Milkfed 206 0.79
F Milkfed’s sale price/seed user’s purchase price 26140 100.00
not incur any packing cost. The marketing expenses Milkfed started its own fodder seed multiplication
borne by the dealer in this channel was Rs. 934 per programme and during 2018-19, about 1350
quintal which included shop rent, labour charges, quintals of quality berseem seed was produced by
transportation cost, unloading, imputed value of Milkfed through contract farming. It was observed
time spent, etc. The dealer sold the produce to seed that the respondents produced certified seed under
user at the price Rs. 26667 per quintal. Hence, net the contract and sold to Milkfed at a price of Rs
margin received by the dealer was Rs. 1066 per 24640 per quintal (Table 7).
quintal which was 3.99 per cent of the price paid The expenses borne by the seed producer for
by consumer. cleaning, grading, weighing, bagging, sewing,
Channel V: Seed producer- Milkfed- seed user purchasing bags, etc. came out to be Rs. 376 per
As a result of progressive extension of dairying quintal. The net price received by the producer was
by Milkfed, the farmers were fully satisfied by the Rs. 24264 per quintal. The produce reached to seed
high yielding forages for increasing milk production user through Milkfed co-operative agency. The
at low cost in the study area. Considering the purchase price of Milkfed was Rs. 24640 per quintal.
shortage and non-availability of fodder seed, The actual purchase price of Milkfed (after taking

Table 8. Marketing efficiency of berseem seed under different marketing channels. (Rs/q)
Sr. No. Particular Channel-I Channel-II Channel-III Channel-V
1. Net price received by the producer 22137 20518 19781 24264
2. Consumer’s purchase price 22400 23167 23500 26140
3. Total marketing costs 263 1705 2338 1625
4. Total marketing margins - 944 1381 206
5. Modified marketing efficiency 84.17 7.75 5.32 13.28
into account the loss borne due to about 12 kg/q by co-operative institution that supplies seed under
undersized seed) was Rs. 25077. Total marketing the public scheme and follow the policy of no profit
expenses borne by the Milkfed was Rs. 1249, which no loss.
involved various costs like cleaning, grading,
packing, loading, unloading, transportation, labour, Problems faced by the seed producers
etc. Sale price of Milkfed/purchase price of seed The major problems faced by the sampled
user was Rs. 26140 per quintal. Marketing margin seed producers during production and marketing
of Milkfed was only Rs. 206 (0.7% of farmers’ of the seed were also studied. It was observed that
purchase price). The seed producers were getting a fluctuations in price of seed emerged as the major
substantial margin from this trade which may help problem faced by the respondents (83.33%) as
in bringing forward the Milkfed as a main public given in the Table 9. In a similar study at IGFRI
institute for supply of quality seed in the Punjab Jhansi, the price of Berseem seed varied highly in
state. the market form Rs 80 per kilogram to Rs 160 per
kilogram (Kumar et al., 2017).
Marketing efficiency Further, lack of market information and
Analysis of data revealed that due to certain instability in production were reported by 66.67 per
constraints, berseem seed growers were selling their cent each of the seed producers. The seed requires
produce through channel-II and channel-III in spite optimum temperature and humidity for its storage.
of sizeable losses. Hence, taking into account the Half of the respondents faced constraint of improper
significance of the aforesaid facts, the marketing storage facility. Also, there was absence of proper
efficiency (ME) of various channels prevailing for marketing system for the marketing of berseem
the berseem seed marketing were also studied. It was seeds and about one-fourth farmers had to sell their
observed that the most efficient marketing channel produce at village level and only few farmers were
was channel-I with marketing efficiency of 84.17. able to explore the distant markets with better prices.
Next most efficient marketing channel emerged Delay in payment, high transportation costs and
out to channel-V with ME of 13.28 followed by non-remunerative price of produce were reported
channel-II (7.75) and channel-III (5.32) as shown by about 17 per cent producers each.
in Table 8.
It was evident that with rise in the number CONCLUSION
of market intermediaries, the ME of a system Out of five prevalent marketing channels for
declines and vice-versa. The number of market marketing of berseem seed, Channel-I involving
intermediaries was the same in channel-II and direct sale from producer to consumer emerged as
channel-V, but difference in marketing efficiency most preferred channel with seed distribution share
was due to marketing margin. The marketing of about 46 per cent produce and marketing efficiency
margin of channel-V was less because it is handled (ME) of 84.17. Another marketing channels

Table 9. Problems faced by the berseem seed producers in Punjab, 2018-19. (Multiple responses)
Sr. No. Problem No. of seed Per cent to
producers total
1. Price fluctuations 10 83.33
2. Lack of market information 8 66.67
3. Instability in production 8 66.67
4. Improper storage facilities 6 50.00
5. Long distance market access 3 25.00
6. Delay in payments 2 16.67
7. High transportation costs 2 16.67
8. Non-remunerative price according to variety 2 16.67
involving intermediaries had much lower ME i.e., REFERENCES

channel-V (13.28), II (7.75) and III (5.32). The Akila N and M Jothi Lakshmi (2020). Interventions to sustain
seed producers were getting a substantial margin in dairy production and productivity in changing climate of
Namakkal district, Tamil Nadu. Indian J Dairy Sci 73 (4):
berseem seed produced by Milkfed through contract 371-375.
farming (channel-V) which may help in bringing
Anwar M Z, Khan M A, Ikram S, Akhtar A, Shafique Z and
forward the Milkfed as a main public institute for Abdul M (2012). Small farmers perceptions regarding
supply of quality seed in the Punjab state in the improved fodder and forage varieties: results of
future also. As practically seed production chain participatory on farm research. Pakistan J Agril Res 25:
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and other community-based organizations may of livestock in Indian economy, www.pashudhanpraharee.
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variability in production, lack of storage facility, biofertilizers and cutting management Forage Res 44 (3):
192-196.
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high transportation costs and non-remunerative Kamanzi M and Mapiye C (2012). Feed inventory and
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livestock keepers/policy makers about new varieties, Anim Health Prod 44:1459-1468.
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(2): 28-29. Dharwad, Karnataka, Souvenir & Abstract: 1-8.
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Debadghao Memorial Lecture in National symposium

Mass Transfer and Quality Attributes of Osmodehydrated

Malabar Tamarind (Garcinia gummi-gutta )
G S Aparna and P R Geetha Lekshmi
Department of Postharvest Management, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram,
Kerala Agricultural University695522
ABSTRACT
Osmodehydration process for G. gummi-gutta (Malabar tamarind) fruit was optimized for the osmotic
variables viz., osmotic solution concentration and immersion time. The fruit slices of 2 cm3 size were
osmosed in two different concentrations of sucrose (50⁰Brix and 700Brix) for 24, 36 and 48 hr immersion
time. The effect of osmodehydration on mass transfer characters, biochemical and sensory parameters
of the fruits were studied. The results showed that mass transfer characters were increased with osmotic
concentration and immersion time. The osmotic pre-treatment of G. gummi-gutta with 700 Brix sucrose
for 48 hr recorded superior quality dehydrated fruits in terms of biochemical and sensory parameters with
consumer acceptability. The osmodehydrated fruits exhibited a storage stability of three months with better
retention of nutritional and sensory qualities.
Key Words: Garcinia gummi-gutta, Osmodehydration, Malabar tamarind, Solid gain.
INTRODUCTION and physicochemical properties in the fruit

Garcinia gummi-gutta, popularly known (Obajemihi et al, 2023). Gopakumar and Kavitha
as Malabar tamarind of the family Clusiaceae (2014) explored processing of Malabar tamarind
is native to South Asia and grown in Kerala as a using sugar and salt where osmotic pressure
homestead tree. It is used in traditional medicines preservation method was found beneficial for the
and is a rich source of hydroxy citric acid (HCA), development of value added products. Hossain et
a much valued antiobesity phytochemical. The al (2021) reported that pre-treatment of Garcinia
phytochemical studies revealed that the fruit also pedunculata slices pretreated with sucrose helped
contain xanthones, benzophenones and amino to retain ascorbic acid, and antioxidant activity
acids with high antioxidant potential (Semwal et whereas fructose pretreated samples exhibited
al, 2015). The sour taste due to high organic acid maximum B vitamins, total phenolic content and
content of Garcinia gummi-gutta fruits is a limiting total flavonoid content. The present study aimed
factor for the development of value added processed to explore the possibility of osmodehydration of
products. Garcinia gummi-gutta fruit and to standardize the
Osmodehydration facilitates processing of protocol for osmodehydrated Malabar tamarind
fruits and vegetables with retention of initial rind with consumer acceptability
fruit characteristics like colour, aroma, texture
and nutritional composition (Chavan, 2012). It is MATERIALS AND METHODS
considered as one of the effective pre-treatment Ripe Malabar tamarind fruits with uniform
method to overcome drawbacks of normal hot air yellow colour were harvested from the Instructional
drying and improved the retention of vital bioactive Farm, College of Agriculture Vellayani,
Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected]; [email protected]

Table 1. Effect of osmotic concentrations and immersion time on mass transfer characters of
G.gummi-gutta
Osmotic Weight reduction (%)
concentration Immersion time (hours)
T1 (24 ) T2 (36 ) T3 (48) Mean (C)
C1 (50 Brix)
0
18.93 21.93 23.90 21.59b
C2 (700Brix ) 22.94 27.56 29.00 26.50a
Mean (T) 20.94c 24.75b 26.45a
CD (0.05) C-0.808 T -0.989 C X T- NS
SE (± m) C -0.259 T -0.318 C X T - 0.449
Solid gain (%)
Immersion time (hours)
T1 (24) T2 (36) T3 (48) Mean (C)
C1 (50 Brix)
0
19.30 24.06 26.67 23.34a
C2 (700Brix ) 25.32 27.51 29.55 27.46a
Mean (T) 22.31c 25.79b 28.11a
CD (0.05) C- 0.712 T- 0.873 C X T-1.234
SE(±m) C-0.229T - 0.280 C X T-0.396
Water loss (%)
Immersion time (hours)
T1 (24) T2 (36) T3 (48) Mean (C)
C1 (50 Brix)
0
22.31 25.79 28.11 25.40b
C2 (700Brix ) 41.32 44.55 49.10 44.99a
Mean (T) 37.66c 40.44b 45.95a
CD (0.05) C- 0.597 T- 0.73 C X T-1.034
SE(±m) C- 0.192 T- 0.235 C X T- 0.332
Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala Agricultural G. gummi-gutta rinds were further dehydrated

University for preparation of osmodehydrated using cabinet drier at 50oC till the product attained
product. The collected fruits were washed a moisture content of 15-18 per cent. The storage
thoroughly and after separating the seeds, rind was stability of osmodehydrated rind was analysed for a
made into 2cm3sized slices. The slices were steam period of three months and biochemical and sensory
blanched and were subjected to osmodehydration parameters were analysed at monthly interval.
with sucrose as osmotic medium at different levels
of osmotic concentration and immersion time. The Determination of mass transfer characters
concentration of osmotic medium was 50⁰Brix (C1) The mass transfer characters viz., solid gain
and 70⁰Brix (C2) diffusing solution (sucrose) for an (SG), water loss (WL) and weight reduction (WR)
immersion time of 24 hr (T1) 36 hr (T2) and 48 hr of the osmosed fruit rinds were calculated based on
(T3) and the ratio of fruits to osmotic solution was the following equations
maintained as 1:2. After osmotic pre-treatments, the St - Si
rind was removed from the solution, drained and Solid Gain (SG)(%) = x100
mi
analyzed for mass transfer characters. The osmosed

Table 2. Biochemical parameters of osmodehydrated G.gummi-gutta

Osmotic treatment TSS(0Brix) Titratable HCA Total Reducing Antioxidant
acidity (%) (%) sugar (%) sugar (%) activity (%)
C1T1 (50⁰Brix, 24 h) 28.95f 3.14a 2.90a 36.21f 11.77f 78.38a
C1T2 (50⁰Brix,36 h) 34.73e 2.26b 2.20b 40.38e 13.84e 76.22b
C1T3 (50⁰Brix, 48 h) 38.59c 1.78c 1.55c 42.63c 15.83c 74.02cd
C2T1 (70⁰Brix, 24 h) 36.34d 1.83c 1.59c 41.25d 15.03d 75.05bc
C2T2 (70⁰Brix, 36 h) 39.63b 1.67d 1.44d 45.04b 16.82b 72.41d
C2T3 (70⁰Brix, 48 h) 46.93a 1.54e 1.28e 48.04a 17.48a 67.12e
CD (0.05) 1.029 0.113 0.101 0.825 0.474 1.913
Where, St = dry mass at time t, Si = Initial dry and Buch (2019). The method was based on
mass (of fresh) and mi = initial mass of wet sample colour complex formation by HCA in presence
(Kowalski and Mierzwa, 2011). of metavanadate and absorbance was recorded at
485 nm using spectrophotometer. Sensory quality
Water Loss (Wo - Wt) + (St - So)
x100 attributes of products (taste, colour, flavour, texture
(WL)(%) = Wo and overall acceptability) were evaluated using a
Wo = Initial weight of rind; Wt= Weight of rind 9-point Hedonics scale by a semi trained panel of 30
after osmotic dehydration ; S0 = Initial dry mass of members and the scores were statistically analysed
rind; St = Dry mass of rind after osmotic dehydration using Kruskall-Wallis chi-square test.
(Sridevi and Genitha, 2012)
Mo - M
Weight Reduction (WR)(%) = x100 Mass transfer Characters of G.gummi-gutta
Mo
during osmotic process
Mo = Initial mass of rind prior to osmosis (g); Mass transfer characters of osmodehydrated
M = Mass of rind after osmosis (g) (Yadav et al G.gummi-gutta rind were significantly influenced by
2012) osmotic concentrations and immersion time (Table
Titratable acidity, total sugar and reducing sugar 1). Osmodehydrated rind at 500Brix showed the
content were estimated using titration methods as lowest solid gain of 23.34 per cent and the highest
described by Ranganna (1986). Antioxidant activity solid gain (27.46 %) was observed for 700Brix
of the samples was determined using 2, 2- diphenyl- osmotic concentration. Among the immersion time,
1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging assay 48 hr recorded the highest solid gain of 28.11 per
and the effect was obtained as per cent from the cent followed by 36 hr (T2) with 25.79 per cent
following equation (Shen et al, 2010). of solid gain. Maximum water loss (49.10 %)
was observed for rind osmosed in 700Brix, 48 hr
(A0 - A1)
Antioxidant activity (%) = x100 (C2T3), while minimum water loss (22.31 %) was in
A0 treatment with osmotic concentration of 500Brix for
A0 – Absorbance of DPPH solution without immersion time of 24 hr. The fruit slices osmosed in
sample; A1 – Absorbance of the test sample after 700Brix for 48 hr (C2T3) recorded maximum weight
30 min reduction of 29.00 per cent and the minimum weight
Hydroxy citric acid (HCA) in fruits was reduction of 18.93 per cent was observed for C1T1
analyzed by the procedure described by Patel (50 0Brix, 24 hr).The results are in confirmation with

the findings of Phisut (2012) and the higher osmotic a mean score of 8.17. On analyzing colour of the
concentration led to higher water loss and solid gain osmodehydrated products, the highest mean score
of the osmosed fruits. A similar trend of increase in (8.53) was for fruit osmosed in 700 Brix for 48 hr
mass transfer characters with increase in immersion whereas the highest score for flavour (8.60) was
time and diffusing solution concentrations were recorded by the osmodehydrated fruit with the
noticed in banana (Archana and Lekshmi, 2019) osmotic pre-treatment of 700 Brix for 36 hr. Landim
and bilimbi (Aparna et al, 2022). et al (2016) confirmed that osmotic pretreatment
protected the colour of fruits and vegetables. The
Biochemical qualities of osmodehydrated highest mean score for overall acceptability (8.63)
G.gummi-gutta was recorded for 700Brix, 36 hr (C2T2) followed by
Biochemical evaluation of osmodehydrated 700 Brix, 48 hr (C2T3) with a mean score of 8.40.
Malabar tamarind (Table 2) revealed that the Osmodehydration process helped to retain initial
fruit rind osmosed in 70 0Brix for 48 hr recorded fruit characteristics viz., colour, aroma, texture
the highest Total Soluble Solids of 46.930Brix, and nutritional composition, and product stability
total sugar (48.04 %) and reducing sugar (17.48 (Ramya and Jain, 2017).
%) with the lowest tritratable acidity of 1.54 per
cent followed by rind osmosed in 700Brix for 36 Changes in Biochemical parameters of
hr. Highest HCA content of 2.90 per cent was osmodehydrated G.gummi-gutta during storage
observed for the fruit osmosed in 500Brix for 24 hr The osmodehydrated G. gummi-gutta fruits
and the lowest (1.28 %) was recorded for 70 0Brix were stored for a period of 3 months to assess the
for 48 hr. With the increase in immersion time and storage stability of the products (Fig 2). During
concentration of osmotic medium, acidity decreased storage, the TSS, total and reducing sugar content
and is supported by the findings of Turkiewicz et of osmodehydrated fruit slices were significantly
al (2020) who confirmed that osmodehydration increased. Results were in accordance with the
process reduced organic acids in Japanese quince findings of Sagar and Kumar (2009) in mango.
by 77 per cent compared to fresh fruit. The highest Katsoufi et al (2017) confirmed that increased total
antioxidant activity of 78.38% was observed for the sugar concentration made the fruit tissue more
osmodehydrated product prepared by immersing brittle and less tough. Acidity of the dehydrated
at 500Brix for 24 hr and with increase osmotic fruits significantly increased during storage and the
solution concentration and immersion time, acidity osmodehydrated slices in 700Brix for 36 hr recorded
and antioxidant activity of the osomdehydrated an acidity of 1.72 per cent, 1.75 per cent and 1.79
Malabar tamarind fruits decreased. This might per cent after 1st, 2ndand 3rd month of storage
be due to higher leaching of soluble components respectively. Osmodehydrated fruits in 700Brix for
during osmotic diffusion process as reported by 36 hr recorded an antioxidant activity of 70.61 per
Phisut et al (2013). cent after one month of storage, 70.20 per cent after
second month and 68.63 per cent after third month
Sensory analysis of osmodehydrated G.gummi- of storage which showed a decreasing trend during
gutta storage. The sensory scores for all osmodehydrated
Sensory parameters viz., taste, colour (golden fruit samples recorded a decreasing trend during
yellow to light brown), flavour, texture and overall storage and were acceptable even after three months
acceptability (Fig 1.) for osmodehydrated malabar of storage. Similar result was reported by Aparna
tamarind fruits revealed that the highest mean score et al (2018) for osmo-dehydrated bilimbi during
for taste (8.60) was recorded for osmodehydrated storage.
fruit in 700Brix for 36 hr followed by C2T3 (700 Brix,
48 hr) with 8.47 and C1T3 (500 Brix, 48 hr) recorded

properties, and improved consumer acceptability.

Storage studies of the osmodehydrated malabar
tamarind revealed that TSS, sugars, and acidity
increased with storage while antioxidant activity
and HCA decreased. The Osmodehydrated
Garcinia fruit for an immersion time of 36 hr
recorded highest acceptability scores at the end of
the storage and which can be further utilized for
product development studies.
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Fig 2. Changes in acidity (a), total sugar (b), reducing sugar(c) and antioxidant activity(d) of osmodehydrated
G.gummi-gutta during storage

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Effects of pretreatments using plasma functionalized modulating the physicochemical and biological properties
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7-18.

J Krishi Vigyan 2023, 11 (2) : 239-245 10.5958/2349-4433.2023.00045.4
Non Chemical Methods for Management of

Chilli Leaf Curl Disease
Sujisha C S1, Sumiya K V2, Raji P3, Sible George Varghese4 and M SangeetaKutty5
College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, Kerala Agricultural University (KAU), Thrissur 680 656 (Kerala).
ABSTRACT
An experiment was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of aqueous extracts of certain plants with reported
antiviral activity and biocontrol agents for the management of Chilli leaf curl virus (ChiLCV) disease
naturally infecting chilli. It was observed that seed treatment followed by foliar sprays at 15 days interval
using 10% Azadirachta indica and Mirabilis jalapa extracts significantly reduced the disease incidence as
well as severity. Also, three treatments, namely A. indica, Pseudomonas flourescens and Bacillus subtilis
were found to efficiently check the number of whiteflies. Plant height was also found to be significantly
higher in plants treated with A.indica and M.jalapa. Bougainvillea spectabilis and PGPR mix II treated
plants. The presence of ChiLCV in the diseased plants was confirmed by performing PCR with virus
specific primers.
Key Words: Agents Biocontrol, Botanicals, Chilli, Virus.
INTRODUCTION the increase in populations of the highly virulent

Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) is considered as and insecticide-resistant `B’ biotype of B. tabaci.
one of the most important commercial spice crops Therefore, exploitation of the use of plant extracts
and is often called wonder spice. Viral diseases with antiviral properties and induction of resistance
affecting the crop has emerged as a vicious threat using biocontrol agents assumes importance in this
that drastically reduces its production and quality. backdrop. Many scientists in India and abroad have
Among all, whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) transmitted reported virus inhibitorsin several plant species like
Chilli leaf curl disease is thought of as the most B. spectabilis, M. jalapa and B. diffusa (Karthikeyan
destructive disease in terms of incidence and yield et al, 2009; Awasthi et al, 2016; Sharma et al, 2017)).
loss. In case of severe incidence, losses up to 100 Reports also show that use of bio control agents
per cent with regard to marketable fruit have been such as Pseudomonas spp. having diverse modes of
reported (Senanayake et al, 2007). The disease is action helps in induction of defense related enzymes
characterized by typical leaf curl symptoms along such as peroxidase (PO), polyphenol oxidase (PPO)
with puckering, twisted petioles, stunted growth, and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) in virus
reduced size of leaves, low or no fruit set etc. infected plants (Venkatesan et al, 2010).
Farmers currently resort to use of resistant
varieties and large quantities of broad-spectrum MATERIALS AND METHODS
insecticides in an attempt to check the disease. The pot experiment aimed at evolving a suitable
The later approach is costly, hazardous and certain management strategy to contain the disease was
insecticides are becoming less effective since conducted in open conditions relying on natural

1
College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, Kerala Agricultural University (KAU), Thrissur 680 656 (Kerala). 2Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Palakkad,
679 306 (Kerala). 3Regional Agricultural Research Station, Pattambi 679 306 (Kerala), 4,5College of Agriculture, Vellanikkara, KAU, Thrissur
680 656 (Kerala).

Non Chemical Methods for Management of Chilli Leaf Curl Disease
incidence of leaf curl disease in chilli in the year were recorded from 5 random plants at 15 days
2021-22 at KVK Palakkad. The experiment was interval from 15 DAT. The plants were transplanted
laid out as a CRD including 9 treatments and 3 at 45 DAS.
replications using the variety Byadagi Dabbi with 9 Disease incidence was calculated as,
plants in each replication. The different treatments
included are presented below: Disease severity was calculated as,
T : 10 % Leaf extract of Bougainvillea spectabilis Where, Gi: Number of plants with disease score i (i
1
- Seed treatment and foliar spray varies from 0 to 5)
T : 10 % Root extract of Boerhavia diffusa- Seed A plant was considered infected as soon as
a visible leaf curl symptom was observed. The
2
treatment and foliar spray

genomic DNA of randomly collected fresh leaf
T : 10 % Leaf extract of Azadirachta indica - Seed samples from the experimental plot were isolated
3
treatment and foliar spray by modified Gem CTAB method (Rouhibhaksh

T : 10 % Leaf extract of Mirabilis jalapa - Seed et al, 2008) with slight modifications. The
4
treatment and foliar spray isolated DNA was amplified by PCR using virus
T : Pseudomonas fluorescens - Seed treatment (10g specific primers to confirm the incidence of
kg-1 seed) and foliar spray (20g l-1) T : Bacillus ChiLCV. The incidence of Begomovirus was first
5
subtilis - Seed treatment (10g kg-1 seed) and foliar confirmed using DENG primer with a forward
6
spray (20g l-1) sequence of 5’- TAATATTACCKGWKGVCCSC

-3’ and reverse sequence of 5’-
T : PGPR – Seed treatment, seedling root dip and
7
TGGACYTTRCAWGGBCCTTCACA -3’. The
soil drenching @ 500g/ha
specific primer capable of amplifying the CP
T : Dimethoate 0.05%
8 gene of ChiLCV was of the forward sequence
T : Untreated control 5’- AGAATTATGTCCAAGCGACCA-3’
9
and reverse sequence of 5’-
The extracts of T1 to T4 was prepared and
AAGCGTTGGGGATACACAAA-3’.
sprayed at 10 per cent concentration according to
the protocol suggested by Sharma et al (2017). The statistical analysis for the data recorded
Roots/leaves of the plants were collected, dried from the pot experiment was analyzed by ANOVA
in shade at room temperature, ground to powder (Analysis of Variance) for Completely Randomized
and stored at low temperature. The crude extracts Design (CRD) making use of WASP statistical
were prepared by making the suspension of root software.
or leaf powder separately in water (1g/10 ml).
The pulp was stained through muslin cloth and the RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
homogenate was clarified by centrifugation at 8,000 Effect of treatments on disease incidence and
g for 15 minutes. The extract prepared was sprayed severity
at 10 per cent concentration. Talc formulations The Disease Incidence (DI) and Disease
of the biocontrol agents viz., P. fluorescens, B. Severity (DS) recorded from the experimental plot
subtilis and PGPR mix II were used in the study. is presented in Table 1. At 15 DAT, the incidence
All the treatments under study were applied as seed and severity were maximum in the untreated
treatment and then as foliar sprays/ soil drench at an control plot. All the other treatments except that of
interval of 15 d from 15 d after sowing. Six foliar T5 (P. flourescens) exhibited a significant reduction
sprays were given up to 90 DAS. The observations in disease incidence when compared to T9, the
regarding plant height, whitefly count, DI and DS untreated control. With respect to DS, the effect of P.

Table 1. Effect of treatments on disease incidence and severity

Sr. DI and DS
No. Treatment 15 DAT 30 DAT 45 DAT 60 DAT
1 T1 - Leaf extract of B. spectabilis 0.00 a 40.00 bcd 66.67 bc 73.33c
0.00 a 12.00 bc 8.67ab 30.67ab
2 T2 - Root extract of B. diffusa 0.00 a 33.33 bc 73.33c 73.33 c
0.00 a 10.67 bc 6.67bc 30.67 ab
3 T3 - Leaf extract of A. indica 6.67 a 26.67 ab 46.67 ab 66.67ab
1.33 ab 5.33 ab 12.00a 22.67 ab
4 T4 - Leaf extract of M. jalapa 6.67 a 26.67 ab 66.67 bc 80.00bc
1.33 ab 5.33 ab 16.00ab 29.33 ab
T5 - P. fluorescens 20.00b 46.67cd 73.33bc 93.33cd
5 4.00b 12.00 bc 26.67bc 46.67 c
T6 - B. subtilis 6.67 a 33.33bc 46.67 ab 73.33 b
6 1.33ab 9.33 ab 18.67ab 32.00 b
T7 - PGPR 0.00 a 53.33d 86.67cd 100.00d
7 0.00 a 17.33 c 40.00cd 49.33c
8 T8 - Dimethoate 0.00 a 13.33a 40.00a 53.33a
0.00a 2.67 a 9.33a 18.67a
9 T9 - Untreated Control 26.67b 93.33e 100.00d 100.00d
8.00c 29.33 d 49.33d 54.67c
CD (0.05) 13.20 18.67 22.8 17.46
3.962 6.98 13.53 12.54
flourescens was observed to be significant from that diffusa and P. flourescens also showed reduction in
of the untreated control. At 15 DAT plants treated DS and DI when compared to the untreated control.
with B. spectabilis, B. diffusa, PGPR and Dimethoate At 60 DAT, with respect to DI, the only treatment
were free of disease incidence suggesting their that was on par with the effect of insecticide check
effect in delaying the disease initiation. Six percent was A. indica.
disease incidence was recorded in plants treated with The effect of treatments M. jalapa, B. subtilis,
A. indica, M. jalapa and B. subtilis but the DI as well B. spectabilis and B. diffusa were significant when
as DS was less than that of the untreated controlplot. compared to the untreated control. Though the
As the disease progressed, at 30 DAT, the highest appearance of symptoms were very much delayed in
values of DI and DS were recorded in treatment T9, the plants treated with B. spectabilis and B. diffusa,
the untreated control. Treatment T8, the insecticide at 60 DAT, the disease incidence was the least in A.
check apparently exhibited the best performance indica treatedplants (Plate 1). With regard to DS, the
and treatments A. indica and M. jalapa were on par effect of all the plant extracts was significant from
with the insecticide check. At 45 DAT, the disease the untreated control. Researchers from a long time
incidence recorded in A. indica and B. subtilis have been reporting the antiviral effect of various
treated plants wereon par with the insecticide check plant extracts. Apart from the antiviral properties,
but plants treated with B. spectabilis, M. jalapa, B. these are also known to positively influence many

other plant growth parameters. Leaf extracts of A. PO and total phenols could be responsible for the
indica is a suitable control strategy against chilli leaf activation of several defence mechanisms resulting
curl in the light of this study. in the reduced disease infection.
In a study conducted on the management of M. jalapa is a member of family Nyctaginaceae
viral diseases of watermelon, Sharma et al (2017) whose antiviral effect is attributed to the presence
observed that a combination of seed treatment and of a ribosome inactivating protein (RIP) termed
6 foliar sprays of leaf extract of A. indica delayed as Mirabilis antiviral protein (MAP).Vivanco et al
the onset of symptom expression till 58 DAS against (1999) believed that the MAP behaved as a signal
18.5 DAS in the untreated control resulting in an molecule that could signal a cascade response which
appreciable reduction in disease incidence to the in turn activated a series of defence mechanisms
tune of 52.08 per cent. The disease severity also was well in advance of the viral infection. The supreme
tremendously reduced by timely sprays of A. indica. effect of leaf extract of B. spectabilis with respect
A per cent reduction in DS to the tune of 75.75 % to delay in onset of disease and further spread along
at 45 DAT compared to the untreated control was with significant reduction in disease severity in the
observed in this study. Though, reports of antiviral present study is worth mentioning. Symptoms were
effects of A. indica have been widely studied not expressed in 15DAT in Bougainvillea treated
about, there are no reports of any antiviral proteins plants when a DI of 26.67 per cent was observed in
isolated from the plants. In fact, adding confidence the control plot.Similar observations were made by
to the findings of this study, studies reflecting the Ashfaq et al (2006) wherein spraying leaf extract
effect of A. indica in containing human viruses of Bougainvillea delayed the incidence of Urdbean
have been reported. Faccin-Galhardi et al (2012) Leaf Crinkle Virus in blackgram by10- 14 days
reported the antiviral effect of two polysaccharides, and reduced the disease incidence to 20-30 per
P1and P2 isolated from the leaves of neem tree in cent against the 80 per cent in control. Guller et al
containing the poliovirus type 1. They suggested (2017) isolated, cloned and expressed one of the
that the prominent antiviral effect of this plant that ribosome inactivating proteins, Bouganin antiviral
assumes very much importance on an ethno medical protein (BAP) from B. Spectabilis Willd. The
background was by inhibition of viral replication at influence of defence related peroxidase enzymes
initial stages. In the present study, the leaf extracts in polymerization reactions and cross linking of
of M. jalapa had a significant effect on reducing structural cell wall proteins on the cell walls of
the disease incidence and the disease severity and the sprayed plant which could possibly be negate
the effect was on par with that of A. indica most the movement of viruses was suggested by Fry
of the time. Though the number of days to disease (1986). B. diffusa showcased an activity on par with
initiation wasn’t delayed, the further spread was Bougainvillea in the study. The disease initiation
thoroughly checked. Karthikeyan et al (2009) on his was delayed. A reduction to the tune of 34 % was
studies with ULCV infecting blackgram observed observed. The observations made from this study
a satisfactory reduction (90 %) in infection of by was in accordance with that of Sharma et al (2017)
M. jalapa and B. spectabilis over the control when who observed a commendable decrease (54.24 %)
applied 24 h before inoculation. It was reported that in incidence of viral diseases in watermelon when
the number of incubation days in the former was 28 compared to the control when treated with root
days and latter was 21 days compared to 14 days in extract of B. diffusa followed by A. indica (52.02
the control. But in this study, symptom expression %) both of which were comparable to that of the
was visible by 15 DAT in M. jalapa and 30 DAT disease reduction in the insecticide treated plot
in B. spectabilis. It has been suggested that higher (57.07 %). Production of a Virus Inhibitory Agent
levels of the defence related enzymes, PAL, PPO, (VIA) in healthy but susceptible plant was observed

(The first row against each treatment indicates DI and the second row indicates DS)
a.Effect of T3- 10% A. indica b. Effect of T9- Untreated control
Plate 1. Effect of 10% A. indica over untreated control on disease incidence
post application of the systemic resistance inducing of ChiLCV in chilli is A. indica and M. jalapa . The
protein (BD-SRIP) identified from B. diffusa. This effects of the other two tested antiviral agents, B.
glycoprotein is known to function as a signal diffusa and B. spectabilis is also appreciable in terms
molecule that stifles the virus by stimulating the of delaying disease onset. The effect of B. subtilis
defense systems of plants. It is explained that the onreducing the disease incidence was at par with the
inhibitory effect is a due function of phytoproteins best performing treatments, A. indica and M. jalapa
in these plants which is capable of preventing the throughout the experiment but its effect on disease
formation of necrotic lesions in hypersensitive severity was less pronounced by 60 DAT. A 53.3
hostsas well as delaying the development of disease per cent reduction in disease incidence and 62.17
specific symptom in systemic hosts, by activating per cent reduction in disease severity was observed
pathways responsible for Induced Systemic in B. subtilis treated plants by 45 DAT. A similar
Resistance (ISR). Therefore, it could be inferred that disease reducing activity was observed by Lian et
the best performing plantextracts against the control al (2010) wherein 52 and 71 percent reduction in
The gel pictures of amplification is presented as Fig. 1 and Fig. 2.
Fig. 1 Amplification using universal DENG primer Fig. 2 Amplification using specific primer,
ChiLCV specific primer

Table 2. Effect of treatments on height of plants and no. whiteflies

Sr. Height (Cm) No. of
No. Treatments whiteflies
15 DAT 30 DAT 45 DAT 60 DAT 15 DAT 30 DAT
1 T1 - Leaf extract of B. spectabilis 17.57bc 30.83bc 41.33abc 49.27abc 8.40d 5.80b
2 T2 - Root extract of B. diffusa 21.87ab 31.14 bc 40.32bc 46.00bcd 6.00c 5.60b
3 T3 - Leaf extract of A. indica 17.73bc 29.13cd 41.73abc 51.13ab 1.67a 1.93a
4 T4 - Leaf extract of M. jalapa 25.60a 37.57a 46.93a 53.53a 7.73d 6.00b
5 T5 - P. fluorescens 18.07bc 30.80bc 39.13bcd 43.93cde 1.60 a
2.00a
6 T6 - B. subtilis 17.13 c 27.46 cd 36.46cd 43.73de 3.80b 1.82a
7 T7 - PGPR 24.63a 36.07ab 42.85ab 49.77ab 8.13d 6.93b
8 T8 - Dimethoate 18.70bc 28.34 cd 37.37bcd 43.13de 1.13a 1.87a
9 T9 - Untreated Control 15.93c 24.33d 33.20d 39.06e 9.20d 6.73b
CD (0.05) 4.67 5.86 6.03 5.5 1.7 2.9
symptom expression was observed in plants treated and another specific primer. All the samples tested
with B. subtilis strain EN16 and SW1 respectively positive confirming the incidence of Chilli leaf curl
while working with the management of TMV in virus in the experimental plot.
Tobacco. Later, it was evident from the enzyme
analysis that there was a corresponding increase of CONCLUSION
defence related enzymes and pathogenesis-related The management of plant viruses is usually
(PR) proteins in Bacillus treated plants challenged restricted to the utilization of resistant varieties, the
with pathogen. availability of such sources along with commercial
At 15 DAT, three treatments were noticed to acceptance is often a problem. In this experiment
have a significant inhibitory effect on the count to identify the effective non- chemical strategy to
of whiteflies, A. indica, P. flourescens and the contain Chilli leaf curl virus affecting chilli, leaf
insecticide check. The effect of treatment B. subtilis extract of A. indica (10%) and M. jalapa (10%)
was also significant when compared to the untreated were found to have significant disease reducing
control. At 30 DAT, the effect of A. indica, P. effect. The effect of the other two plant extracts
flourescens and B. subtilis were on par with that with reported antiviral properties, B. spectabilis
of the insecticide check. All other treatments were (10%) and B. diffusa (10%) was also significant in
on par with the untreated control indicating their reducing the chilli leaf curl disease incidence and
insignificance in reducing the whitefly count one severity. The disease severity recorded in these
month after transplant. From this it could be inferred treatments ranged from 22.67 to 30.67 against the
that the disease reducing activity of plant extracts 54.67 in the untreated control. The only biocontrol
like B. spectabilis, M.jalapa and B. diffusa is not by agent with a disease reducing effect was B. subtilis.
means of checking the insect vector but by virtue of It may be proposed to include an environmentally
some antiviral property it confers (Table 2). sound and viable management strategy that includes
seed treatment and timely foliar sprays at 15 days
Genomic DNA isolated from six random samples
interval of the plant extracts of A. indica or M.
collected from infected plants in the experimental
jalapa in combination with the bioagent B. subtilis
plot were subjected to PCR amplification using two
in effectively containing the ChiLCVD associated
sets of primers, a universal primer, DENG primer
with the curling, crinkling, puckering and dwarfing

symptoms in chilli. This combination apart from Lian L, Xie L, Zheng L and Lin Q (2011). Induction of systemic
disease reduction also is promising in reflecting resistance in tobacco against Tobacco mosaic virus by
Bacillus spp. Biocontrol Sci and Technol 21(3): 281-292.
increased plant height and health.
Prasad V and Srivastava S (2017). Phytoproteins and induced
antiviral defence in susceptibleplants: The Indian Context.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT In: A Century of Plant Virology in India. Springer,
The authors hereby acknowledge the financial Singapore. 689-728.
assistance and research facilities extended by the Rajesh S, Balasaraswathi R, Doraisamy S and Sadasivam
Kerala Agricultural University. S (2005). Synthesis and cloning of cDNA encoding
an antiviral protein from the leaves of Bougainvillea
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Guller A, Sipahioglu, H M Mustafa, U S T A and Durak E D biopesticides. Virol Res Rev 1(3): 1-8.
(2018). Antiviral and antifungal activity of biologically Takanami Y, Kuwata S, Ikeda T, and Kubo S (1990).
active recombinant bouganin protein from Bougainvillea Purification and characterization of the anti-plant viral
spectabilis willd. J Agri Sci 24(2): 227-237. protein from Mirabilis jalapa L. Japan J Phytopatho
Hanafi A and Fellah K (2006). Does the PGPR Bacillus 56(4): 488-494.
subtilis induce plant resistance to whiteflies and Pythium Vivanco J M, Querci M and Salazar L F (1999). Antiviral
spp. in greenhouse tomato. Bulletin OILB/SROP 29: 105 and antiviroid activity of MAPcontaining extracts from
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(2009). Evaluation of antiviral principles for the induction Received on 22/12/2022 Accepted on 5/4/2023
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Pl Prot 42(12): 1172-1186.

Nutritional Status of Buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) in Tribal District

Mandla of Northern Hills Region of Central India
Pramod Sharma, Ankur Khare, Bhavna Aharwal and Anil Kumar Giri*
College of Veterinary Science & A.H., Rewa 486001
(Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science University, Jabalpur 482004,)
Madhya Pradesh, India
ABSTRACT
A participatory field study on nutrient management of Bubalus bubalis (L.) by farmers was carried
out in Bichhia Block of Mandla District in Central India with forty one buffalo owners. A fifteen point
questionnaire was developed to gather information of the feeding management and milk production of
buffaloes. The body weight of the buffaloes was calculated by the Schaeffer’s formula. The average body
weight of buffaloes was 508 ± 7.5 kg. The average milk production and 4% FCM yield was 4.08 and 6.06
kg, respectively. The total nutrient fed (DCP, TDN) was compared with nutrient requirement and found that
DCP, TDN and phosphorus was deficit by 13.53, 6.09, 22.75 percent, respectively. It was concluded that the
low milk production in buffaloes was due to nutrient deficit ration fed to the lactating buffaloes.
Key Words: Buffaloes, Lactating, Management, Nutrient.
INTRODUCTION carried out among 41 buffalo owners to explore

India, though is the largest milk producer in the nutrient management and milk productivity in
the world (Anon, 2014) with 132.4 Mt of milk Mandla district.
production, but the productivity of the dairy
animals is very low i.e., 4.5 kg/day (Hegde, 2006). MATERIALS AND METHODS
Low milk production in Indian dairy animals is Geographically district Mandla, is located
attributed to several reasons including pre and between 81° E Longitude and 22.70° N latitude,
post parturient disorders (Blood and Radostitis, and has nine development blocks. The study was
2007). Among these, inadequate nutrition is the conducted in Bichhia block which has a population
most widely reported factor in India for low milk of 217,838. Sixty buffaloes belonging to forty-one
production (Qureshi et al, 2002). Buffalo owners who were willing to participate in the
According to the 19th Livestock Census, study were selected and information was collected
2012, buffalo population in India is 108.7 million through a set of fifteen point questionnaire and group
constituting 57 percent of world’s buffalo population. discussion. The socio-economic characteristics of
Madhya Pradesh with 8.18 m buffalo population buffalo owners i.e. age of farmers, category, literacy
ranks 6th in India. Mandla is a predominant tribal status, marital status, occupation and landholdings
district of M.P. and harbours a buffaloes population are presented in figure 1. The primary information
of 54,681. The milk production of the district is collected was verified with sources and personnel in
92,500 t, while the mean milk productivity is 1.21 the Department of Veterinary Services, Government
l/ day/animal. The present intensive field study was of Madhya Pradesh.

*Deptt. of LPM, College of Agriculture, Rewa (JNKVV, Jabalpur)

Body weight (43.90 %) belonged to other backward class (OBC)

Body weight (BW) of all the buffaloes was category. Sabapara et al (2014) reported that age
recorded before feeding and watering in the morning of dairy animal owners has no significant role on
and BW was calculated following the Schaeffer’s improved animal husbandry practices but Sharma
formula suggested by Sastry et al. (1982) and Singh (2008) observed that caste of dairy
animal owners had highly significant and positive
Daily feed intake correlation with the improved dairy husbandry
The daily feed intake of all the selected animal practices. In a study (Sharma et al, 2009) it has been
was calculated by measuring feed offered and reported that caste of dairy animal owners though
residue left, for three consecutive days. had non-significant with the enterprise but had a
Proximate analysis positive correlation with dairy husbandry practices.
Representative samples of various feeds Out of 41 buffalo owners, 15 had been high
(concentrate, mustard seed cake, wheat bran, left school pass out, 5 higher secondary and 3 were
over chapatis- baked Indian wheat bread and green graduates, while the remaining were either semi-
fodder) were collected for proximate analysis as literate or illiterate. According to Sharma et al
per AOAC (1995), while that for Ca and P method (2009) and Shekhawat et al (2013) education
suggested by Talapatra et al (1940) was followed. of dairy animal owners had highly significant
Intake of crude protein (CP), Ca and P digestible correlation with knowledge on improved dairy
crude protein (DCP) and total digestible nutrient husbandry practices. This indicate that educated
(TDN) were calculated following Sen et al (1978). animal owners possessed more knowledge due to
On the basis of DMI of each animal and chemical the fact that they tended to have more interaction
composition of the feed, nutrient supply was with extension agencies and did not hesitate to
determined. Deficiency/excess of various nutrients discuss their problems related to animal husbandry
was calculated by following Ranjhan (1998). with veterinarians and other extension personal as
compared to old illiterate respondents.
Milk analysis
The milk samples collected in the morning Majority of the buffalo owners were small
and evening were pooled for the fat estimation landholders. Land holding of dairy animal owners
by the Gerber’s method. The solid not fat (SNF) had high significant positive relationship with
percentage in milk was estimated by evaporating improved dairy husbandry practices (Mande et al,
the water content of milk and by subtracting its 2008 and Kumar et al, 2009). This might be due to
fat percentage following the method suggested by the fact that the dairy farmers, who have large land
Agarwala and Sharma (1961). The morning and holder, generally have good financial and leadership
evening milk yield of individual lactating buffaloes qualities so they easily adopt new improved and
as well as 4 percent fat corrected milk (FCM) was innovative dairy husbandry practices.
recorded using the following formula suggested by In the present study 70 percent of buffalo owners
Gains (1928). were married, and had no effect on knowledge of
4% FCM = 0.4 x milk yield (kg) + 15 x fat yield improved buffalo rearing and management. Similar
(kg) findings were also reported by Chander and Chand
(2022), Kumar et al (2012) and Cakmur et al
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION (2015). Thirty four percent of buffalo owners were
only dependent on animal husbandry and forty eight
Socio-economic status of Buffalo owner
percent on agriculture as their main occupation.
Most of the Buffalo owners belonged to the age
However, Vithanage et al (2013) found that seventy
group of 41-45 yr. Out of the 41 buffalo owners, 18
seven percent farmers were totally dependent on

animal husbandry. The dependency varies from
region to region and resources of the dairy owners.
Composition of Feed
The chemical composition of feed used for
feeding buffaloes is presented in Table 1, which was
in agreement with earlier findings (Ranjhan, 1998)
values. The left-over of human food like chapatis
(Bread) were used very frequently for feeding of
dairy buffaloes in villages as a non-conventional
feed resource. The wheat bran was also the most
commonly used feed. Feeding in-milk animals with
wheat bran and left over chapatis has been reported
by Bakshi et al (2010). Buffaloes’ owners prepared
their own feed concentrates from locally available
mustard-seed cake and available green fodder for
feeding animals. The poor performance might be
due to the non-descript type of buffaloes, having
low genetic potential to produce milk. The buffalo
owners never used readymade mineral mixture
for feeding their buffaloes. The role of mineral
in biological systems, growth, production and
reproduction is vital (McDowell et al, 1984).
Milk production, Milk quality and Feed intake
of Buffaloes
The average Milk yield (kg), calculated 4%
FCM yield (kg), fat, SNF and ash percentage,
DMI (kg/d), DMI/100 kg BW, DMI/w0.75 and Body
Fig.1 Socio-Economic Characteristics of buffalo owner weight (kg) of the buffaloes presented in Table 2,
(SC, Schedule Caste; ST, Schedule Tribe; OBC, Other were in consistent with the standard values (Sharma
Backward Class)
et al, 2007). Agarwal et al (1988) described that the
Table 1. Chemical composition of feed stuffs (91.83% DM in concentrate).

Sr. Feed stuffs OM±SE CP±SE EE±SE Ash±SE
No.
1. Concentrate (self made) 91.70±7.20 19.45±3.55 04.40 ±0.3 8.30 ±0.90
2. Mustard-seed cake 91.63±3.60 28.25±2.78 12.70±1.03 8.37±0.54
3. Wheat bran 93.3±5.10 14.90 ±3.41 03.40±0.80 6.70±0.90
4. Chapati (Bread) 92.2±6.56 13.25 ±1.75 03.50±0.09 7.80 ±1.05
5. Green fodder 91.50±9.52 07.65±1.18 02.95±0.75 8.50±1.22
(OM, Organic Matter; CP, Crude Protein; EE, Ether Extract)

Table 2. Milk Yield, Milk composition and Dry Matter Intake in Buffaloes.
Sr. No. Particular Value
1. Milk Yield(kg) 4.08±0.70
2. 4% FCM yield(kg) 6.06±0.65
3. Fat (%) 7.23±0.20
4. SNF (%) 7.42±0.09
5. Ash (%) ± 0.006
6. DMI (kg/d) 11.58 ± 0.49
7. DMI /100 kg BW(kg/d) 2.27 ± 0.15
8. DMI /w0.75 kg(g/d) 107.00 ± 4.96
9. Body Weight (kg) 508 ± 7.50
mean DMI in milch buffalo ranged from 11.1kg to was deficit by 60.32, 38.26, 41.06 and 79.57 percent
15.4kg, while Pathak and Verma (1993) reported respectively (Jain et al, 2012).
the DMI in buffaloes as 2-2.5 kg/100 kg BW that Phosphorus deficiency was one of the main
is equivalent to 90-125 g/w0.75 kg in buffaloes of causes of infertility (Moellers and Riese, 1988) as
different body weight and milk yield. Infact these its severe deficiency delays the onset of puberty,
factors depends on the BW, age and physiological postpartum anoestrus and increases the incidence of
stages of buffaloes. cystic follicles, because of inactive ovaries, leading
The daily feed intake, requirements and to moderate and low conception rates (Dixon,
deficiency/ excess of nutrients in the lactating 1998). Thus imbalance or inadequate nutrient
buffaloes are presented in Table 3. Results indicated intake as compared to their requirement lowers
a shortage of DCP was to the tune of 13.53 percent the productivity among buffaloes as observed in
when compared with standard requirements Bichhia.
suggested by Ranjhan (1998) for buffaloes. It has
also been reported that prolonged inadequate protein CONCLUSION
intake reduced the reproductive performance of The rations fed to lactating buffaloes, were deficit
cattle (Blood and Radostitis, 2007). In case of TDN, in almost all of the macro and micro nutrients and
the shortage was to the tune of 6.09 in the present these deficiencies of nutrients may have contributed
study, while that of Ca was 14.02 excess and P was to low milk production. Therefore, an extension
and 22.75 percent deficit.. In pregnant buffaloes on follow up programme for creating awareness on
wheat straw based diet the DCP, TDN, Ca and P nutrient management of buffaloes should be started
Table 3. Intake, requirements and deficiency / excess of nutrients in buffaloes

Particular DCP(g) TDN(kg) Ca(g) P(g)
Maintenance Requirement (for 500 kg BW) 268.0 3.70 13.00 13.00
Milk production Requirement (4.08 kg) 257.04 1.88 13.46 10.60
Total Requirement 555.04 5.58 26.46 23.60
Total Intake 479.95 5.24 30.17 18.23
Deficit/Excess -75.09 -0.34 3.71 -5.37
Deficit/Excess (%) -13.53 -6.09 14.02 -22.75

by the state veterinary department in collaboration Kumar P, Kher S K and Dwivedi S (2012). An analytical
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Opportunities and Threats of Custom Hiring Centre in

Farm Mechanization
P Venkata Rao*1, S Neelaveni2 and G Chitti Babu3
The District Agricultural Advisory and Transfer of Technology Centre (DAATTC),

Srikakulam (Andhra Pradesh)
ABSTRACT
Establishment of Custom Hiring Centre (CHC) in farm mechanization is a boon for farmers especially
for the small and marginal farmers to combat the labour scarcity. Thus, an extension study was taken up
with an objective to know the opportunities and threats in CHC in farm mechanization. About 30 Custom
hiring centres located in five sub divisions of the district were selected purposefully for the study. The
respondents selected for the study were 30 each from CHC owned farmers, hired farmers and non-hired
farmers, thus total sample size was 90. An exploratory research design used for the study. Results revealed
that cent per cent of the respondent farmers perceived labour scarcity and high wage rates as the opportunity
to establish custom hiring centers. About ninty five per cent farmers perceived the disappearance of cattle
for field operations as an opportunity for CHCs. Govt. schemes and subsidy on farm machinery for farmers
perceived as opportunity by the 93.33 per cent of the respondent farmers . Cent per cent of the respondent
farmers perceived small land holdings as a threat for establish CHCs, high initial investment perceived as
threat by the 97.78 per cent farmers, 94.44 per cent farmers perceived the farmers migration to other sectors
as a threat and lack of trained personnel for repairs as threat by 91.11 per cent. Farmers suggested that
at least one CHC should be established by the G overnment a t mandal level so the price of custom
hiring of agricultural machinery is fixed and low as compared to that offered by private CHCs. Policy
makers may consider the weaknesses to formulate solutions for these problems and consider the strengths
for further improvement in promotion and establishment of CHCs.
Key Words: Agriculture, Machines, Power, Farm tools.
INTRODUCTION own them. Hence, establishment of Custom Hiring

Agricultural mechanization implies the use of service Centre (CHC) is required to resolve the
various power sources and improved farm tools and labour scarcity and to improve the farm machinery
equipment, with a view to reduce the drudgery of a boon for farmers especially for the small and
the human beings and draught animals, enhance the marginal farmers. CHCs are basically a unit
cropping intensity, precision in metering and placement comprising a set of farm machinery, implements
of inputs and timelines of efficiency of utilization and equipment meant for custom hiring by farmers.
of various crop inputs (seed, chemical, fertilizer, Though certain implements and equipment are crop
irrigation, water etc.) and reduce the losses at different specific, the traction units like tractors, power tillers
stages of crop production. Mechanization of farm etc., and self-propelled machinery like combine
activities is the need of hour to increase production harvesters etc., are used in common. Therefore,
and productivity. Though subsidy is being provided an ideal model envisaged in this project comprise
for farm machinery, due to prohibitive cost of farm farm machinery that are commonly used for tillage
machinery all farmers may not come forward to operations for all crops, multi crop equipment and
1&3
DAATTC, Srikakulam, Andhra Pradesh 2
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Srikakulam

Table 1. Particulars of Sample selection.

Sr. Sub-Division Mandal Villages Owned Hire Non Hire Total
No selectec farmers farmers farmers
1 Palakonda Palakonda Ampili 3 3 3 9
Burja Singannapeta 3 3 3 9
2 Rajam Rajam MJ Valasa 3 3 3 9
Vangara R.Gummada 3 3 3 9
3 Srikakulam Gara Gara 3 3 3 9
Srikurmam 3 3 3 9
4 Tekkali Kotabommali Regulapadu 3 3 3 9
Nandigam D G Puram 3 3 3 9
5 Ranastalam Ranastalam Velpurai 3 3 3 9
G Sigadam G Kancharam 3 3 3 9
Total 30 30 30 90
a minimum of crop specific machinery (Sharma and Interview schedule developed for the study and
Singh, 2020). data were collected and analyzed with the use of
The CHC shall have to be located in a place appropriate statistical tools.
where by and large small land holdings are located
within a radius of 5 to 7 km. This will reduce the RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
transport cost and time of transport of agricultural The data (Table 2) revealed that cent per cent
machinery. In other terms, one CHC is expected to of the respondent farmers perceived labour scarcity
cater to 4/5 villages and therefore, a common place and high wage rates as the opportunity to establish
equidistant from the villages catered is advisable. custom hiring centres. This was evidenced with
Criteria for selection of the village to establish the the findings of Mohanty and Bhuyan (2020) that
farm machinery banks: (a) Low ratio of farm power mechanized weeding can produce large reductions
availability. (b) Low number of tractor population in the weeding costs and significant reductions
(c) Small & marginal operational Holdings (d) Less in labour time, whereas hand weeding (95.55%
productivity of food grains but potential to enhance farmers) perceived the disappearance of cattle
productivity. Keeping this in view, an extension for field operations as an opportunity for CHCs.
study has been taken up to know the opportunities Govt. schemes and subsidy on farm machinery for
and threats in CHC in farm mechanization. farmers perceived as opportunity by the 93.33 per
cent of the respondent farmers. It has been in tune
MATERIALS AND METHODS with results that the majority (75%) of the farmers
had moderate perception towards CHS of Kisku et
Selection of the respondents al (2022). It is the time to form cohesive groups
The study conducted in Srikakulam district which could be avail the Govt. subsidy and bank
of Andhra Pradesh and 30 Custom hiring centers credit to establish the CHC to mitigate the labour
located in five sub divisions of the district were scarcity. Syed Mazaril et al (2017) farmers opined
selected purposefully. The respondents selected for that adoption of mechanization not only reduces
the study were CHC owned farmers, hired farmers the drudgery, reduces cost of cultivation but also
and non-hired farmers each 30, thus total sample increases more returns per unit time and area.
size was 90.

Based on preliminary discussion with the experts, officials, owners, dealers the following Criteria
considered for SWOT Analysis of CHCs.
Sr. No Criteria Sr. No Criteria
1 Establishment of CHCs, 7 Field suitability for CHC Machinery,
2 Availability of the equipment, 8 Depreciation of the machinery in CHC,
3 Cost of the machinery, 9 Decision empowerment while establishing
CHCs,
4 Source of the machinery. 10 Repairs and maintenance of farm machinery
5 Procurement of the machinery, 11 Profitability of CHCs
6 Suitability of the machinery offered for CHCs, 12 Promotion of CHCs
Table 2. Opportunities as perceived by the farmers

Sr. No Perceived item Frequency Percentage
1 Labour scarcity and higher wages 90 100.00
2 Disappearance of cattle for field operations 86 95.55
3 Govt. schemes and subsidy on farm machinery for farmers 84 93.33
4 Covering more area/work per day 67 74.44
5 Diversified cropping systems 66 73.33
6 Availability of strong SHGs and farmer FPOs 57 63.33
7 Availability of the machinery 54 60.00
8 Dept. officials facilitates the farmers to take decisions for Selection 51 56.67
of machinery company
9 It can be used for other purposes (multiple purposes) 45 50.00
10 No import duties and taxes on farm machinery 27 30.00
It can be gleaned (Table 3) that cent per cent generally not fed to the animals whereas, paddy
of the respondent farmers perceived small land straw has some end uses in areas like briquetting,
holdings as a threat for establish CHCs, High bedding for ruminants, thermal power generation,
initial investment perceived as threat by the 97.78 liquid and gaseous fuel. Despite several uses of
per cent farmers, 94.44 per cent farmers perceived paddy straw, major portion goes as waste and is
the farmers migration to other sectors as a threat generally burnt in fields because of its availability
and lack of trained personnel for repairs as threat in loose form scattered on the farms. Therefore,
by 91.11 per cent. To sustain and maintenance of creation of CHC was required to be established so
CHCs Govt support for grant to meet the initial high that farmers can make use of machines available
investment and time to encourage the cooperative at the CHC at reasonable hiring charges instead of
farming and may establish CHC maintenance purchasing every machine at individual level. Singh
centres with trained and skilled persons for smooth et al (2013) reported that custom hiring system is
running of the CHCs. Verma et al (2016) reported better for the smaller farmers for availing non-farm
that In Punjab, about 91 per cent of area under employment opportunities.
paddy cultivation is harvested by combines and

Table 3. Threats as perceived by the farmers

Sr. No Perceived item Frequency Percentage
1 Small land holdings 90 100.00
2 High initial investment 88 97.78
3 Farmers migrating to other sectors 85 94.44
4 Lack of trained personnel for repairs 82 91.11
5 Unavailability of spare parts in time 81 90.00
6 Lack of group cohesion for longer periods 80 90.00
7 Delayed supply by the dealers 76 84.44
8 Taking too much time for repair 74 82.22
9 Escalation of fuel charges 70 77.78
10 Frequent problems during farm operation 65 72.22
11 Mandatory for certain machines which are not required 55 61.11
12 Seasonal work 45 50.00
13 Decisions dominated by the dealers while selecting the equipment 40 44.44
14 Climate changes at the time of different operations 27 30.00
Suggestions given by the farmers and low as compared to offers by private owner of
A government custom hiring centre should machinery.Take the measures to provide trainings
required a t mandal level, so the price of custom relating to farm machinery and equipment should
hiring of agricultural machinery is fixed and low be imparted to the skilled personnel, farmers and
as compared to offers by private CHCs. artisans.
Training relating to farm machinery and
equipment should be given to the farmers and REFERENCES
Verma A, Singh Arshdeep, Singh,Amandeep, Sidhu G S and
artisans. The farm machinery should be tailored to Dixit Anoop (2016). Performance Evaluation of tractor
feasable for different types of soil and operations operated paddy straw mulcher. J Krishi Vigyan 4 (2): 70-
Technical know-how should be provided to the 75
farmers with respect to appropriateness of farm Sharma Anirudh and Singh Anoop Kumar (2020). Future of
machinery for the situation and for its proper use. machines in agriculture. J Krishi Vigyan 8 (2) : 326-328
Standardization and quality-marking centres of Kisku U, Bisht K, Singh A K, and Naberia S (2022). Farmers’
farm equipment should be established in potential perception regarding custom hiring services in Jabalpur
areas of the country. Social audit also required for District of Madhya Pradesh. Indian J Ext Edu 58 (4).
the sanction and maintenance of CHC units. 19-22.
Mohanty D K and Bhuyan J (2020). Evaluation of different
mechanical weed control methods in rice field. J Krishi
CONCLUSION
Vigyan 8 (2) : 115-119
Policy makers may consider the threats
and formulate solutions for these problems and Singh S, Kingra H S and Sangeet (2013). Custom hiring
services of farm machinery in punjab: impact and
consider the opportunities for further improvement policies. Indian Res J Ext Edu 13(2): 45-50.
in promotion and establishment of CHCs.
Syed Mazaril, Kamalabai and Ranganatha S C (2017).
Government should establish custom hiring Performance of mechanical reaper for ragi (Eleusine
centres atleast at mandal level, so the price of coracana L.) harvesting. J Krishi Vigyan 6 (1) : 145-147
custom hiring of agricultural machinery is fixed Received on 12/9/2022 Accepted on 10/4/2023


G Rajarajan
Department of Livestock Products Technology,
Veterinary College and Research Institute,
Orathanadu – 614 625 TANUVAS Tamil Nadu
ABSTRACT
Food enrichment is thought to be a highly effective solution and among the most cost effective public
health interventions currently available. Yoghurt is a favorite dairy product for billions of people around
the world and the producers constantly seek out ways of bringing new varieties for new eating occasions
to be enjoyed anywhere and anytime. An attempt was made to incorporate the carotene in yoghurt. Milk
was supplemented with carrot juice at 10, 15 and 20 per cent levels. The enriched yoghurt samples were
subjected to sensory evaluation for its acceptance, using the 9-point hedonic scale. There was no significant
difference observed in acidity and overall acceptability. It was concluded that the yoghurt fortified with
natural beta carotene@15% in one litre of milk revealed better sensory acceptability during storage up to
14 days at 5⁰C.The daily requirement of vitamin A is 5000 IU. Hence, by consuming 100 ml of yoghurt
enriched with carotene at 15 per cent level, about 10 per cent of the vitamin A daily requirement can be
fulfilled.
Key Words: Carotene, Enrichment, Sensory evaluation Yoghurt
INTRODUCTION for new eating occasions to be enjoyed anywhere

Vitamin A is essential for sight and cell and anytime. In order to redress the abovementioned
differentiation. Deficiency of vitamin A results in issue, yoghurt is a logical vehicle for enrichment
night blindness and ultimately blindness, growth of carotene. Hence, an attempt had been made
retardation, damage of mucous membrane, and toincorporate carotene in yoghurt and make it as
reproductive disorders.Carotene supplementation a functional food and there by address the vitamin
of milk is very simple and easy to incorporate. The Adeficiency in the society.
supplementation like iodine in salt, vitamin A in
milk is being done in routine practice (Petrogianni MATERIALS AND METHODS
et al 2014). Carotenoids perform a variety of Milk was procured from Livestock Farm
biologicalfunctions which include functioning as Complex, Veterinary College and Research
vitamin A precursors (Matsuno, 1991), scavenger Institute, Orathanadu. Skim milk powder testing
and quencheragainst free radicals and active singlet 5% moisture and 95% solubility was purchased
oxygen (Miki, 1991), anti-cancer agents (Krinsky, from Tamil Nadu Co-operative Milk Producers’
1989) and immune system enhancers. Federation (Aavin) and used to standardize the
Food enrichment is thought to be a highly milk solids not fat content of yoghurt.Good quality
effective solution and among the most cost effective carrot (Daucuscarota)purchased from local market
public health interventions currently available. was used to obtain juice as a source of carotene in
Yoghurt is a favorite dairy product for billions the preparation ofyoghurt.Carrot roots (vegetables)
of people around the world and the producers were washed thoroughly; the juice was obtained
constantly seek out ways of bringing new varieties by blending in blender with sieves.Milk was

Flow chart for the preparation of Carotene enrichedyoghurt

Receiving milk

Addition of skim milk powder and sugar
Filtration /Clarification (35-40⁰ C)
Enrichment of Carotene in milk
Pre-heating the mix (60⁰ C)
Homogenizing (2500 and 500 psi at 65⁰C)
Pasteurizing the mix (90°C for 10minutes) and cooled to 43-44°C
Inoculation of culture (2%)
Incubation( 41- 42⁰C for 3 hrs)
Packaging
Cooling and storage (5⁰C)
supplemented with carrot juice at 10, 15 and 20 mean± S.E., and in all applications (ANOVA) the
per cent levels. The milkwas heated to 65°C and differences were considered statistically significant
homogenized at 2500 and 500 PSI in a two stage at P<0.05 and highly significant at P<0.01.
homogenizer. Commercially available good quality
cane sugar was used in the preparation of yoghurt. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Freeze dried DVS culture containing yoghurt The developed carotene enriched yoghurt
bacteria Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp.bulgaricus was assessed by sensory evaluation using the
and Streptococcus salivarius ssp. thermophilus 9-point hedonic scale by a semi-trained panel of
(YC-X11) obtained from Chr. Hansen, Denmark was sevenmembers, and the scores were presented
used.The guidelines prescribed by IS: 12898(1989) in Table-1-Optimizing the enrichment levels of
and the flow chart indicated by De (1980) were Carotene in yoghurt by sensory evaluation using
followed in the preparation of yoghurt. 9-point hedonic scale
The carotene enrichedyoghurt samples were Statistical analysis revealed that there was
evaluated by a semi trained panel of seven judges significant difference (p<0.05) in flavour, body and
for the attributes of flavour, body and texture, colour texture and overall acceptability scores between
and package, acidity and overall acceptability control and treatments. There was no significant
scores on a 9-point hedonic scale (Tomic et al, difference observed in acidity and overall
2017).All the statistical analyses were performed acceptability. The fortified yoghurt samples with
by using SPSS. The results were expressed as the carotene up to 15% per litre of milk had better

Attribute Control T1 T2 T3
Flavour 8.67 ± 0.07c 8.33 ± 0.09b 8.14 ± 0.09b 7.45 ± 0.10a
Body & texture 8.52 ± 0.08c 8.29 ± 0.10bc 8.19 ± 0.09b 7.28 ± 0.11a
Colour and Package 8.07 ± 0.10 8.07 ± 0.09 8.07 ± 0.11 8.00 ± 0.10
Acidity 8.43 ± 0.10 8.31 ± 0.09 8.31 ± 0.11 8.21 ± 0.12
Overall acceptability 8.69 ± 0.07c 8.38 ± 0.10b 8.19 ± 0.09b 7.48 ± 0.09a
Mean ± SE with different superscripts in a row differ significantly (P<0.05).
C- Control (unfortified) T1 - Treatment with 10% carrot juice /L T2 - Treatment with 15% carrot juice /L
T3 - Treatment with 20% carrot juice /L n = 42 for each treatment
Sensory scores based on 9-point hedonic scale, where 1: dislike extremely and 9: like extremely.
ANOVA for optimizing the enrichment levels of Carotene in yoghurt by sensory evaluation
Source of variation
Attribute Treatment Error
d.f. MSS F value d.f. MSS
Flavour 3 11.022 33.341** 164 0.331
Body & texture 3 12.349 30.642** 164 0.403
Colour and Package 3 0.054 0.125 164 0.429
Acidity 3 0.329 0.724 164 0.447
Overall acceptability 3 11.149 35.275** 164 0.316
** Highly significant (P<0.01)
acceptability than 20% per litre. Hence the yoghurt REFERENCES

fortified with carotene at the concentration of 15% De S(1980).Outlines of Dairy Technology. Oxford University
per litre of milk (T2) was selected for further studies. Press, Delhi.pp.108. IS: 12898 (1989).Indian standard for
yoghurt, Indian Standard Institution. New Delhi.
CONCLUSION Krinsky N I (1989).Antioxidant function of carotenoids. Free

Radical Biology andMedicine, 7: 617 – 635.
Adequate carotene intake has been demonstrated
Matsuno T (1991). Xanthophylls as precursors of retinoids.
to reduce the risk of night blindness and ultimately
Pure and Appl Chem 63: 81 – 88.
blindness, growth retardation, damage of mucous
Miki W (1991). Biological functions and activities of animal
membrane, and reproductive disorders. Several
carotenoids. Pure and Appl Chem 63:141-146.
advanced nations have launched nationwide
Petrogianni M, Kanellakis S, Moschonis Gand Manios Y
enrichment programs to improve children’s vitamin
(2014). Enrichment of vitamin A in a phytosterol enriched
A status. Hence an attempt has been made to enhance milk maintains plasma beta-carotene levels. J Food Sci
carotene content in yoghurt at 15 per cent in one and Technol 51(1): 196-199.
litre of milk which evinced better overall sensory Tomic N, Dojnov B, Miocinovic J, Tomasevic I, Smigic N,
acceptability of the finished product. Therefore it Djekic I and Vujcic Z (2017). Enrichment of yoghurt
might be concluded that carotene enriched yoghurt with insoluble dietary fiber from triticale – A sensory
could be a mass intervention to address vitamin A perspective, LWT - Food Science and Technol 80: 59-66.
deficiency. Received on 18/2/20223 Accepted on 28/4/2023

Optimization of Process Parameters for Osmotic Dehydration as

a Pretreatment for Making Papaya Candy
Gurpreet Kaur Dhillon and Rajni Goel1
Punjab Agricultural University, Regional Research Station, Bathinda, Punjab
ABSTRACT
Papaya slices were osmosed using jaggery instead of sucrose to lessen the deteriorating health effect of
refined sugar. The Box-Behnken design was used to optimize time (1-4 hr), temperature (35-45ºC) and
jaggery concentration (45 to 55ºBrix) to achieve maximum water loss (WL) and optimum solute gain
(SG) in papaya slices. The optimized conditions for osmotic dehydration of papaya slices were immersion
time (4.0 hr), temperature (44ºC) and jaggery concentration (55ºBrix) for a water loss of 34.35 (g/100g)
and solute gain of 9.61 (g/100g). Further, the sample prepared using optimized conditions was dried by
convective drying for making papaya candy. Proximate and mineral analysis of the samples suggested
an improvement in the nutritional quality of jaggery-based papaya candy by significantly increasing the
ash and mineral content of jaggery-based candy compared to sucrose-based candy. In addition, sensory
attributes suggested higher acceptability of jaggery-based papaya candy, which was comparable with the
control.
Key Words: Fruit candy, Jaggery, Mineral, Osmotic dehydration, Papaya, Profile.
INTRODUCTION the healthy alternatives to refined sugar, and people
Papaya (Carica papaya L.) is an important fruit are returning to their roots and preferring jaggery
of tropical and subtropical region (Salinas et al, over refined sugar. Moreover, jaggery is better than
2019). It is a highly perishable fruit, and various sugar as it is rich in minerals and vitamins and is
techniques can preserve it. In recent years, fruit considered the world’s healthiest sugar (Kumar and
candies are gaining popularity among consumers, Singh, 2020).
especially children. Osmotic dehydration is widely To the best of our knowledge, jaggery has not
used as a pretreatment for making fruit candies been explored as an efficient osmotic agent for
owing to its non-thermal process, as it reduces papaya candy. Hence, the present investigation
the moisture content without altering fruits and aims to use jaggery as an osmotic agent for the
vegetables’ nutritional and physical properties osmotic dehydration of papaya slices. Optimization
(Rastogi et al, 2014). However, the most commonly of time, temperature and osmotic concentration
used osmotic agent for fruits is refined sugar or are important to obtain maximum water loss and
sucrose. Refined sugar is composed of 99.9% optimum solute gain in osmo-dried fruit. Therefore,
sucrose, which has very little nutritious value objectives of this study were to optimize processing
and is high in empty calories. In addition to these parameters for osmotic dehydration of papaya slices
negative consequences of refined sugar, its use using jaggery using Response Surface Methodology
has also been linked to an increased risk of dental (RSM) and also to characterize and compare the
disorders (Seguí et al, 2015). As refined has become jaggery-based papaya candy with sucrose-based
synonymous with harmful in the food world, it must papaya candy.
be replaced with a better option. Jaggery is one of

1
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Patiala, Punjab

Optimization of Process Parameters for Osmotic Dehydration
MATERIALS AND METHODS were run in triplicates for accurate results. Solute
Papaya (under-ripe) fruits of the variety Red gain (SG) and water loss (WL) were calculated by
Lady were collected from the papaya growers (02) using the procedures of Chauhan et al (2011).
of the Bathinda district. The initial moisture content Weight reduction (WR)= W0-Wt
of papaya was 88.21±2.15%; no blanching was done
before osmosis. The fruits were washed and sliced After osmotic dehydration, solute gain at tome (t),
(4-5cm long and 0.5cm thick). The cumulative SG= (St-S0)
effect of immersion time (hour), temperature (ºC) WL= Weight reduction + Solute gain
and jaggery concentration (ºBrix) was studied SG (g/100g of fruit) = (St-S0) X100
using Box-Behnken design (BBD) using response
W0
surface methodology using Design Expert software
version 13.0 (Stat-Ease Inc., Minneapolis, USA). WL (g/100g of fruit) = (W0-Wt)+ (St-S0) X100
The levels of processing parameters chosen as W0
independent variables were 1) immersion time
Where W0, Wt, S0, and St are the initial weight
(1-4 hr), 2) temperature (35-45ºC) and jaggery
(g) of papaya slices, weight (g) of the osmotically
concentration (45-55ºBrix); initial trials finalized
dehydrated papaya after time t (h), the initial weight
jaggery concentration. Each independent variable
of solids content in papaya slices (g) and weight of
was tested at three coded levels, low, medium and
solids of the osmotically dehydrated papaya slices
high, as -1, 1 and +1. The software generated 17
after time t (h), respectively. Proximate composition
experimental runs, of which five were at the central
(crude protein, ash and moisture) were determined
values (Table 1). The statistical significance was
by (AOAC, 1991). For mineral analysis, one gram
calculated by analysis of variance (ANOVA),
of sample was taken and digested using HNO3 and
coefficient of determinations and lack of fit tests.
HClO4 in (a 3:1) ratio. After digestion, samples were
Significant parameters were obtained from p<0.05.
diluted with 50mL deionized water; dilution was
Water loss and solute gain were predicted to
followed by filtration. The minerals were measured
generate a second-order polynomial mode.
by coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS)
Y= βo+β1 2+β3x3+β12x1x2+β13x1x3+β23x2x3+ β11x12+ (X-Series2; ThermoFisher Scientific). Mineral
β22x2+β33x32 (1) content was expressed in mg/100g (Kaur et al, 2018).
Y is the predicted response, A, B, and C are Jaggery osmosed papaya slices under optimized
the coded levels of independent parameters (x1- conditions were conventionally dried in a cabinet
time (A), x2 temperature (B) and x3-jaggery drier at 50-55ºC for 4 hr. For the control sample,
concentration(C), β0 (constant term), β1, β2 and papaya slices were osmosed in 60ºBrix sucrose
β3; β11, β22 and β33; β12, β13 and β23 are offset term, solution for 3.5 hours at 45ºC. The conditions were
linear effects; squared effects and interaction finalized by conducting initial trials. The sensory
effects, respectively. The quality of the model was evaluation of jaggery-based candy was conducted
estimated by R2 (Predicted R2) and R2 (coefficient and compared with the control (sugar-based papaya
of determination). For osmotic dehydration, candy). For sensory evaluation, untrained panelists
Jaggery syrup was made at 40, 45 and 55°Brix and (50) were selected randomly; each panelist received
50g of papaya slices fruit was immersed in different two samples and assigned scores through a hedonic
osmotic solutions for each trial at a particular time scale of nine points from 1 (disliked extremely)
and temperature as per the designed experiment to 9 (liked very much) for the attributes: colour,
(Table 2). The fruit to osmotic solution ratio (1:4) flavour, texture, taste; the overall acceptability was
was kept at a constant level. All the experiments calculated by the given scores for sensory attributes.

Table 1. Experimental design of independent variables and responses for osmotic dehydration of
Papaya slices.
Time (hr) Temperature (ºC) Jaggery Water Loss Solute Gain
concentration (g/100g of fresh (g/100g of fresh
(ºBrix) weight) weight)
1.00 35.00 50.00 15.89 4.23
4.00 35.00 50.00 18.39 7.67
1.00 45.00 50.00 19.25 5.34
4.00 45.00 50.00 32.34 8.67
1.00 40.00 45.00 18.45 4.67
4.00 40.00 45.00 22.34 8.12
1.00 40.00 55.00 20.67 7.56
4.00 40.00 55.00 34.24 10.56
2.50 35.00 45.00 15.34 4.32
2.50 45.00 45.00 30.09 9.59
2.50 35.00 55.00 22.78 9.68
2.50 45.00 55.00 32.12 9.56
2.50 40.00 50.00 26.89 8.53
2.50 40.00 50.00 27.45 8.98
2.50 40.00 50.00 25.45 9.32
2.50 40.00 50.00 26.45 8.21
2.50 40.00 50.00 25.89 8.12
Statistically, the data was analyzed using ANOVA at The regression coefficients developed a
p≤0.05 significance level using SPSS 19.0 statistical relationship between the independent and dependent
software. The results were expressed as the mean ± variables. The time of osmotic dehydration had the
S.D. of three replications. most significant (p≤0.01) and positive role in WL,
followed by temperature and jaggery concentration
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION (equation 2). Immersion time was found to be
The independent variables (immersion time, the most significant factor in WL during osmotic
temperature and jaggery concentration) and dehydration of Chinese ginger (An et al, 2013).
responses of dependent variables, water loss (WL) During osmotic dehydration of peach, immersion
and solute gain (SG) are given in Table 1. The time was observed to be the most significant factor,
analysis of variance (ANOVA) for all the studied followed by temperature (Dhillon et al, 2022). In SG,
responses is shown in Table 2. F-values of 36.65 immersion time was found to be the most significant
and 21.57 for WL and SG, respectively and a non- factor, followed by jaggery concentration (equation
significant lack of fit suggested the significance 3). A review conducted by Yadav and Singh (2014)
of the models (p<0.05). The predicted R2and the reported that solute concentration plays an essential
actual R2 (the coefficient of determination) values role in solute gain during osmotic drying of fruits.
are 0.97 and 0.95 for water loss and 0.96 and 0.92 Further, the quadratic effect of jaggery concentration
for solute gain, respectively; depicted the adequacy resulted in a solute gain in the papaya slices. In the
the models for predicting the studied responses.

Table 2 Analysis of Variance for second order polynomial model for the responses
Source Df Water Loss Solute gain
SS p-value SS p-value
Model 9 536.78 < 0.0001a 61.37 0.0003a
Residual 7 11.39 2.21
Lack of Fit 3 8.89 0.0837b 1.17 0.3450b
Pure Error 4 2.50 1.05
Cor Total 16 548.17 63.58
a: Significant b: Non-significant
form of coded independent process variables, the candy had a 40.03%, 31.69 and 25.80% higher
developed models are formulated in equations 2 calcium, phosphorus and potassium, respectively,
and 3. than sucrose-based candy. This was mainly due to
WL= 26.45+4.13A+5.17B+2.95C+2.65AB+2.42 higher mineral content in jaggery than in refined
AC-1.35BC-3.05A2-1.90B2+0.56C2 ( 2) sugar (Kumar and Singh, 2020; Singh, 2013). Hence
the utilization of jaggery in the osmotic drying of
SG = 8.63+1.65A+0.90B+1.33C-0.02AB-.11AC- fruits is beneficial from a nutritional point of view.
1.35BC-1.36 A2-0.79 B2+0.45 C2 (3)
Papaya candies prepared using sucrose and
Where, WL= water loss (g/100g of fresh weight), jaggery were analyzed colour, flavour, taste, texture,
SG= solid gain (g/100g of fresh weight), and overall acceptability using 9 point hedonic
A= Immersion time (h), B= temperature (°C), C= scale. Results suggested acceptability of jaggery
jaggery concentration (ºBrix) based candy was comparable with the control. Some
The main criteria for constraint optimization of panelist preferred the flavor and taste of jaggery
were maximum water loss with optimum solute gain. based candies over sucrose candies. Jaggery based
The optimized conditions for osmotic dehydration candy had a dark colour compared to sucrose based
of papaya slices were immersion time (4.0 h), candy (Figure 1); however, the difference was non-
temperature (44ºC) and jaggery concentration significant and both the candies were liked by the
(55ºBrix) for a water loss of 34.35 (g/100 g) and panelist.
solute gain of 9.61 (g/100 g). Osmosed papaya
slices were further dried in a convective air drier for
further reduction in the moisture content required
to make papaya fruit candy. For control samples,
papaya slices were osmo-dried using sucrose and
then subjected to convective air drier for final
moisture reduction.
Proximate and mineral analysis of jaggery
osmosed and sucrose osmosed papaya slices are
given in Table 3. A significant difference was
observed in ash content; ash content is an indicator
of the mineral profile of the product (Sezer et al,
2017). Further, mineral analysis of candies indicated Figure 1. A: Sucrose-based papaya candy,
a significant difference; jaggery-based papaya B: Jaggery-based papaya candy

Table 3. Characterization of jaggery and sucrose based papaya candies.

Parameter Properties Jaggery based Sucrose based
candies candies
Proximate composition (g/100g of dry Moisture content 17.49±2.12a 18.14±1.89a
weight )
Protein 0.89±0.11a 0.85±0.14a
Ash 5.89±0.36a 3.48±0.24b
Mineral (mg/100g) Calcium 12.24±2.34a 7.34±1.46b
Phosphorus 21.36±2.18a 14.59±1.37b
Iron 1.58±0.21a 0.47±0.17b
Magnesium 31.23±2.89a 23.17±1.79b
Potassium 46.67±4.39a 29±2.34b
Sensory attributes (9 point hedonic scale) Colour 8.02±0.56a 8.48±0.89a
Flavor 8.61±0.39a 8.21±0.77a
Taste 8.27±0.78a 8.15±0.58a
Texture 8.29±1.21a 8.45±0.73a
Overall acceptability 8.28±0.89a 8.31±0.79a
CONCLUSION AOAC (1991). Official Methods of Analysis. The Association

Response surface methodology effectively of Official Analytical Chemists. Analytica Chimica Acta
(15th ed., Vol. 242). Washington, DC.: Washington, DC.
optimized the conditions for the osmotic
dehydration of papaya slices. Optimized conditions Chauhan O P, Singh A, Singh A, Raju P S and Bawa A S
(2011). Effects of Osmotic Agents on Colour, Textural,
were time (4.0 hr), temperature (44ºC) and jaggery Structural, Thermal, and Sensory Properties of Apple
concentration (55º Brix) for a water loss of 34.35 Slices. Int J Food Prop 14(5): 1037–48.
(g/ 100 g) and solute gain of 9.61 (g/100 g). Kaur B, Singh B, Kaur N and Singh D (2018). Phytoremediation
Results suggested that immersion time and jaggery of cadmium-contaminated soil through multipurpose tree
concentration were the significant factors for water species. Agroforestry Sys 92(2): 473–83.
loss and solute gain. Further, osmosed papaya slices Dhillon G K, Kour A and Gupta N (2022). Optimization of
were dried in a conventional air drier to make papaya Low-cost Drying Technology for Preservation of Peach
candy. From a sensory point of view, jaggery-based (Prunus Persica) Using RSM. Int J Fruit Sci 22(1): 525–
38.
candies are highly acceptable and comparable to
the control (sucrose-based candy). A Comparison Kumar A and Singh S (2020). The benefit of Indian jaggery
over sugar on human health. In Preuss H G and & D. B.
between the jaggery and sucrose-based candies
T.-D. S. Bagchi D B (Eds) Dietary Sugar, Salt and Fat in
suggested the potential of jaggery as an osmotic Human Health (pp. 347–59). Academic Press.
agent as it enhanced the ash and mineral profile of
Rastogi N K, Raghavarao K S M S and Niranjan K (2014).
jaggery candies compared to sucrose candies. Recent Developments in Osmotic Dehydration. In Sun D
W (Ed.) Emerging Technologies for Food Processing (pp.
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An K, Ding S, Hongyan T, Zhao D, Wang X, Wang Z and Salinas I, Hueso J J and Cuevas J (2019). Fruit growth model,
Hu X (2013). Response surface optimisation of osmotic thermal requirements and fruit size determinants in
dehydration of Chinese ginger ( Zingiber officinale papaya cultivars grown under subtropical conditions. Sci
Roscoe ) slices. Int J Food Sci Technol, 48(1): 28–34. Hort 246: 1022–27.

Seguí L, Calabuig-Jiménez L, Betoret N and Fito P (2015). Singh J (2013). Manufacturing Jaggery, a Product of
Physicochemical and antioxidant properties of non- Sugarcane, As Health Food. Agrotech., 01: 1-3
refined sugarcane alternatives to white sugar. Int J Food Yadav A K and Singh S V (2014). Osmotic dehydration of
Sci Technol 50 (12): 2579–88. fruits and vegetables: a review. J Food Sci Technol 51(9):
Sezer B, Bilge G, Sanal, T, Koksel H and Boyaci I H (2017). A 1654–1673.
novel method for ash analysis in wheat milling fractions
by using laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy. J Cereal
Sci 78: 33–38.

Performance of Soybean variety JS 335 in

Phek District of Nagaland
Hannah Krujia Asangla1 and Engrala Ao2
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Porba, Phek Nagaland 797107.
ABSTRACT
KrishiVigyan Kendra, Porba District of Nagaland in collaboration with AICRP Soybean, SASRD,
Medziphema conducted front line demonstrations with 20 beneficiaries of Thipuzu village during the
Kharif season of 2020-21 and 2021-22. Soybean variety JS 335 was selected for demonstration with all
improved practices along with a control plot where farmer’s practices were carried out. The results showed
higher yield in demonstration plots (2215 and 2325 kg/ha) indicating the existence of technology gap and
extension gap. The technology index ranged from 11 to 7 per cent showing a minor gap between technology
evolved and technology adopted at farmer’s field. Lower technology index signifies the feasibility of the
technology. The average net return (Rs.62800/-) and B.C. ratio (3.24) were also highest with improved
technology as compared to farmers’ practice.
Key Words: Gap, Index, Soybean, Technology, Yield.
INTRODUCTION to run off and leaching caused by high rainfall in

In Nagaland, soybean is grown as sole crop or the region also increased the deterioration of soil
mixed with maize, ragi or arhar etc. It is locally health and fertility (Sentimenla, 2020). Therefore,
called Naga dal and is consumed mainly in the form to overcome the soil fertility constraints and to
of fermented soybean called axone and considered increase the productivity, soybean a leguminous
as traditional food of Zunheboto District. Its cover crop can protect the soil, fix atmospheric
distinctive characteristics and adaptability to nitrogen in the soil, stimulate the microorganisms to
diverse agro-climatic conditions and soils make loosen compaction of soil, create well aerated and
soybean attain popularity worldwide. It is grown in well drained soil structure and add biomass to the
almost all districts of the state covering an area of soil which will eventually improve the soil fertility
25040 ha with a production of 31520t. Zunheboto (NEPED, 1999).
District alone occupies about 7650 ha area with
9770t production (Anonymous, 2017). In spite of MATERIALS AND METHODS
its popularity in the states, the farmers give very The main objective of front line demonstrations
little priority for its cultivation on large scale as a was to demonstrate newly released crop production
sole crop because the productivity is less due to the and protection technologies and its management
poor adoption of improved production technology practices in the farmer’s field under different agro-
which may be due to extension gap. The traditional climatic regions. Soybean is an important crop
practice of slash and burn of the jhum lands has led for farmers of Phek district of Nagaland, but the
to gradual decrease in the soil base contents leading profitability remains low. The present study was
to reduced soil fertility. The loss of nutrient due carried out by the Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Porba

1. Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Porba, Phek Nagaland 797107.
2. AICRP Soybean, SASRD, Nagaland University 797106.

Table 1. Performance of FLD during 2020-21 and 2021-22.

Year Crop No of Area Yield (kg/ha) Per cent Technology Extension Technology
(variety) FLD (ha) Potential FLD Farmers increase gap gap (kg/ index (%)
of yield Practices yield over (kg/ha) ha)
variety local check
2020-21 Soybean 20 10 2500 2215 1308 69 285 907 11.4
(JS 335)
2021-22 Soybean 20 10 2500 2325 1426 63 175 899 7.0
(JS 335)
Phek District of Nagaland in collaboration with 50 per cent in both the years and the mean also
AICRP Soybean, SASRD, Medziphema during signifying that with the recommended soybean
the Kharif season of 2020-21 and 2021-22 in the production technology the yield can be increased.
farmer’s fields in Thipuzu village. The frontline Diwedi et al (2010) also observed that technology
demonstrations were carried out in 10 ha area adoption is the key to increased crop productivity.
with 20 beneficiaries and individual demonstration The mean yield gap of 230 kg/ha indicating
area 0.5 ha. Low productivity and high production the existence of technology gap may be attributed
cost were identified as major issues during group to the difference in soil fertility status, weather
discussion and surveys. Several gaps in the condition and soil moisture availability. This can
technological adoption emerged as outcome of the be put right by carrying out more number of front
meetings. In order to manage these issues, improved line demonstrations (FLDs) in different areas of the
and recommended practices were followed as new district. Technological yield gap of crops due to
intervention during frontline demonstration. In variation in the soil fertility and weather conditions
case of the recommended practices, JS 335 variety is reported by Raj et al (2013).
was selected based on its performance and plant
protection measures and cultural practices were Extension Gap
followed along with farmer’s existing practice. Extension yield gap was observed to be more
Prior to demonstration, the farmers were selected than 850 kg/ha in both the years and also the mean
and trained on the technology. Field visit and which was much higher than the technological
training were conducted during the demonstration. yield gap. This huge difference was mainly due to
Visit of other farmers and extension functionaries haphazard sowing practiced among the farming
were also organized at the demonstration plot to community. Our field agricultural extension workers
show the significance of large scale cultivation of need to train or transfer technology on soybean to the
soybean. Yield data, cost of cultivation, net income, farming community. Apart from giving knowledge
and benefit: cost ratio was calculated and analyzed. on improved high yield varieties, emphasize should
Studies on technology gap, extension gap and be given to educate the farmers on the importance
technology index were calculated as suggested by of line sowing on soybean. This will subsequently
Samui et al (2000). help in bringing down the huge extension yield
gap. The new technologies will eventually lead
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION to the farmers to discontinue of old varieties with
The results on the performance of FLD (Table new technologies. This high extension gap requires
1) conducted for two kharif seasons during 2020- urgent attention from planners, scientists, extension
21 and 2021-22 at Thipuzu village revealed that personnel and development departments. Similar
FLD performed better than farmers’ practice. The findings were reported by Bhargav et al (2017) in
percent increase in yield of FLD over check was their study on extension gap.

Table 2: Economics of FLD and Farmers practices

Year Cost of cultivation Gross return Net Return (Rs/ha) B:C Ratio
(Rs./ha) (Rs./ha)
Farmers’ FLD Farmers’ FLD Farmers’ FLD Farmers FLD
practice practice practice practice
2020-21 32000 28000 52320 88600 20320 60600 1.63 3.16
2021-22 32000 28000 57040 93000 25040 65000 1.78 3.32
Average 32000 28000 54680 90800 22680 62800 1.71 3.24
Technology Index in high benefit: cost ratio which can motivate

Technology index shows the feasibility of the farmers towards adoption of interventions
the evolved technology at the farmer’s field. The demonstrated. Therefore, efforts should be made
feasibility of the technology will be more if the value towards conducting such demonstration in order
of technology index is lower. In the present study, to narrow the wide extension gap and also bring
technology indices were found 11.4% and 7.0 % about economic improvement and empowerment
in the year 2020-21 and 2021-22 respectively. The of farmers.
results indicated a minor gap between technology
evolved and technology adopted at farmer’s field.
Raj et al (2013) also reported similar findings.
Application of different inputs viz., improved variety
good seed and seed treatment with biofertilizers
and other management practices lead to significant
increase in growth and yield of soybean under
rainfed condition.
Economic Return
Cost of cultivation, gross return, net return
and benefit cost ratio (Table - 2) was worked out
according to the prevailing price at the time of
Fig. 1 Soybean yield performance of FLD
demonstration. The higher cost of cultivation in
farmers’ practice was mainly due to a greater number
of labours employed for sowing. All economic
indices viz., gross return, net return and benefit
cost ratio of soybean was higher under improved
technology as compared to farmer’s practices. Kirar
et al (2018) also reported similar findings in his
study on field pea.
CONCLUSION
The results of frontline demonstrations showed
that soybean yield could be increased with the
incorporation of improved technological practice.
The economic viability of the system is reflected Fig. 2: Technology gap and extension gap of FLD

REFERENCES NEPED (1999). Building upon Traditional Agriculture in

Anonymous (2017). Statistical Handbook of Nagaland. Nagaland, India. Pp 35
Directorate of Economic Statistics, Government of Raj A D, Yadav V and Rathod J H (2013). Impact of front
Nagaland, Kohima. line demonstrations (FLD) on the yield of pulses. Int J
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R, Gupta Nishith and Patel Neerja (2017). Evaluation of Samui S K, Maitra S, Roy D K, Mondal A K and Sahan
front line demonstration on chick pea in Shajapur District D (2000). Evaluation of front line demonstration on
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Ext Edu 46(3&4):129-131. Nagaland, India. Int J Curr Microbio App Sci 9(6): 126-
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J Krishi Vigyan 2023, 11 (2) : 269-273 10.5958/2349-4433.2023.00050.8
Performance of Bio Fertilizers on Yield of Mango and Sapota in

Navsari District of Gujarat
R A Gurjar*, K A Shah*, Prabhu Nayaka, S R Salunkhe* and N M Chauhan**
Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari- 396450 (Gujarat)
ABSTRACT
To create awareness for use of bio fertilizers and the adoption of new input in mango var. Kesar and sapota
var. Kalipatti, demonstrations were conducted during the year 2021-22 in different blocks of Navsari district
viz., Navsari, Jalalpore and Gandevi. Use of bio fertilizer in soil resulted in higher yield (93.5 and 128.0 q/
ha) compared to control plots (85.0 and 112.0 q/ha) in mango and sapota fruit crops, respectively. The yield
increase compared to check field plots was 10.0 and 14.3 per cent in mango and sapota crops, respectively.
The extension gap was recorded in mango and sapota was 8.5 q/ha and 16.0 q/ha. Similarly, the technical
gap was recorded 11.5 q/ha in mango and 22.0 q/ha in sapota. The technology index recorded 10.95 per cent
in mango and 14.67 per cent in sapota. The benefit-cost ratio was recorded higher in the demonstrated plot
of mango (3.59) and sapota (3.47) fruit crops compared to the check plot. Moreover, net return in mango
was also recorded 11.99 per cent and 19.19 per cent in sapota.
Key Words: Biofertilizers, Extension gap, Mango, Sapota, Technical gap, Technology index Yield.
INTRODUCTION may be due to the very low productivity of the

The fruit production sector is a grass root sector large unproductive old orchard, the small size of
which impacts on environment, ecology, economy land holding and poor management of the orchards,
and sustainability for livelihoods of farmers and especially in the rain-fed area which constitutes area
employees operating along the value chains. Due over 60 per cent of the total areas under fruits. Thus,
to challenges in production, for example, scientific- there is a great scope for increasing fruit production
technical knowledge transport and trade, and high by increasing productivity besides bringing more
prices for quality products make fruit inaccessible area under fruit crops (Tala, 2020).
to many, especially in developing countries like South Gujarat is known as a bowl of horticultural
India. crops. Mango (Mangifera indica L.) and sapota
India has become the world’s third-largest [Manilkara acharas (Mill.)] are main fruit crops
economy after the US and China. India is the grown in Navsari district of Gujarat (Bhalekar
largest producer of fruits, the country ranks first and Chalak, 2016). Mango fruit is rightly known
in the production of Banana (26.08%), Papaya as the National fruit of India and is known as the
(44.05%), and Mango (45.89%). India is the second King of Fruits. Mango occupies unique importance
largest producer of fruits in the world. Its share in in the tropics, as that apple in temperate zones.
the world’s fruit production is 11 per cent. The per Similarly, sapota is also delicious fruit and famous
capita availability of fruits in the country is only 46 for milkshake ingredient (Gurjar et al, 2022). It
g/d against the requirement of 92 g as prescribed gives regular income to the farmer for 5 to 6 m in
by the Indian Council of Medical Research, this a year. The medium black soil, warm and moist

*Scientist, Krishi Vigan Kendra, Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari- 396450 (Gujarat)
**Senior Scientist and Head, KVK, Navsari and Director of Extension, NAU, Navsari - 396450 (Gujarat)

Table 1. FLDs organized, area, participation and the average yield of district state and national yield in mango and sapota
270
during the year 2021-22.
FLD organized Area (ha) Total National State average District average
Sr. No. Crop Variety Season Participant average yield yield (q/ha) yield (q/ha)
(q/ha)
1 Mango Kesar Kharif 66.40 166 96.64 74.20 91.92
2 Sapota Kalipatti Kharif 31.20 78 121.24 110.44 126.90
Average yield is taken from Horticultural statistics at a glance. (Anonymous, 2018).
Table 2. Yield performances of FLDs organized on scientific cultivation practices during the year 2021-22
Yield obtained (q/ha) Potential yield
Sr. No. Name of crop and Demo Check Yield increase of the demo Extension Technical Technical
variety demonstrated Average Average (%) variety (q/ha) gap (q/ha) gap (q/ha) index (%)
1 PSB, KMB and 93.50 85.00 10.00 105.00 8.50 11.50 10.95
Azotobacter in mango
2 PSB, KMB and 128.00 112.00 14.29 150.00 16.00 22.00 14.67
Azotobacter in sapota

Table 3. Expenditure and return performances of FLDs organized on scientific cultivation practices during year 2021-22
Sr. Demonstration detail Expenditure and Returns (Rs./ha)
No. Demo Check
Gross Gross Net B: C Gross Gross Net B: C Net
Cost Return Return ratio Cost (Rs/ Return Return ratio Return
Performance of Bio Fertilizers on Yield of Mango and Sapota
(Rs/ha) (Rs/ha) (Rs/ha) ha) (Rs/ha) (Rs/ha) increase

percent
1 PSB, KMB and 65200 233750 168550 3.59 62000 212500 150500 3.43 11.99
Azotobacter in Mango
2 PSB, KMB and 83000 288000 205000 3.47 80000 252000 172000 3.15 19.19
Azotobacter in sapota
climate prevailing in Navsari district is well suited bacteria and potash mobilizing bacteria were
for mango and sapota fruit crops. demonstrated to each farmer. Moreover, farmers
Less use of well-decomposed farm yard manure used recommended dose of fertilizers and manure
(FYM) and higher use of chemical fertilizers has (750-160-750 g NPK/plant/year in mango with 20 t/
given hazardous effects on overall soil health. This ha well-decomposed Farm Yard Manure) and (1000-
resulted in the deterioration of the soil’s physical 500-500 g NPK/plant/year in sapota with 20 t/ha
and chemical properties resulting in stagnation in well-decomposed FYM) for the demonstration plot.
the yield of the crop and if the trend continues, it The traditional practices followed by farmers were
will have disastrous consequences (Hiwale et al, maintained in the case of local checks. The yield
2010). The use of organic matter along with bio- data were collected from FLD plots as well as check
fertilizer improves the availability of nutrients from plots and finally, the benefit-cost ratio was worked
the soil. (Ram and Rajput, 2000). Hence, to find out out. The data on production cost and monetary
the effect of azotobacter, phosphorus solubilizing returns were collected from a demonstration plot
bacteria (PSB) and potash mobilizing bacteria for the economic feasibility of sapota and mango
(KMB) in the farmer’s field, KVK Navsari organized cultivation. The technology gap, extension gap, and
demonstrations in the farmer’s field to study the technology index were calculated as suggested by
effect of bio fertilizers on the yield, economics of Samui et al (2000).
the use of bio fertilizers and productivity of mango
and sapota RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
It was observed that yield of mango was
MATERIALS AND METHODS influenced by the use of different bio fertilizers viz.,
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Navsari conducted PSB, KMB and Azotobacter. The maximum yield
the front-line demonstration (FLD) on scientific (Table 2) was recorded in the demonstration field
cultivation practices of major fruit crops of Navsari plot (93.50 and 128.00 q/ha) compared to the check
district viz., mango var. Kesar and sapota var. field plot (85.0 and 112.0 q/ha) in mango and sapota
Kalipatti in the Kharif season during the year 2021- crops, respectively. The yield increase percent was
22. A total of 166 FLDs in an area of 66.40 ha for 10.0 and 14.3 per cent by use of bio fertilizers
mango and 78 FLDs in an area of 31.20 ha for sapota in mango and sapota crops, respectively. Similar
crop in irrigated condition with good drainage results were recorded by Meena et al (2013). The
facility were conducted on scientific cultivation yield of the mango demonstration plot (93.5 q/ha)
practices of mango and sapota on farmer’s field of recorded a very less difference (Table 1) compared
Navsari, Jalalpore, and Gandevi taluka (Block) of to the national average (96.64 q/ha) (Anonymous,
Navsari district. The necessary step for the selection 2018). However, the demonstration plot yield was
of the site, farmers and layout of the demonstration recorded higher than the state average (74.20 q/ha)
were followed as suggested by Choudhary (1999). as well as the district average (91.92 q/ha). Sapota
Before conducting the FLDs, a list of the farmer of demonstration plots recorded a higher yield (128.0
the different village were prepared through survey q/ha) compared to the national (121.24 q/ha), state
of farmer meeting and specific skill training were (110.44 q/ha) and district average (126.90 q/ha).
given at the KVK campus regarding the different The reason for the higher yield in the demonstration
aspect of scientific cultivation practices and plot was the use of bio fertilizers and farm yard
plant protection measures. Navsari Agricultural manure which enhanced the nutrient availability by
University made bio-fertilizers ( 2 L) quanty (50 ml enhancing the capacity of plants. Similar findings
per plant) viz., azotobacter, phosphorus solubilizing were obtained by Kapur et al (2020) in brinjal, Patel

and Naik (2010) Gawande et al (1998) in sapota In the case of sapota fruit crop data revealed that
and Shaktawat and Chundawat (2021) in oilseeds the gross cost recorded in bio fertilizers demonstrated
crop plot was Rs 83,000 /ha and Rs 80,000 /ha in check
The potential yield (Table 2) recorded in Kesar plot. The increase in the gross cost of demonstration
Mango is 105.0 q/ha and 150.0 q/ha for sapota in plots is due to the cost of demonstration and its
the Navsari district by Gurjar et al (2022). The yield charges of application in the field. The gross return
of the demonstration was further categorized into recorded in the sapota demonstration plot was Rs
technology and extension gaps. The extension gap 2,88,000 /ha. Whereas, in the check plot it was
recorded in mango was 8.50 q/ha and in sapota crop, recorded Rs 2,52,000 /ha. The net return in the
it was recorded 16.00 q/ha. This could be due to a demonstration plot was Rs 2,05,000 /ha compared
lack of awareness about the scientific management to check plot which was Rs 1,72,000 /ha. Similarly,
of orchards, the use of organic manure and bio the benefit-cost ratio was recorded as higher (3.47)
fertilizers. Farmers are not aware of the use of bio- compared to the check plot (3.15) of the sapota fruit
fertilizers and their usefulness in increasing crop crop. The better performance may be due to better
yield sustainability. Therefore, it is needed to train absorption of nutrients from the soil which might
the farmers regarding proper scientific cultivation have given better yield performance.
methods through farmers’ meet, training as well
as diagnostic visits and concept clearance. As far CONCLUSION
as the technical gap is concerned, it was recorded The present study revealed that the use of bio
11.50 q/ha in mango and 22.00 q/ha in sapota, which fertilizers with well-decomposed FYM increased
emphasized the need to educate the farmers through 10.00 and 14.29 per cent yield as well as net return
various extension means for the adoption of the increase percent in the demonstration plot with
scientific use of production technology. Moreover, 11.99 and 19.19 per cent in mango and sapota fruit
the technology index illustrates the practicability of crops, respectively. Technical gaps and extension
demonstration provided among the farmers. It was gaps existed between the use of demonstration and
recorded 10.95 per cent in mango and 14.67 per farmer’s practices. It can be said that by application
cent in sapota. However, the sapota crop showed of technical knowledge adopting recommended
more feasibility compared to the mango. practices and by improvement of extension activities
farmers can reach up to potential yield.
Economic analysis
The data (Table 3) revealed that the gross ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
cost recorded in bio fertilizers demonstrated plot Authors feel thankful to farmers and staff
was 65,200 Rs/ha and 62,000 Rs/ha in the check members, Bio Fertilizer Unit, Dept. of Plant
plot of mango. The increase in gross cost in the Pathology, NMCA, NAU, Navsari, Gujarat. We
demonstration plot is due to the cost of biofertilizer are also thankful to the Senior Scientist and Head
and its charges of application in the field. The gross KVK, Navsari and the Director of Extension for
return recorded in the mango demonstration plot permission, admiration and facilities provided
was Rs 2,33,750/ha whereas in the check plot it during the demonstration.
was recorded Rs2,12,500 /ha. The net return in the
demonstration plot was Rs 1,68,550 /ha compared REFERENCES
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Similarly, the benefit-cost ratio was recorded higher Horticulture Statistics Division, Department of
Agriculture, Cooperation & Farmers’ Welfare, Ministry
(3.59) compared to the check plot (3.43). It may be
of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare, Government of
due to better absorption of nutrients from the soil. India.

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ICAR, pp: 73-78. manures in production of guava (Psidium guajava L) cv.
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11 (1) : 362-366. and extension yield gaps in oilseeds crops in Mandsaur
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Meena M D, Tiwari D D, Chaudhari S K, Biswas. D R,
Narjary B, Meena A L, Meena B L and Meena R B
(2013). Effect of biofertilizer and nutrient levels on yield
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Agri-Bio Research 18 (2): 176-181.

Performance of Different Levels of NADEP Manure on Nutrient

Contents and Quality of Different Organically Grown Crops
A N Lad, K G Patel, R A Gurjar*, P H Nayaka and K A Shah
Organic Farm, Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari-396450
ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted at the certified organic farm of Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari
Gujarat, during rabi 2018-19 years to study the effect of different levels of NADEP manures on nutrient
content and quality of different crops. NADEP is the method of organic composting uses a wide range of
organic materials such as crop residues, weeds, forest litter and kitchen waste with an end product of a
fertilizer that serves as a good alternative to farmyard manure. The experiment was conducted with five
different crops (C1: Maize, C2: Indian bean, C3: Cauliflower, C4: Garlic, C5: Carrot) and three levels of
NADEP manures (M1: 100 % RDN, M2: 50 % RDN, M3: 4/ha) in FRBD with three replications. Results
indicated that the interaction effect of M1C4 recorded significantly maximum P (%) as well as M1C3 recorded
significantly maximum K (%). Indian bean recorded significantly higher protein and N which was found at
par with Garlic. Cauliflower recorded significantly higher nutrients like K, Mn, Zn and Cu whereas Carrot
recorded significantly higher Fe and reducing sugar. Maize recorded higher total sugar and non-reducing
sugar in economic parts of different crops. Economic produce of crops was found nutritionally rich under
the treatment of 100 % RDN applied through NADEP compost. In the case of different crop residue
parts, significantly higher content of P, Fe, Mn, and Cu was recorded in Cauliflower whereas significantly
maximum Zn was recorded in Maize. Significantly maximum K and maximum N were recorded in the
Indian bean which was observed at par with Cauliflower. The interaction effect was found non-significant
for different crop residue parts.
Key Words: Manures, Nutrients Organic Farming, Protein Content, Sugar.
INTRODUCTION is a need to revisit and reorient the different nutrient
The organic farming system proved best for management practices in organic farming systems
soil fertility and sustainability as compared to like as crop rotation, crop residues, bulky organic
conventional farming under rice-wheat cropping manures, green manures, etc. as well as optimum
cultivation (Mithlesh et al, 2019). Organic utilization of farm resources is needed for making
agriculture sustains the health of soils, ecosystems organic crop production feasible on harsh ground
and people. It relies on ecological processes, realities. India produces 686 Mt of gross crop
biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions, residue biomass on annual basis, of which 234 Mt
rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects. (34 % of gross) are estimated as surplus (Hiloidhari
(Kubrevi et al, 2017). Organic agriculture sustains et al, 2014). On this base, per hectare biomass
the health of soils, ecosystems and people (Gill M availability is 4.3 t and 1.5 t, respectively and per
S, 2014). Thus, this conventional farming paved hectare nutrient availability from this biomass
the way for organic or natural farming. Organic is 113 kg and 39 kg NPK, respectively. This
farming revolves around the four main principles indicates the very low availability of nutrients for
viz., health, ecology, fairness and care. To comply crop production in organic farming from available
with these four principles of organic farming, there crop residues. Ponti et al (2012) compiled and
*Correspondence Author’s Email: [email protected]

Performance of Different Levels of NADEP Manure on Nutrient Contents
Table 1. Effect of different treatments on protein, total sugar, reducing sugar and non reducing sugar
content in economic parts of different crops
Treatment Protein (%) Total sugar (%) Reducing sugar Non reducing sugar (%)
(%)
Different crops (C)
C1: Maize 5.85 11.36 2.79 8.57
C2: Indian bean 23.13 3.80 1.72 2.08
C3: Cauliflower 16.76 3.56 2.28 1.29
C4: Garlic 22.67 4.87 1.39 3.47
C5: Carrot 6.91 8.38 4.02 4.36
S. Em. ± 0.36 010. 0.06 0.08
C.D. @ 5 % 1.05 0.30 0.17 0.24
Levels of manures (M)
M1: 100 % RDN 15.66 6.49 2.47 4.02
M2: 50 % RDN 14.88 6.37 2.43 3.94
M3: 4 t/ha RDN 14.65 6.32 2.42 3.90
S. Em. ± 0.28 0.08 0.05 0.07
C.D. @ 5 % 0.813 NS NS NS
Interaction (C x M)
S. Em. ± 0.63 0.18 0.10 0.15
C.D. @ 5 % NS NS NS NS
C.V. % 7.21 4.87 7.35 6.40
analyzed a meta-dataset of 362 published organic– carbon, available N and P2O5 and high in available
conventional comparative crop yields. The result of K2O. The pH (1:2.5 soil: water) values were near
this analysis showed a 20 % reduction in crop yield neutral in reaction and there was no problem
under organic farming as compared to conventional with salinity. The NADEP manure was applied N
ones. Therefore, the nutrient content and quality of equivalent basis. The RDN for Maize, Indian bean,
crops are important criteria for identifying crops and Cauliflower, Garlic and Carrot was 120, 20, 150,
varieties suitable for organic farming, particularly 100, and 100 kg/ha, respectively. Biofertilizers viz.,
under nutrient-stress conditions. Azospirillum and PSB for Maize and Rhizobium
and PSB for Indian bean were treated with seeds
MATERIALS AND METHODS @ 10 ml/kg seed. In the case of Cauliflower
The field experiment was conducted during rabi seedlings, roots were dipped in the Azotobacter
2018-19 at the certified organic farm of Navsari suspension (2-5 ml Azotobacter/L of water) before
Agricultural University, Navsari, Gujarat. The transplanting. Maize (GM-6), Indian bean (Gujarat
experiment was conducted with five different crops Indian Bean-2), Cauliflower (Snowball 16), Garlic
(C1: Maize, C2: Indian bean, C3: Cauliflower, C4: (GAUG-2) and Carrot (Madhavan) were raised
Garlic, C5: Carrot) and three levels of NADEP with the recommended package of practices. After
manures (M1: 100 % RDN, M2: 50 % RDN, M3: harvest, the fresh weight of each economic part
4 t ha-1) in FRBD with three replications. The soil and total yield (grain yield of Maize, seed yield of
of the experimental plot was medium in organic Indian bean, bulb yield of Garlic and head yield of

Table 2. Effect of different treatments on macro and micronutrients content in economic parts of
different crops.
Treatment Macro nutrients (%) Micronutrients (mg kg-1)
N P K Fe Mn Zn Cu
Different crops (C)
C1: Maize 0.94 0.28 0.33 22.10 51.69 0.34 0.21
C2:Indian bean 3.70 0.19 0.10 29.56 6.29 6.52 3.17
C3: Cauliflower 2.68 0.44 2.36 233.00 106.00 65.88 28.79
C4: Garlic 3.63 0.60 1.32 115.22 30.39 47.01 26.03
C5: Carrot 1.11 0.44 1.06 338.36 46.69 22.46 12.85
S. Em. ± 0.06 0.01 0.02 2.70 1.07 0.74 0.33
C.D. @ 5 % 0.17 0.03 0.06 7.82 3.10 2.13 0.97
M1: 100 % RDN 2.51 0.43 1.09 148.41 49.87 29.49 14.74
M2: 50 % RDN 2.38 0.39 1.02 147.62 48.45 28.55 14.19
M3: 4 t/ha RDN 2.34 0.35 0.99 146.91 46.31 27.28 13.70
S. Em.± 0.04 0.01 0.02 2.09 0.83 0.57 0.26
C.D. @ 5 % 0.130 0.020 0.048 NS 2.39 1.65 0.750
Interaction (C x M)
S. Em. ± 0.10 0.02 0.04 4.68 1.85 1.27 0.58
C.D. @ 5 % NS 0.05 0.11 NS NS NS NS
C.V. % 7.21 7.02 6.20 5.49 6.65 7.76 7.06
Cauliflower and root yield of Carrot) were recorded RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
and expressed as t/ha. The plant samples were Quality parameters
collected at maturity, dried in the air and then in an
oven at 65±5º C to constant weight (AOAC, 1990). Protein content
Plant samples were analyzed for total N, P and K The results regarding protein (%) are presented
content by using a standard procedure (Jackson, in Table 1. Protein content in economic plant parts
1967). Total Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu were determined (Maize grain, Indian bean seed, Cauliflower curd,
by atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Elwell Garlic clove and Carrot root) were derived by
and Gridley, 1967). Among the quality parameters, multiplying N content in the economic part with
crude protein content in economic plant parts was 6.25, therefore, the treatment effect was the same as
determined by multiplying nitrogen percent with that observed in N content in the economic part of
6.25 (Bhuiya and Chowdhary, 1974). Reducing different crops (Table 1). Higher protein content was
sugars and total sugar were quantitatively estimated recorded in Indian bean seed (23.13 %) followed
by the phenol-sulphuric acid method (Sadasivam by Garlic clove (22.67 %), Cauliflower curd (16.76
and Manickam, 1992) and non-reducing sugar was %), Maize grain (5.85 %) and Carrot root (6.91 %).
obtained by subtracting reducing sugars from the As far as manure levels are concerned, application
amount of total sugars. of 100 % RDN through NADEP (M1) recorded
higher protein content in crops (15.66 %) which

Table 3. Interaction effect of different treatments on P and K content in economic parts of different
crops
P Content (%) K Content (%)
Manures (M)
Crop M1: 100 M2: 50 M3: 4 Mean M1: 100 M2: M3: 4 Mean
% RDN % RDN t ha-1 % RDN 50 % t ha-1
RDN RDN RDN
C1: Maize 0.31 0.27 0.25 0.28 0.36 0.34 0.31 0.33
C2: Indian bean 0.20 0.20 0.18 0.19 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.10
C3: Cauliflower 0.51 0.44 0.37 0.44 2.53 2.30 2.25 2.36
C4: Garlic 0.65 0.59 0.56 0.60 1.37 1.30 1.29 1.32
C5: Carrot 0.47 0.43 0.41 0.44 1.08 1.06 1.03 1.06
Mean 0.43 0.39 0.35 1.09 1.02 0.99
C M C×M C M C×M
S. Em. ± 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.04
C.D. @ 5 % 0.03 0.020 0.05 0.06 0.048 0.11
C.V. % 7.02 6.20
was found at par with the application of 50 % RDN (C x M) on reducing sugar content were found non-
through NADEP (14.88 %) and M3 (NADEP @ 4t/ significant.
ha) recorded minimum (14.65 %) protein content Non-reducing sugar content: The result
(%). Treatments involving levels of manure and its regarding non-reducing sugar in economic plant
interaction with crops (C x M) failed to exert any parts are presented in table 1. Non-reducing sugar
significant effect on protein content. The results content in economic parts of different crops varied
conform with the finding of Degwale (2016). from 1.29 to 8.57 %. Significantly higher non-
Sugar content reducing sugar content (8.57 %) was recorded
Total sugar content: The data about total sugar in Maize seed (C1) whereas lower non-reducing
content was found significant in different crops. sugar (1.29 %) was recorded in Cauliflower curd
The higher total sugar content was observed in (C3). The individual effect of manures as well as
Maize seed followed by Carrot root, Garlic clove, the interaction effect of C x M was found non-
Indian bean seed and Cauliflower curd (Table significant regarding non-reducing sugar content.
1). Furthermore, Treatments involving levels of Nutrients content in economic parts of different
manure (M) and its interaction with crops (C x M) crops
failed to exert any significant effect on the total
sugar content of different crops. Macronutrient content
Economic parts of the crops varied in their
Reducing sugar content: Reducing sugar N content (Table 2). The higher N content was
content in economic parts of different crops was recorded in Indian bean seeds (3.70 %), while the
recorded higher in Carrot (4.02 %) followed by minimum N content was recorded in Maize grain
Maize (2.79 %). Whereas, the lower reducing sugar (0.94 %). Manure treatment had a significant effect
content recorded in Garlic (1.39 %) is depicted in on N content in the economic parts of different crops.
table 1. The individual effects of manures as well as Significantly higher N content in the economic part
the interaction effect of levels of manure with crops of crops was recorded under treatment M (100 %
1

Table 4. Effect of different treatments on macro and micronutrients content in residue parts of
different crops.
Treatment Macro nutrients (%) Micronutrients (mg kg-1)
N P K Fe Mn Zn Cu
Different crops (C)
C1: Maize 0.48 0.19 0.97 19.82 36.41 124.56 0.18
C2: Indian bean 2.43 0.22 2.25 150.07 17.91 29.56 5.73
C3: Cauliflower 2.36 0.44 1.83 237.00 79.55 57.49 25.32
C4: Garlic 2.23 0.31 1.56 71.27 11.00 18.39 4.99
C5: Carrot 1.82 0.32 0.28 126.67 21.01 28.86 19.14
S. Em. ± 0.05 0.01 0.03 2.63 0.78 1.17 0.34
C.D. @ 5 % 0.14 0.02 0.09 7.63 2.26 3.39 0.97
M1: 100 % RDN 1.94 0.31 1.42 124.36 35.21 54.16 11.45
M2: 50 % RDN 1.85 0.30 1.38 121.06 32.73 50.91 11.11
M3: 4 t/ha RDN 1.80 0.28 1.33 117.48 31.59 50.25 10.66
S. Em. ± 0.04 0.00 0.02 2.04 0.61 0.91 0.26
C.D. @ 5 % 0.110 0.014 0.069 NS 1.753 2.622 NS
Interaction (C x M)
S. Em. ± 0.09 0.01 0.05 4.56 1.35 2.02 0.58
C.D. @ 5 % NS NS NS NS NS NS NS
C.V. % 7.91 6.31 6.71 6.53 7.06 6.77 9.11
RDN through NADEP) which was followed by recorded the lowest K content (0.10 %). The effect
M2 (50 % RDN trough NADEP). The interaction of manure level was found significantly on K
of different crops and manure was found non- content in the economic part of crops, and higher K
significant in N content. content (1.09 %) was recorded in treatment M1 (100
The higher P content (0.60 %) was found in Garlic % RDN through NADEP). Similarly, the interaction
cloves (Table 3) while the minimum P content was effect of (C x M) was found significantly higher for
found in Indian bean seed (0.19 %). The effect of K content (2.53 %) in the economic part of crops
manure doses on P content (0.43 %) in the economic recorded in treatment combination C3M1.
part of crops was recorded as significantly higher Micronutrient content
in treatment M1. While minimum P content (0.35 The content of micronutrients viz., Fe, Mn, Zn
%) in the economic part of crops was recorded in and Cu were determined separately from economic
M3. As far as the interaction of C x M is concerned, plant parts and the results are presented in table 2.
higher P content (0.65 %) in the economic part of Carrot root recorded significantly higher Fe content
the crop was recorded in the interaction of C4M1 (338.36 mg kg-1) while, Cauliflower curd recorded
(Garlic crop with 100 % RDN through NADEP). higher Mn content (106 mg kg-1), Zn content
The result on K content in economic parts is (65.88 mg kg ) and Cu content (28.79 75 mg kg ).
-1 -1
given in Table 3. Cauliflower curd (C3) recorded Amongst the different manure levels, significantly
higher K content (2.36 %) and Indian bean seed higher Mn, Zn and Cu content were recorded in
level 100 % RDN through NADEP compost (M1).

Nutrient content in residues parts of different higher Mn and Zn content was recorded in level 100
crops % RDN through NADEP compost (M1). It may be
Macronutrient content due to treatment receiving higher NADEP compost
The higher N content (Table 4) was recorded improves nutritional status in the root zone of the
in Indian bean residues i.e. 2.43 per cent which plants and subsequently higher nutrient absorption,
remained at par with Cauliflower residue i.e. 2.36 translocation and accumulation of nutrients by the
per cent. The lowest N content was recorded in plant (Patel, 2012).
Maize residues i.e. 0.48 per cent. The application
of 100 per cent RDN through NADEP manure CONCLUSION
(M1) recorded significantly higher N content in the Plants grown with a higher amount of NADEP
residue of crops which were recorded at par with compost recorded maximum N, P, K and from the
M2 whereas the lowest N content was recorded in economic part and maximum Mn and Zn from the
M3. The result of P content in residues of crops the residue parts of crops. However, maximum Mn, Zn
higher and lower P content i.e. 0.44 per cent and and Cu were recorded from a higher amount (100
0.19 per cent was recorded in Cauliflower and %) of NADEP compost which was recorded at par
Maize residues, respectively. Significantly higher P with 50 % RDN of NADEP from the economic
content in crop residues was recorded in treatment parts. Similarly, from residue parts, maximum N,
M1. Here, treatment M2 remained at par with P and K were recorded from a higher amount (100
treatment M1. The result of K content in residues %) of NADEP compost which was recorded at par
of different crops varied in their K content and the with 50 % RDN of NADEP. Produce of the crops
range of K content in residues of crops was 0.28 that received a higher amount of NADEP compost
to 2.25 per cent. Here, maximum K content was were nutritionally rich as compared to produce that
found in Indian bean residues and lower K content received lower levels of NADEP compost.
was found in Carrot residues. Higher K content
(1.42 %) in the residue of crops was recorded ACKNOWLEDGMENT
under treatment M1 (100 % RDN through NADEP) The authors are grateful to the Dean of N.M.
however, it remained at par with M2 (1.38 %) (50 % College and College of Horticulture & Forestry
RDN through NADEP). and Directorate of Research, NAU, Navsari for
providing requirements in conducting the laboratory
Micronutrient content and farm work.
The content of micronutrients viz., Fe, Mn,
Zn and Cu were determined separately from crop REFERENCES
residue parts and the results are presented in (Table AOAC (1990). Official Methods of Analysis. Association of
4). Significantly higher Fe content (237.0 mg kg-1), Official Analytical Chemists, The Association, 15th ed.
Sec. II : 985:29.
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mg kg-1) was recorded in Cauliflower residues. Bhuiya Z H and Chowdhary S U (1974). Effects of N, P, K
and S on protein and oil content of groundnut grown
While the maximum Zn content was recorded in
in Brahmaputra flood-plain soil. Indian J Agri Sci
Maize residues (124.56 mg kg-1). Crops (Maize, 44(11):751-754.
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quality parameters. Therefore, variation in nutrient Midir District, Northwestern Ethiopia. J Natural Sci Res
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Long-Term Organic and Conventional Farming on
Physical and Chemical Properties of Soil. J Krishi Vigyan
7(2) : 104-109.

Performance of India on Gender Disparity in Health and

Survival: A Temporal Analysis
Shalini Sharma* and Mehak Jain**
Department of Economics and Sociology
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141004 (Punjab)
ABSTRACT
In India, gender equality is a fundamental human right and a necessary foundation for a peaceful, prosperous
and sustainable society. Within nation and development strategies, gender disparity is critical because it
disables women to make decisions that impact their overall health and families. This paper is an attempt
to analyse the determinants which are accountable for measuring gender disparity in health and survival.
The present study has focused on different determinants of women health and survival viz., nutritional
status, reproductive health, women’s empowerment and gender-based violence etc. that ensure gender
equality. Study relied on secondary data obtained from various international and national reports viz.,
Global Gender Gap Reports (GGI), National Family Health Survey III, IV and V, NSSO (National Sample
Survey Organization), Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MSPM) and National Crime
Record Bureau (NCRB). The study found that as per latest NFHS-V findings sex ratio (1020), institutional
births (88.6%), adoption of family planning methods (66.7%), total fertility rate (TFR) (2.0), has improved
but other indicators of health like sex ratio at birth (929) (SRB), anaemia among pregnant and all women
(57%) and obesity among women (24%) and men (22.9%) has not improved compared to previous rounds
(NFHSIV&III).The NCRB report findings revealed that crime against women in India increased from 56.5
per cent in year 2020 to 64.5 per cent in year 2021.
Key Words: Disparity, Facts Sheets, Gender, Health, Survival, Women.
INTRODUCTION still lacks few appreciations in the case of gender

Gender equality is the most desired state of equality. Traditional patriarchal customs and norms
form, which our nation is craving to have for since have degraded women to secondary status within
long. The struggle for equality has been one of the household and workplace. (Kohli, 2017 and Sharma
major concerns of the women’s movement all over et al, 2022) The women’s struggle to live life with
the world. (Panda and Aggarwal, 2005; Jayacharan, dignity across the country still continues. Women
2015). Gender equality is one of fundamental human are facing problems in every sphere of life whether
right and a necessary foundation for a peaceful, it is employment, access to health care or property
prosperous and sustainable society (Ahmad, 2011; rights. The attention required is still not being paid
Jha and Nagar, 2015). As per UNICEF, gender to the issues that concern this section of population.
equality means that women and men, girls and Gender equality in India is still a distant
boys, should enjoy the same rights and liberties, dream. There still exists a wide gap between the
resources, opportunities and protections. However, goals enunciated in the constitution, legislation,
it is not important that girls and boys, or women and policies, plans, programs and related mechanisms
men, be the same, or that they be treated exactly on the one hand and the situational reality of the
alike. India being a nation full of achievement, status of women in India. According to Gender
Professor * and Research Scholar **

Performance of India on Gender Disparity in Health
Table 1. Global Gender Gap Index: Status of India.

Year Global Health and Education Economic Political
Index Survival Attainment Participation and Empowerment
Opportunity
*2018 108 147 114 142 19
*2020 112 150 112 149 18
*2021 140 155 114 151 51
**2022 135 146 107 143 48
Source: Global Gender Gap Reports
*Global index for year 2018, 2020 and 2021 was calculated for 156 nations and for**year 2022 it was for
146 countries.
Inequality Index, measured by UNDP 2020, India Data Sources and Methodology
ranked 132 out of 187 countries in the world. This The present study has focused on gender
report shows India has skewed sex ratio, with discrepancies exiting in parameters determining
only 914 females for every 1,000 males, having health and survival along with violence against
29 percent of Indian women above the age of 15 women. The study has relied on secondary data
being in labour force participation, compared to obtained from various international and national
80.7 per cent men and our lawmakers in parliament reports i.e., Global Gender Gap (GGI), National
having 14 per cent women only. The anti-female Family Health Survey III, IV and V, NSSO (National
attitude and inequality in the society compel the Sample Survey Organization), Ministry of Statistics
women population to bring down in the traditional and Programme Implementation (MSPM) and
value system. Too much household responsibility National Crime Record Bureau (NCRB).
diminishes their opportunity to flourish. Though
some women are performing exceptionally well RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
in different spheres of activities, still majority of India ranks 135 among a total of 146 countries
Indian women are facing the problem of gender in the Global Gender Gap Index 2022 and is the
inequality and discrimination (Amutha, 2017 and worst performer in the world in the health and
Sharma et al, 2018). survival sub- index where it is ranked lowest
It is essential to know the health status of (146). The Global Gender Gap Report provides
women so that the causes of ill health are identified, scores on Global Gender Gap Index (GGGI) which
discussed and misconceptions removed. Ill health examines the gap between men and women in four
of women is mainly due to poor nutrition, gender dimensions, namely, economic participation and
discrimination, low age at marriage, risk factors opportunity, educational attainment, health and
during pregnancy, unsafe, unplanned and multiple survival and political empowerment. Since 2018,
deliveries, limited access to family planning India is continuously slipping down on the global
methods and unsafe abortion services. With this gender gap index till date. It slipped 32 places since
backdrop, this present paper is an attempt to 2018 to rank 140 in year 2021 out of 156 countries
measure gender disparity in health and survival in and become the third worst performer in South
contemporary times. -Asia. Among other regions, India’s neighbours,

Table 2. Gender-wise and region- wise nutritional status in India: NFHS (various rounds)
Particulars NFHS III NFHS IV NFHS V
(2005-06) (2015-16) (2019-20)
Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total
Underweight 38.8 19.8 33.0 26.7 15.5 22.9 21.2 13.2 18.7
(women)
Underweight 33.1 17.5 28.1 23.0 15.4 20.2 17.8 13.0 16.2
(men)
Overweight 8.6 28.9 14.8 15.0 31.3 20.6 19.7 33.2 24.0
(women)
Overweight 7.3 22.2 12.1 14.3 26.6 18.9 19.3 29.8 22.9
(men)
Anaemia 58.2 51.5 56.2 54.3 50.8 53.1 58.5 53.8 57.0
(women)
Anaemia (men) 27.7 17.2 24.3 25.3 18.5 22.7 27.4 20.4 25.0
Bangladesh ranked 65, Nepal 106, Bhutan 130 and percentage points, and a decline in the number of
Shri Lanka 116, Pakistan 153. women ministers, from 23.1 per cent in 2019 to 9.1
In the year 2021, on health and survival index, per cent in year 2021. However, it has still performed
India fared the worst, ranked at 155 out of 156. relatively well compared to other countries, ranking
After India, china remains worst performer in this at 51 in women’s participation in politics.
sub index. The report points to a skewed sex ratio as To understand the dismal position of India on
the major factor. It says the ratio can be attributed health and survival front it is pertinent to explore
to norms of son preference and gender-biased different variable of health which cumulatively
prenatal sex-selective practices. China and India determine the health and survival status. The study
together account for about 90 to 95 percent of the gauged and analysed the data provided by various
estimated 1.2 to 1.5 million missing female births rounds of NFHS which could be accounted for
annually worldwide due to gender-biased prenatal exploring gender health and disparities reflected
sex selective practices. Among the economic thereby. Good health is a key criterion, which
participation and opportunity index the report notes contributes to human wellbeing and economic
that the economic participation gender gap widened growth. Adequate nutrition for women would help
in India by 3 percent in year 2021. According to them to serve as productive members of the society.
this report, share of women in professional and Nutritious diet can help us to deal with deficiencies,
technical roles declined further to 29.2 per cent and reach healthy weight, decreasing chances of chronic
share of women in senior and managerial positions diseases and promote overall health. (Kowsalya
also is at 14.6 per cent and only 8.9 per cent firms in and Manoharan, 2017). But prevailing culture and
the country have top female managers. traditional practices still highlights the women
The estimated earned income of women in vulnerability to poor nutrition status. Socialisation
India is only one-fifth of men’s, which puts the of men and women adhere to prevailing gender
country among the bottom 10 globally on this norms, women’s and men’s perceptions and
indicator. In the index of educational attainment definitions of health and ill-health are likely to vary
India ranked 114 and India has also declined on their health-seeking behaviour.
the political empowerment index as well by 13.5

Table 3. Region-wise reproductive health status of women in India: NFHS (various rounds).
284
Sr. NFHS III NFHS IV NFHS V
No. Particular (2005-06) (2015-16) (2019-20)
1. ANC (at least 4 visits) 42.8 73.8 50.7 44.8 66.4 51.2 54.2 68.1 58.1
2. Total fertility rate 3.0 2.1 2.7 2.4 1.8 2.2 2.1 1.6 2.0
3. TT injection n.a n.a 76.3 88.6 89.9 89.0 91.7 92.7 92.0
4. Iron folic acid intake 18.1 34.5 22.3 25.9 40.8 30.3 40.2 54.0 44.1
5. Registered Pregnancies (MCP Card) n.a n.a n.a 90.0 87.7 89.3 96.3 94.9 95.9
6. Institutional birth 39.9 75.3 40.8 75.1 88.7 78.9 86.7 93.8 88.6
7. Birth assisted by SHP* 28.5 60.8 36.8 78.0 90.0 81.4 87.8 94.0 89.4
8. Total unmet need 14.1 9.7 12.8 13.2 12.1 12.9 9.9 8.4 9.4
9. Unmet need for spacing 6.9 4.5 6.9 5.9 5.1 5.7 4.3 3.6 4.0
10. Family planning method 53.0 64.0 56.3 51.7 57.2 53.67 65.6 69.3 66.7
11. Sterilization (women) 37.1 37.8 37.3 36.1 35.7 36.0 38.7 37.3 37.3
12. Sterilization (men) 1.0 1.1 1.0 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
13. Violence during pregnancy n.a n.a n.a 4.1 3.9 3.9 3.4 2.5 3.1
*Skilled health personnel

Table 4. Gender-wise and region-wise survival status in India: NFHS (various rounds).
Sr. No. Particular NFHS III NFHS IV NFHS V
(2005-06) (2015-16) (2019-20)
1. Sex ratio n.a n.a n.a 1009 956 991 1037 985 1020
2. Sex ratio at birth n.a n.a n.a 927 899 919 931 924 929
3. Screening for cervical cancer n.a n.a n.a 20.7 25.3 22.3 1.7 2.2 1.9
4. Examination for breast cancer n.a n.a n.a 8.8 11.7 9.8 0.7 1.2 0.9
5. Knowledge of HIV/AIDS(women) 46.4 80.7 57.0 16.9 28.1 20.9 18.2 28.6 21.6
6. Knowledge of HIV/AIDS(men) 73.0 94.2 80.0 37.8 29.2 32.5 27.1 37.5 30.7
7. Spousal violence 40.2 30.4 37.2 34.1 25.3 31.1 31.6 24.2 29.3
Women may not recognise the symptoms to NFHS- V round (58.5%). Greater percentage of
of a health problem, nor treat them as serious or anaemic women were from rural areas as compare
deserving medical help and more commonly not to urban counterparts in all the three NFHS rounds
perceive themselves as entitled to invest in their which is grave concern for women health.
wellbeing. According to FAO estimates in ‘The State Reproductive health is an indispensable
of Food Security and Nutrition in the World, 2020 ingredient of women health and a major
report, 189.2 million people were undernourished determinant of human population. Reproductive
in India out of which majority are women and health recognizes the diversity of the special
children. Obesity, hypertension, and diabetes are health needs of women before, during and beyond
the major reasons behind the growing number of child bearing age. Women in India face many
non-communicable diseases (NCDs) across the serious health concerns during reproductive stage
world. Around 55 million people are at risk of death pertaining to unequal treatment, violence against
if enough and timely interventions are not taken to them and nutritional status. The data (Table 3)
control NCDs as per WHO. show reproductive health status of women in India.
In fact, India is the first country to adopt a Though it is satisfying to note that percentage of
strategy to minimize deaths due to NCDs by 25 those using various family planning measures had
per cent by 2025. Obesity in India has increased in improved significantly from 56.3 percent to 66.7
both genders. While the percentage of men who are percent for the said period but the irony is that the
obese increased from 12.1 per cent to 22.9 per cent, onus of using it remained almost solely on women.
female obesity increased from 14 per cent to 24 Data revealed that 37.3 percent of women
per cent from NFHS-III to NFHS-V round. Urban underwent tubectomy compared to just 0.3 percent
men and women had suffered more from problem men who got vasectomy. As a matter of fact,
of overweight compared to their rural counterparts. it has been medically proved that compared to
It is disheartening to note that nearly one fourth
tubectomy, vasectomy is far safer, easier and hassel
(18.7%) of women in year 2019-20 continues to be free, but due to cultural norms of masculinity and
underweight. Scenario with rural population was patriarchy the burden was bore by women only.
also not satisfactory as greater percentage of them Increasing institutional deliveries is an important
was underweight and this trend went unabated since factor in reducing maternal and neonatal mortality.
2005-06 till date. Rural women were under-weight Seventy-nine percent of deliveries were held in a
more than urban women and women (18.7) were health institution in 2015-16. (NFHS-IV) The most
more underweight than men (16.2). Though the data common reason for not delivering in a health facility
recorded decline in the percentage of underweight was that the woman did not think it was necessary
but still nearly one fifth of the population suffers (40%), but 18 percent of women said that it was too
from the problem of underweight which is the clear far or there was no transportation, 18 percent said
reflection of significant disparities pertaining to that the husband or family did not allow them to
affordability and accessibility of marginalised to have the delivery in a health facility, and 16 percent
food and health services. said it costs too much. Institutional deliveries got
Anaemia is another health exigency from more than double between 2005-06 and 2019-20
which there seemed no respite as is clear from data. from 40 percent to 88.6 percent.
Anaemia among women as compare to men was In total fertility rate is 2.7 children per woman
more glaring in our country. It is clearly depicted in NFHS III round, which declined to 2.2 children
from NFHS-III round that more than half of women in 2005-06 in NFHS-IV round and is currently
were anaemic (56.2%) and status quo continues up just above the replacement level of fertility of 2.0

children per woman in the latest survey of NFHS V. IV round which had recorded a significant decrease
Women in rural areas still have higher fertility (2.1) in subsequent round to just 1.9 and 0.9 per cent,
on average, than women in urban areas in latest respectively despite so many awareness campaigns
round of NFHS-V (TFR of 2.1 versus 1.6 children). and camps being organised to spread importance
The intake of iron and folic acid tablets by women of timely examination to prevent onslaught of the
had increased from previous round NFHS-III disease.
(22.3%) to latest round NFHS-V (44.1%) which
shows that still in India less than half of women Exposure of Women and Men to Mass Media
only took iron and folic acid tablets. Region wise Information on the exposure of women and
analysis shows that still in rural areas (40.2 %) less men to mass media is especially important for
percentage of women intake iron tablets than urban the development of educational programmes and
(54.0%) counterparts in NFHS-V which as so very the dissemination of all types of information,
necessary to counter anaemic and ensure maternal particularly information about family planning,
and foetal death. HIV/AIDS, and other important health topics. Men
were more likely than women to be exposed to all
Practices such as female feticide, female forms of media, including newspapers, television,
infanticide, and domestic violence were rampant. and cinema. Television is the most common form of
These retrogressive practices have declined with media exposure for both women and men across all
time but are yet to see a complete root out. On a subgroups, followed by newspapers or magazines.
positive note, first time India’s decades-long efforts Some women and men had access to any of the four
to improve the sex ratio finally bore fruit. For every media at least on a weekly basis (25% of women
1000 males, the country now has 1,020 females. and 14% of men), according to NFHS IV. One-
This was the first time the sex ratio has tipped in fifth (21%) of women and one-third (30%) of men
favour of females in V round of NFHS i.e.,1020 aged 15-49 had comprehensive knowledge of HIV/
from IV round of NFHS i.e., 991 but when it comes AIDS according to latest NFHS-V findings. Region
to equality between men and women, as a country, wise data shows that rural women (18.2%) had less
India is still struggling. Gender inequalities between awareness than urban women (28.6%). Similar
Indian men and women have been observed to exist trends had been seen in males according to latest
right from the time they are born. From various findings.
rounds of National Family Health Survey (NFHS)
III, IV and V, it was found that the sex ratio at birth Maternal Mortality Ratio
(SRB) was still worryingly low 929, indicative of Maternal Mortality Ratio refers to the number
the fact that practice of sex selection and female of women who die as a result of complications
foeticide still prevailed through illegally, despite an of pregnancy or childbearing in a given year per
improvement from previous survey. India’s poor sex 100,000 live births in that year. According to the
ratio at birth has been a national shame and concern United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)’s State
as it indicates a general preference for male child of the World Population Report 2022 in the year,
and also lakhs of female foetuses are being killed. 2007 to 2011- 67 per cent of abortions in India
The data pertaining to women aged 15- were classified as unsafe. One in seven unintended
49 yr who had ever undergone specific health pregnancies in the world takes place in India. The
examinations (examinations of the cervix, breast) unintended pregnancies, and subsequent abortions,
is presented in this section. Overall, 22 per cent of are intimately linked with the overall development
women had undergone a cervical examination, 9 of the country. UNFPA has called the staggering
per cent had a breast cancer examination in NFHS- number of unintended pregnancies in the world

“a global failure to uphold a basic human right”. REFERENCES

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%), kidnapping and abduction (17.6 %), and rape Sci Stud 3: 178-18.
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though recorded decline overtime still nearly one Panda P and Aggarwal B (2005). Marital violence and
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CONCLUSION nutrition in the granary of India: A study of Ludhiana
The health and survival status of women district in Punjab. Indian J Eco. Dev 14: 549-554.
in India is a matter of great concern. Though, Sharma N, Sharma S and Kaur G (2022). Maternal health
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(SRB), anemia, violence during pregnancy, spousal World Economic Forum 2022.https://www.weforum.org/
violence and HIV/ AIDS knowledge were dismally reports/global-gender-gap-report-2022/in-full/economy-
profiles-5b89d90ea5
low hence, there is need to rethink the concepts
and strategies for promoting women’s dignity and Received on 8/10/2022 Accepted on 30/3/2023
rights. The only full proof method to stop gender
inequality is to bring about change in the mind
sets of people along with strict implementation
of women welfare measures. It is also suggested
that support NGOs and CSOs with strong links to
grass root communities to run extensive gender
sensitization workshops to help promote gender
equal norms between men and women.

Promotion of Low Cost Vermicompost Production for Livelihood

Improvement in Morigaon District of Assam
Saurav Baruah, Rijusmita Sarma Deka, Sukanya Gogoi and Prasanna Kumar Pathak*
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Morigaon, Assam Agricultural University
ABSTRACT
Empowering women through developing skill in various income generating activities of agriculture
and allied sector would play a significant role in uplifting the rural economy. An enterprise involved in
vermicompost production with locally available material is now emerging as an income generating
avenue for farm women. Vermicompost is produced by the earthworms on partially decomposed organic
material. The compost is rich in essential plant nutrients, beneficial to soil microorganisms, plant growth
promoting substances, vitamins and enzymes. Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) Morigaon conducted front line
demonstration (FLD) on low cost vermicompost production involving ten numbers of farm women with
an aim to wide scale adoption of the technology among others for upliftment of socio-economic standard
of the rural people. In the FLD programme, the technology demonstrated was pit method of vermicompost
preparation in a tank of size 2.5 m(L) X 0.91 m (B) X 0.91 m(D) using locally available materials such as
bamboo and polythene sheet. Vermi wash was collected in an earthen pit of size 0.31 m (L) x 0.31 m (B) x
0.31 m (D) by connecting the pit with vermicomposting unit by a PVC pipe. The result of the demonstration
programme was satisfactory and spread by the members of the NGO trained by KVK, Morigaon to fifteen
operational villages under them leading to the formation of a Farmers’ Producer Company named Yangli.
Key Words: Cost, Empowerment, Demonstration,Production, Vermicompost, Women.
INTRODUCTION fertilizer for yield improvement of crop as well as

Vermicompost is produced by the activity of for improving the soil nutrient status. It helps in
earthworm on partially decomposed organic material improving the water holding capacity of the soil due
leaving behind the cast which is rich in essential to the hygroscopic nature of the mucus associated
plant nutrients, beneficial for soil microorganisms, with it (Kumar et al, 2018). Studies revealed that
plant growth promoting substances, vitamins application of vermicompost increases the soil
and enzymes such as protease, amylase, lipase, organic matter, improves cation exchange capacity
cellulase and chitinase (Olle, 2019). Nutrient of soil, reduces bulk density of soil, prevents soil
content in vermicompost is dependent on the type erosion and soil compaction, maintains optimum
of organic material used for vermicomposting. pH level of the soil and removes soil salinity and
Studies revealed that vermicompost preparation sodicity (Sinha et al, 2014). Vermicompost also
using banana pseudostem and leaves along with has the ability to repel hard bodied pests and also
cattle manure in the ratio of 8:1 contain 1.5% N, suppresses activity of aphids (Myzus persicae),
0.4% P2O5 and 1.8% K2O (Ushakumari et al, 1999). mearly bugs (Pseudococcus spp.) and Cabbage
Bordoloi (2021) reported that vermicompost is a White Caterpillars (Peiris brassicae) on pepper,
suitable method to recycle of crop waste available in cabbage and tomato (Olle, 2019). Application of
the Ri-Bhoi district and it is an appropriate organic vermicompost stimulated flowering of crop leading

*Director of Extension Education, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat

Promotion of Low Cost Vermicompost Production
to the increase in yield (Arancon et al, 2008). limited in the district. In the year 2019, one of
Application of 10t vermicompost per hectare in the Non Governmental Organization (NGO),
integrated nutrient management approach along named Rastriya Gramin Vikash Nidhi (RGVN),
with recommended dose of N, P and K fertilizer working in Morigaon district contacted KVK,
in field pea increases the yield than application of Morigaon for training and demonstration on low
chemical fertilizer alone (Reddy et al, 1998). cost vermicompost preparation in their operational
During the vermicomposting process, coelomic villages and as such KVK designed one Front Line
fluid of the earthworm is also released which is Demonstration programme engaging ten numbers
known as vermiwash. The wash is rich in enzymes, of farm women of Bormanipur village of Morigaon
plant growth hormones like IAA, Cytokinin and district during 2020-21. Prior to the demonstration
GA3, vitamins, macro and micro nutrients (Bucker programme, KVK planned to conduct a training
Field et al, 1999). It also contain mucus secretion of programme involving farm women enrolled under
earthworm along with excretory substances, humic the FLD programme along with other farm women,
acid from soil and organic waste materials released Field Facilitators and Local Service Providers of
after percolation of water through different layers of the FPC with an aim of developing master trainers
vermicomposting unit which can be easily absorbed for spread of the technology in the operational
by plant tissues (Sundaravadivelu et al, 2011). It is villages of the NGO. Considering this, a twenty
generally used as foliar spray in standing crops. It five days skill development training on job role
has been observed that foliar spray of vermiwash Vermicompost Producer sponsored by Agriculture
enhances the growth and yield parameters of Skill Council of India was organized.
brinjal plant. Increased plant growth, flowering and
productivity was reported by after application of MATERIALS AND METHODS
vermiwash as foliar spray (Nath et al, 2009). Earthworm species
Considering the beneficial effect of Earthworms are divided into three categories
vermicompost on crop production as well as on based on their feeding habit: Epegeic, Endogeic and
soil health, demand for the compost has increased Anecic. Among them, Epegeic species are surface
in recent years. Hence, there exist an opportunity feeder and feed on decaying organic matter and lives
for establishment of an enterprise in vermicompost in surface litter. In the FLD programme, Eisenia
preparation at community level involving farm foetida was used in vermicompost preparation due
women. Low cost vermicompost preparation using to its high multiplication rate and is highly efficient
locally available material is one of the best suited in recycling of partially decomposed organic
technology for the small and marginal farmers of material. It also has capacity to withstand a wide
Morigaon district of Assam. temperature range of 0ºC to 35ºC.
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Morigaon conducted Production technology of vermicompost
training and demonstration programee for Pit Method: Low cost vermicomposting tank
promotion of low cost vermicomposting technology was fabricated using locally available materials
in the district. At the beginning, one and two days such as bamboo and polythene sheet of size 2.5
training progammes on low cost vermicomposting m(Length) X 0.91 m (Breadth) X 0.91 m (Depth).
were provided to the farmers and farm women. For collection of vermiwash, an earthen pit of
Farmers attending the training programme adopted size 0.31 m (Length) x 0.31 m (Breadth) x 0.31
the technology but the spread of the technology m (Depth) was used which was connected to the
was limited and problem of marketing of compost vermicomposting unit by a PVC pipe (1.27 cm
arises. Hence, production of vermicompost was diameter). Cool, moist and shady area was selected

Table 1. Cost of production of vermicompost.

Sr. No Particular Quantity Rate (Rs.) Amount
Fixed cost (for construction of one tank)
01 Bamboo 8 No 200/piece 1600.00
02 Labour 6 No 300/day 1800.00
03 Plastic LS LS 400.00
04 Sand and Gravel LS LS 200.00
05 Earthworm 750 g 2500/kg 1875.00
Operational cost for one year
06 Labour 24 No 300/day 7200.00
07 Cowdung 1440 kg 1.5/kg 4320.00
Total cost of production 17,395.00
Return per tank per year
08 Vermicompost 23.88 q 8.00/kg 19104.00
09 Earthworm 7.2 kg 2500.00/kg 18000.00
10 Vermiwash 156 L 10.00/L 1560.00
Total 38,664.00
Net Return 21,269.00
for the installation of the tank. Organic wastes of earthworms. Sieving operation was carried out
were than collected, chopped to a size of 5cm and with a 2mm size sieve for separation of compost
heaped in sun for 7-10 days before filling in the from earthworms. Earthworms and the cocoons
tank. Cowdung slurry was sprinkled over the heap separated were stored in a safe place.
for partial decomposition of the organic material. A
5cm layer of sand was first placed at the bottom of RESULT AND DISCUSSION
the tank. A bedding material of rice straw of 5cm Vermicompost production
thickness was placed above the sand layer. Partially It was found that the time required to produce
decomposed organic material and cowdung was vermicompost was 2.5 to 3 months in summer season
mixed in 60:40 ratio and then filled in the tank. and 3 to 3.5 months in winter season. On an average,
Earthworm species (Eisenia foetida) of 750g total 3 times vermicompost was produced from one
was then released above the organic material and tank in one year from the low cost vermicomposting
cowdung mixture. The mixture was then covered units. Average vermicompost production recorded
with gunny bags. The mixture was kept at a moisture
was 8.30 q in one cycle and 23.88 q in a year from
level of 70-80%, and to do so sprinkling of water as
one tank (Table 2). The FPC also took the initiative
and when required was carried out. to analyze the nutrient content of the vermicompost
Harvesting: The time required for preparation at North Eastern Regional Institute of Water and
of compost was 2.5 to 3 months. Harvesting period Land Management (NERIWALM), Tezpur, Assam
was judged when the organic materials were and the result of the analysis reflects fine quality of
completely decomposed and turns into granular compost.
structure. Gunny bags were then removed and
sprinkling of water was stopped and the compost Vermiwash Production
was heaped which enabled downward movement An Earthen pit was used for collection of

Training on job role vermicompost producer sponsored by ASCI
Demonstration on low cost vermicompost production
Director of Extension Education (Assam Agricul- Vice Chancellor (Assam Agricultural University,
tural University, Jorhat) visited the packaging site Jorhat) visited the packaging site of Yangli FPC
of Yangli FPC
vermiwash which was connected by a PVC pipe with Earthworm Production

the low cost vermicomposting tank. On an average, At the time of harvest, sieving operation was
45 L and 156 L of vermiwash was collected from carried out which separates the compost from the
one tank in one cycle and in a year respectively. earthworms. On an average, 2.7 kg of earthworm
was collected in one cycle and 7.2 kg in a year.

Economics of Production REFERENCES

Total fixed and operational cost of production Arancon N Q, Edwards C A, Babenko A, Cannon J, Galvis P
recorded was Rs. 5,875/- and Rs. 11,520/-, and Metzger J D (2008). Influences of vermicomposts,
produced by earthworms and microorganisms from cattle
respectively with a net cost of Rs. 17,395/- for one manure, food waste and paper waste, on the germination,
tank in a year (Table 1). In return, average net profit growth and flowering of petunias in the greenhouse. Appl
of Rs. 21,269/- was recorded from one low cost Soil Ecol 39: 91-99.
vermicomposting unit with a B:C ratio of 2.22 in a Bordoloi Popiha (2021). Vermicompost and integrated
year (Table 2). nutrient management approach for yield enhancement
of capsicum (Capsicum annuum L.) under Hill Agro
Impact of the FLD programme Ecosystem of Meghalaya, North East India. J Krishi
The technology demonstrated in the FLD Vigyan 10 (1) : 309-313.
programme was found suitable and accepted by Bucker field J C, Flavel T, Lee K E and Web Ster K A (1999).
the farm women. At the same time, the technology Vermicompost soil and liquid form as plant growth
was also spread by the Field Facilitators and Local promoter. Pedobio logia 42:753-759.
Service Providers of the NGO RGVN trained Kumar A, Prakash C H B, Brar N S and Kumar B (2018).
by KVK, Morigaon in their operational villages. Potential of vermicompost for sustainable crop production
and soil health improvement in different cropping
Later on, Farmers’ Interested Groups (FIG) were systems. Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci 7(10): 1042-1055.
identified by them from fifteen villages and a 7(10):1042-1055.
Farmers’ Producer Company (FPC) named “Yangli Nath G, Singh K and Singh D K (2009). Chemical Analysis of
Farmer Producer Company Limited” was formed Vermi composts/Vermiwash of Different Combinations
comprising of 102 numbers of FIGs. As on date, of Animal, Agro and Kitchen Wastes. Australian J Basic
1022 numbers of shareholders are involved in low Appl Sci 3(4):3671-3676.
cost vermicompost production which is marketed at Olle M (2019). Review: Vermicomposting, its importance and
district and state level. The FPC had a net revenue of benefit in agriculture. J Agri Sci 2:93-98.
Rs. 27,94,267/- as on 31st march, 2022. Continuous Reddy R, Reddy M A N, Reddy Y T N, Reddy N S, Anjanappa
effort of KVK, Morigaon and in collaboration N and Reddy R (1998). Effect of organic and inorganic
sources of NPK on growth and yield of pea [Pisum
with NGO RGVN results in establishment of a
sativum (L.)]. Legume Res 21(1):57-60.
small scale industry in village level which sets an
Sinha R K, Hahn G, Soni B K and Agarwal S (2014).
example for other women farmer in the district for
Sustainable agriculture by vermiculture: Earthworms
establishment of a community level enterprise for and vermicompost can ameliorate soils damaged
uplifting the rural economy. by agrochemicals, restore soil fertility, boost farm
productivity and sequester soil organic carbon to mitigate
CONCLUSION global warming. Int J Agri Res and Rev 2(8):99–114.
From the present study it was clear that a Sundaravadivelan C, Isaiarasu L, Manimuthu M, Kumar P,
community effort could bring a revolution in Kuberan T and Anburaj J (2011). Impact analysis and
confirmative study of physico-chemical, nutritional and
farming sector. In this case, a group of farm biochemical parameters of vermiwash produced from
women motivated by KVK, Morigaon and the different leaf litters by using two earthworm species. J
NGO (Rastriya Gramin Vikash Nidhi) created an Agri Technol 7(5):1443- 1457.
enterprise which was registered as Farmers’ Producer Ushakumari K, Prabhakumari P and Padmaja P. (1999).
Company. The successful implementation of low Efficiency of vermicomposts on growth and yield of
cost vermicomposting enterprise by the group of summer crop okra (Abelmoschus esculentus Moench) J
farm women was popularized by different print and Trop Agric 37: 87-88.
electronic media leading to easy marketing of the Received on 20/9/2022 Accepted on 15/3/2023
compost within the state as well as in other states also.

Productivity and Profitability Analysis of Late Sown Wheat

under Paddy-Wheat Cropping System
R K Bairwa*, Roop Singh, Kamla Mahajani1, Gunjan Sandhya and Sarita
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kota-324001 (Rajasthan)
ABSTRACT
The study was carried out during Rabi 2017-18 to 2019-20 at farmer’s fields in the Bundi district of
Rajasthan. Frontline demonstrations were conducted with the objectives to analyse the productivity and
profitability of late sown wheat under paddy-wheat cropping system. The results revealed that frontline
demonstrations recorded higher grain yield of wheat as compared to farmer’s practices over the years of
study. Improved variety (Raj 4238) of wheat resulted in progressively increased grain yield from 43.44 to
51.46 q/ha with a range of 6.41 to 12.97 per cent higher over farmer’s practices during three years of study.
In addition to increase in grain yield of wheat, mean of extension gap, technology gap and technology
index were found 3.94, 5.92 q/ha and 10.76 per cent, respectively. The extension gap may be reduced by
popularization of improved packages and practices of wheat in late sown condition under paddy-wheat
cropping system. Improved variety (Raj 4238) of wheat under late sown condition also gave higher gross
and net return with more benefit cost ratio as compare to farmer’s practices over the years of study. The
study also revealed that variety Raj 4238 was found feasible in late sown conditions under paddy-wheat
cropping system in Bundi district of Rajasthan.
Key Words: Cropping sequence, Demonstration, Fertilizer use, Paddy, Wheat.
INTRODUCTION under optimum growing season (Reager et al,
Wheat [Triticum aestivum (L)] has significantly 2018). KVK, Bundi promoted and popularized the
contributed towards success of the green revolution wheat variety Raj. 4238 at farmers’ fields through
and has greatly helped to transform our country from front line demonstrations. Raj 4238 (HW2021/Raj
a situation of ship to mouth to being self-sufficient. 3765) was developed by RARI, Durgapura (Raj.)
Its by-product (straw) is also used as dry fodder for for irrigated late sown condition of Central Zone.
animals (Bairwa et al, 2013). In Bundi district of The average grain yield of this variety is 45.5 q /
Rajasthan wheat is cultivated in an acreage of 1.38 ha and maximum yield potential is 62.8 q/ha and
lakh ha and produced 6.42 lakh MT with an average it is good for chapatti making (Gupta et al, 2017).
productivity of 4656 kg per ha (Anonymous, Concept of front-line demonstration was introduced
2021-22a). Paddy-wheat is an important cropping with the purpose of improving adoption behaviour
system prevailing in Bundi district covering more of the farmers related to improved wheat production
than 50 thousand ha area. Harvesting of paddy in technologies and to harvest the maximum yield
the month of November is the main reason for late in real farm conditions. Extending cultivation of
sown wheat crop which results low productivity improved varieties, get feedback from farmers,
of wheat. At optimum temperature, early sowing constraints in adoption of recommended improved
enhances the wheat growth and nutrient uptake, technologies for further research and to maximize
whereas delay in crop sowing cause reduction in the technology dissemination process among the
yield (Choudhary et al, 2010). High yield potential farmers are some of the other important features
varieties play a pivotal role in increasing yield of this programme (Nagarajan et al, 2001). Front
1
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Bundi-323001 (Raj.)

Table 1. Comparisons between Improved Practices (IP) and Farmer’s Practices (FP) under Wheat
frontline demonstration.
Sr. Particular Improve Practices (FLDs) Farmers Practice
No. (Existing practices)
1. Farming situation Irrigated Irrigated
2. Previous crops Paddy Paddy and Soybean
3. Variety Raj. 4238 Raj. 4037
3. Seed treatments Seed treatment with Tebuconazole 2 Nil
DS (Rexil) at 2 g/kg seed followed by
Azotobacter and PSB culture
4. Time of sowing 25th Nov. to 5th December 25th Nov. to 5th December
5 Seed rate 120 kg/ha 150-160 kg/ha
6. Fertilizers dose 120:40:30:25 kg NPKZn/ha 150-160:30-40:0:15-20 kg NPKZn/
ha
7 Weeds management Sulfosulforon 75 % + Metsulfuroun 2,4-D at 0.50 kg a.i./ha at 30-35
methyl 5 % WG (ready mix) 32 g a.i./ha days after sowing (DAS)
at 30-35 DAS
8 Plant protection Need based application of chloropyriphos Nil
measure 20 % EC to protect the crop against
termite and leaf eating caterpillars
line demonstrations are one of the practical including use of quality seeds of improved variety
approaches to maximize the production by display (Raj. 4238), line sowing, seed treatment and timely
of relevant technologies at farmers field under strict weed management as well as recommended dose
supervision of agriculture expert helped to narrow of fertilizers were emphasized as per package of
down the extension and technology gaps to a practices of the zone for Rabi crops (Anonymous,
considerable extent (Singh et al, 2022). Keeping in 2021-22b). The traditional practices were followed
view, the present study was undertaken to analyse in case of local checks. Throughout the season,
the productivity and profitability of late sown wheat crop was monitored weekly for proper growth,
under Paddy-Wheat cropping system by conducting irrigation, plant protection, fertilizer application
front line demonstrations at farmers’ fields. and intercultural operation were performed as and
when needed. The data on output were collected
MATERIALS AND METHODS from FLDs plots as well as control plots and finally
The study was carried out by Krishi Vigyan the grain yield, cost of cultivation, gross return,
Kendra, Bundi (Rajasthan) during Rabi 2017-18 to net returns with the benefit cost ratio worked out.
2019-20 at farmers’ field. During these three years of The extension gap, technology gap and technology
study, total 133 front line demonstrations were carried index were calculated by using formulas as given
out covering 53.2 ha area with active participation by Samui et al (2000).
of farmers. Participating farmers were selected and
trained on various aspect of wheat production. The RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
differences between the demonstration package and A comparison of productivity level between
existing farmers’ practices are mentioned in Table 1. improved practices (IP) and farmers practices (FP)
In demonstration plots, all the agronomic practices has been shown in Table 2. It was evident that under

Table 2. Details of acreage, yield, per cent increase in yield, extension gap, technology gap and
technology index of wheat frontline demonstrations
Season & No. of Area Variety Yield (q/ha) Additional Per cent Extension Technology Technology
year Demo. (ha) IP FP yield over increase in gap (q/ha) gap (q/ha) index (%)
FP (q/ha) yield over
FP
Rabi 2017-18 47 18.8 Raj. 51.46 45.55 5.91 12.97 5.91 3.54 6.44
4238
Rabi 2018-19 50 20.0 Raj. 50.80 47.74 3.06 6.41 3.06 4.20 7.64
4238
Rabi 2019-20 36 14.4 Raj. 50.96 47.44 3.52 7.72 3.52 4.04 7.35
4238
Total/ 133 53.2 - 51.07 46.91 4.16 8.87 4.16 3.92 7.14
Mean
IP: Improved Practices i.e. FLD; FP: Farmers’ Practice
demonstration plots, yield performance of wheat Extension gap

variety Raj 4238 was found to be substantially higher The data (Table 2) varied from 3.06 to 5.91 q/
as compared to farmer’s practices during study ha during the period of study emphasizes the need
(2017-18 to 2019-20). The yield of wheat under to educate the farmers through various means for
frontline demonstrations in the range of 50.80 to adoption of improved agricultural production
51.46 q/ha as compared to farmers practices 45.55 to technologies to reverse the trend of wide extension
47.74 q/ha during the study period. The technology gap. The technology gap, which is the difference
interventions thus gave yield enhancement to the between potential and demonstration yield was
tune of 6.41 to 12.97 per cent higher over farmer’s highest during 2018-19 (4.20 q/ha) and lowest in
practices during the investigation. Similarly, the year of 2017-18 (3.54 q/ha). However, overall
additional yield reported under demonstration plots mean of technology gap during the study was 3.92
was in the range of 3.06 to 5.91 q/ha, respectively q/ha. The variation in technology gap observed
over the control. Though, the fluctuations in yield may be attributed to the dissimilarity in soil fertility
over the years were observed mainly on account of status and weather condition prevails during the
variations in soil type, climatic conditions prevailed study. Mukharjee (2003) was also opined that
and insect pest attacked as well as the change in depending on identification and use of farming
the location of trials every year. The results were situation, specific interventions may have greater
conformity with the findings of Gupta et al, implications in enhancing system productivity.
(2017) that variety Raj 4238 (HW2021/Raj 3765)
developed by RARI, Durgapura (Raj.) which was Technology index
suitable for irrigated late sown conditions and give Technology index shows the feasibility of the
higher yield. Similar findings on yield enhancement technology at farmers’ fields. The lower the value
under frontline demonstrations was also reported of technology index means more is the feasibility of
by Singh (2017), Chourasiya et al (2022) in wheat, the technology (Jeengar et al, 2006). It was revealed
Ashem and Ralte (2022) in maize, Morwal et al that minimum technology index value of 6.44 per
(2018) in cumin, Singh et al (2022) in lentil, Pathak cent was reported during 2017-18 followed by 7.35
(2018) in soybean, Dhaka et al (2016) and Bairwa in the year of 2019-20 whereas maximum value of
et al (2013) in black gram. technology index of 7.64 was reported in the year

Table 3. Economics of wheat under frontline demonstration.

Year Cost of Gross Return Net Return Rs. Additional return B:C Ratio
cultivation Rs/ha /ha over local check
Rs/ha
IP FP IP FP IP FP Cost (Rs/ Return IP FP
ha) (Rs/ha)
Rabi 2017-18 40802 40425 82336 72880 41534 32455 377 9079 2.02 1.80
Rabi 2018-19 41070 42292 93472 87841 52407 45549 -1222 6858 2.28 2.08
Rabi 2019-20 44174 44914 98098 91322 53923 46408 -740 7515 2.22 2.03
Mean 42015 42543 91302 84014 49287 41471 -528 7817 2.17 1.97
of 2018-19. These finding were in close conformity REFERENCES

of Singh (2017), Chourasiya et al (2022) in wheat, Anonymous (2021-22a). Rajasthan Agricultural Statistics
Singh et al (2022) in lentil and Morwal et al (2018) at a glance 2020-21, Commissionerate of Agriculture,
Rajasthan, Jaipur.
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of frontline demonstration revealed that besides
Bairwa R K, Verma S R, Chayal K and Meena N L (2013).
higher production, FLDs participating farmers Popularization of improved blackgram production
fetches more return from their produce as compared technology through frontline demonstration in Humid
to farmers practice during three consecutive years. Southern plain of Rajasthan. Indian J Ext Edu and Rural
This was so because of better pricing of the produce Dev 21: 97-101.
in the market. Frontline demonstration recorded Bairwa R K, Verma S R, Jalwania R, Balai C M, Dhaka
higher gross return, net return and benefit cost ratio B L, Poonia M K and Chayal K (2013). Wheat yield
as compared to farmer’s practices during five years improvement through front line demonstrations under
Tribal Belt of Rajasthan. Prog Agri-An Int J 13 (1):192-
of study as well as on mean basis. These lines were 196.
in the of findings of Singh (2017), Chourasiya et al
Choudhary A K, Singh A and Yadav D S (2010). On farm
(2022), Morwal et al (2018) and Singh et al (2022). testing of wheat cultivars for site specific assessment
under varied bio-physical regimes in mild-hill conditions
CONCLUSION of Mandi district of Himachal Pradesh. J Community
From the above findings it can be concluded that Mobiliz and Sustain Dev 5 (1):1-6.
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reduce the technology gap to a considerable extent Evaluation of frontline demonstration of zero tillage
technology in wheat under semi-irrigated conditions. J
thus leading to increased productivity of late sown
Krishi Vigyan 10 (2): 146-149
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Dhaka B L, Bairwa R K and Ram B (2016). Productivity and
extension agencies in the district need to provide profitability analysis of balckgram (Cv. PU 31) at farmers
proper technical support to the farmers through field in humid south eastern plain of Rajasthan. J Food
different educational and extension methods to Legume 29 (1): 71-73.
reduce the extension gap for higher yield of wheat
under Paddy-Wheat cropping system.

Gupta A, Kumar V, Singh C and Tiwari V (2017). Development Reager M L, Kumar K and Dotaniya C K (2018). Effect of
and release of new wheat and barley varieties for different sowing dates on yield attributes and yields of wheat
zones and states. J Wheat Res 9 (1): 68-71. (Triticum aestivum L.) varieties in Rajasthan. In XXI
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demonstration on maize in Bhilwara district of Rajasthan. Agronomy, 24-26 October, 2018 at MPUAT, Udaipur,
Current Agri 30 (1/2):115-116. Rajasthan pp 408-409.
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L.) in Madhya Pradesh. J Krishi Vigyan 6 (2): 253-256.

Profile of Fisheries Officials of Maharashtra and Information

Sources used by them in Shrimp Farming
S V Patil1 and Arpita Sharma2
ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Panch Marg, Off Yari Road, Mumbai-61
ABSRACT
An investigation was undertaken to study the profile and information sources used by fisheries officials
involved in shrimp farming system of Maharashtra. Information was collected randomly from 55 fisheries
officials from the Department of Fisheries, Maharashtra using interview schedule. Personal profile was
also studied to have a broader understanding of the extension organization per se. Different sources from
where they access information included internet/social media, fisheries institutions, literature from research
institutions and development departments. A 3-point scale viz. always, very often and often was developed
to record the information sources used by fisheries officials. Results indicated that majority of fisheries
officials were post graduates (83.64%) with Master’s Degree in Fisheries Science or Zoology. Majority of
fisheries officials (58.18%) had not attended any formal training in scientific shrimp farming and extension
management (72.73%). Higher percentages of fisheries officials (58.18%) were using mobile phones as a
preferred mode for contacting farmers. The study indicated that internet / social media was the main source
of information for majority of fisheries officials (74.25%) followed by fisheries Institutions (16.36%). It is
necessary to integrate and institutionalize use of internet in extension advisories and trainings. Based on the
results of the study, integration and convergence of different aquaculture extension system service providers
is suggested.
Key Words: Aquaculture, Information sources, Officials, Profile Fisheries, Shrimp.
INTRODUCTION that the role of Government has been regulatory
Information is a catalyst for solving any and input companies have played an important role
problem and a very important tool for country’s as information providers. The fishery extension
economic development. For any farming system personnel due to their priority towards welfare and
to be successful right information at right time is regulatory programmes, neglected their expected
required. In the same way sustainable aquaculture job of education and training of farming community
farming system is also dependent on correct (Kumaran et al, 2012a).
information. In a recent 20-year retrospective In all states of India, Department of Fisheries
review of global aquaculture by Naylor et al (2020) (DoF) are in place and consist of Fisheries Extension
it was clear that pressure on the aquaculture industry Officers/ Assistant Fisheries Development Officers
to embrace comprehensive sustainability measures and Assistant Commissioner of Fisheries /
have improved the governance, technology, siting, Assistant Director of Fisheries and their mandate
and management in many cases. In the Indian is implementation of various schemes (PMMSY /
context, it is known that India occupies the second Blue Revolution) for farmers and fishers, providing
position in the world with respect to cultured extension services and conducting trainings.
shrimp production. However, in the context of However, role of state government extension
governance it has been reported by many studies

1
College of Fisheries (Dr. B. S. Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth), Ratnagiri-415629, M. S.
2
ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Panch Marg, Off Yari Road, Mumbai-61

personnel in shrimp farming system is still limited MATERIALS AND METHODS

to be regulatory and not much towards information The study was carried out in Maharashtra which
dissemination. ranks fifth in shrimp productivity and sixth in terms
Fisheries officials can be key architects of of shrimp production (MPEDA, 2021). Structured
fish farmers/fishers to access quality farm inputs, interview schedule was used to collect information
technical counselling, institutional credit and to from fisheries officials. Information was randomly
mobilize the fish farmers to achieve sustainability. collected from 55 fisheries officials out of 70 from
Fisheries officials are expected to be rigorous the Department of Fisheries (DoF), Maharashtra.
information seekers to keep themselves updated Personal profile viz., age, gender, educational
in every aspect of on-farm and off-farm activities. status, experience, training on shrimp farming and
Fisheries officials cannot be efficient in their extension management, frequency of meeting with
responsibilities to their customers if they are shrimp farmers and preferred mode of contact with
deficient in information dissemination resulting shrimp farmers were studied to have a broader
from not being adequately informed on some understanding of the extension organization per se.
subjects (Yomi-Alfred and Odefadehan, 2007). Discussions were done with 10 fisheries officials
Understanding the information sources used by to list the different sources from where they access
fisheries officials would help in strengthening those information. This included internet/social media,
channels, addressing the constraints if any and in fisheries institutions, literature from research
devising alternative information dissemination institutions and development departments. A
mechanisms for an effective and efficient delivery 3-point scale viz. always, very often and often was
of information which ultimately enhances their made and usage of these information sources by
capacity to serve the aquafarmers appropriately. the fisheries officials was recorded using interview
In this context, a study was taken up to assess the method. Descriptive statistics and percentages
information seeking behaviour and profile of the analyses were performed to interpret the findings
fisheries officials involved in shrimp aquaculture. appropriately.
Shrimp aquaculture farming system was selected
as it is an important farm enterprise, contributing
significantly to the nutritional, food security, Personal profile of fisheries officials
employment and socio-economic development Personal profile of fisheries officials was studied
of coastal communities. India occupies second to have a better understanding of respondents’
position in the world with respect to cultured shrimp profile and their organization. The personal profile
production and exported 6,52,253 tons of frozen of fisheries officials is presented in Table 1.
shrimp during 2019-20 (MPEDA, 2021). It was evident (Table 1) that 47.27 per cent of
Among all the states, Andhra Pradesh is having fisheries officials were in age group of 50 and above
maximum brackish water area under culture followed by 36-50 age group (34.55%), while 18.18
followed by West Bengal, Odisha, Kerala, Tamil per cent of them were in the age group up to 35
Nadu, Gujarat, Karnataka and Maharashtra. Though years. Jeeva et al (2006) also found dominance of 40
Maharashtra has huge potential for development years and above age for fisheries officials in Andhra
of shrimp farming but only 12% area is presently Pradesh and Kerala. Kumaran et al (2015) however
under shrimp farming. Hence, Maharashtra was reported that, that majority of extension personnel
selected for this study. (68%) from Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu were

Table 1. Personal information of fisheries officials.

Sr. No. Personal information Categories Number Per cent
1 Age (years) Up to 35 10 18.18
36-50 19 34.55
50 and above 26 47. 27
2 Gender Male 32 58.18
Female 23 41.82
3 Educational status B.F.Sc./B.Sc. 9 16.36
M.F.Sc./M.Sc. 46 83.64
Ph.D. 0 0
4 Experience (years) Up to 10 years 26 47.27
11- 20 years 18 32.73
Above 21 years 11 20.00
5 Training on shrimp farming Yes 23 41.82
No 32 58.18
6 Training on extension management Yes 15 27.27
No 40 72.73
7 Frequency of meeting with shrimp Once a week 10 18.18
farmer Once a month 18 32.73
Occasional 27 49.09
8 Preferred mode for contact with shrimp Mobile 32 58.18
farmer Group meeting 18 32.73
Personal visit on farm 5 9.09
below 40 years of age. It was observed that 58.18 graduation in fisheries science. For each district,
per cent fisheries officials were male while 41.82 five to six AFDOs, two FDOs and one ACF are
per cent were female officers. present. The study revealed that around 47.27
Majority of fisheries officials (83.64%) were per cent of fisheries officials were having service
post graduate with Master’s degree in Zoology or experience up to ten years, which was followed
Fisheries science, while 16.36 per cent of them were by fisheries officials with service experience
graduates. Jeeva et al (2006) in their study have also between 11-20 years (32.73%) and 20% were with
reported that 50 per cent extension personnel were service experience above 21 years. Similar type of
with post graduation degree. Kumaran et al (2015) observations was reported by Kumaran et al (2015)
in their study reported that, 65 per cent of fisheries in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh mentioning that
extension personnel were post graduate. most of the extension personnel were having up to
10 years of service experience. Jeeva et al (2006)
Through personal enquiry it was revealed that reported that fisheries officials from Kerala and
basic qualification for the post of Assistant Fisheries Andhra Pradesh had more than 14 years of service
Development Officer (AFDO) is graduation in experience in fisheries department.
fisheries science while for Fisheries Development
Officer (FDO) and Assistant Commissioner With reference to training in shrimp farming
of Fisheries (ACF) basic qualification is post- a total of 41.82 per cent of fisheries officials had

attended trainings. The organizations which have and extension personnel were mainly involved in
organized training programme for them were Marine giving license for farming, inspection of farms and
Product Export Development Authority (MPEDA), regulatory work.
Mumbai, College of Fisheries (CoF), Ratnagiri and It is mentioned in the duties / job role of Assistant
Central Institute of Fisheries Education (CIFE), Fisheries Development Officer (AFDO) that they
Mumbai. The MPEDA usually organizes trainings have to acquire advanced technology available at
which are conducted in Panvel for Department of national as well as international level related to
Fisheries (DoF) personnel usually of three days shrimp farming and disseminate to farmers. Also,
and general in nature. CoF, Ratnagiri and ICAR- technology developed by Central fisheries institutes
CIFE, Mumbai also conducts training for officers are to be disseminated by conducting training,
of Department of Fisheries. The study also revealed workshops, seminar etc. Fisheries Development
that, majority of fisheries officials had not attended Officers (FDO) was involved in implementation of
training on extension management (72.73%). various schemes (Blue revolution) for farmers and
Kumaran et al (2015) reported that, majority fishers, providing extension services, conducting
of extension officers in Tamil Nadu and Andhra trainings as well as surveys various water bodies
Pradesh (68%) had not attended any formal for development of aquaculture. Assistant
training on shrimp farming. Similarly, Kumaran Commissioner of Fisheries (ACF) was responsible
et al (2012a) reported that, majority of extension for overall development of fisheries and aquaculture
personnel (60%) in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh in the district. These extension officers presently
expressed their willingness to undergo training in confined their role to regulation and welfare work.
extension methodologies, communication skills The study revealed that higher percentages
and human relations management. Findings of the of fisheries officials (58.18%) were using mobile
present study were similar to these studies. phones for contacting farmers. Around, 32.73 per
It was observed that, 49.09 per cent fisheries cent of them were following group contact method
officials meet occasionally to shrimp farmers, such as group meeting for contacting farmers, while,
followed by 32.73 per cent fisheries officials meet 9.09% made personal visit on farm. These results
once in a month. Kumaran et al (2012a) in their were in conformity with the results of Kumaran
study reported that, 60 per cent extension personnel et al (2011) who has also reported that, majority
had occasional contact with shrimp farmers. It was of extension personnel (70%) were using mobiles
reported by 49.09 per cent of fisheries officials that to convey information about shrimp farming and
they had occasional contacts with shrimp farmers. stated that the shrimp farmers regularly contact
Around 32.73 per cent fisheries officials meet the them through mobile phones. Mobile phones/
shrimp farmers once a month while 18.18 per cent social media is revolutionizing the communication
fisheries officials meet the farmers weekly. Kumaran patterns. New age extension system is using
et al (2011) reported that, about 38 per cent of technologies like mobile / social media / Internet
fishery extension officers from Gujarat, Tamil Nadu to contact maximum farmers. Kumaran et al (2011)
and Andhra Pradesh were having weekly contact reported that, 85 per cent of extension personnel
with farmers. were using group contact methods like farmer’s
It was also reported that the contact of fisheries meetings and field training to reach the farming
officials with shrimp farmers was less because they community however, their contact with the end
were mainly involved in giving diesel subsidy, users was not frequent.
implementing blue revolution scheme in marine It was reported by shrimp farmers that, contact of
sector. In brackish water sector, fisheries officials shrimp farmers with fisheries officials in this study

was for regulatory / license / lease purpose. The Institutions like College of Fisheries, MPEDA
contact of fisheries officials with shrimp farmers in and ICAR-CIBA, ICAR-CIFE was the second
this study was mostly for collecting production data major source of information (16.36%) which were
and sometimes for farm inspection purposes. Patil et used very often. However, printed literature from
al (2019) reported need for improving professional research Institutions, development departments
competencies of aquaculture extension personnel was the source of information for 9.09 per cent
through training. They found that technical advice fisheries officials and were reported to be used
is provided by aqua company technicians who were often. These results were in conformity with the
the major source of information to shrimp farmers findings of Kumaran et al (2015) who reported
in Maharashtra. Shrimp farmers mainly depend that around 77 per cent extension personnel were
on private extension services such as aquaculture regularly accessing internet.
consultants followed by input dealers for technical Fisheries officials reported that advisories
assistance (Patil and Sharma, 2020). Government using mobile text / audio / video calling using
extension service was more focused on regulatory/ WhatsApp has become the most preferred method.
license/leasing/recording. So parallel form of Queries related to farming are addressed through
private extension mechanism and extension service various WhatsApp groups, google and YouTube.
providers such as aqua company technicians, input As internet has emerged as a major information
dealers are involved in providing information on source used always it is necessary to integrate and
all the technical matters related to shrimp farming, institutionalize its use in extension advisories and
buyback arrangements were also found among trainings.
shrimp farmers and input traders which seems to be
a benefiting farmers. With reference to fishery institutions, Kumaran
et al (2012b) also reported that fisheries colleges,
Source of information MPEDA, ICAR institutes were the sources of
Source of information for shrimp farming information for fishery extension personnel.
related knowledge utilized by fisheries officials was
collected and the same is presented in Fig 1. CONCLUSION
The results of study indicated that majority
of fisheries officials had not attended any formal
training in scientific shrimp farming (58.18%)
and extension management (72.73%). Higher
percentages of fisheries officials (58.18%) were
using mobile phones as a preferred mode for
contacting farmers. The study also indicated
that internet / social media were the main source
of information for majority of fisheries officials
(74.25%).
A targeted approach in disseminating shrimp
Fig. 1. Information sources used by fisheries
officials of Maharashtra farming information can ensure that information
reaches as many farmers as possible. In these
It was clear from Fig. 1 that, internet / social times of uncertainty, credible information on
media was the main source of information for new technologies, inputs, government schemes,
majority of fisheries officials (74.25%) and they market prices etc. will lead to better decisions.
reported that this was used always. Fisheries Shrimp farmers are already using mobile phones

and internet therefore, internet/social media-based Kumaran M, Vimala D D, Chandrasekaran V S, Alagappan M

information exchange along with strengthening of and Raja S (2012b). Extension approach for an effective
fisheries and aquaculture extension service in India. J
digital extension system can be a viable strategy to Agric. Edu Ext. 18(3): 247-267.
provide information and services. It is suggested
Kumaran M, Vimala D D, Raja S and Alagappan M (2012a).
to use the internet and social media as information Information seeking behaviour of extension personnel in
tool for extension advisories and trainings. Naylor aquaculture sector. Fishery Tech 49: 87-91.
(2020) has highlighted integration of aquaculture in Naylor R L, Hardy R W, Buschmann A H, Bush S R, Cao L,
the global food system. In this paper we recommend Klinger D H, Little D C, Lubchenco J, Shumway S E and
integration and convergence of different aquaculture Troell M (2021). A 20-year retrospective review of global
extension system service providers. aquaculture. Nature 591(7851):551-563.
Patil S and Sharma A (2020). Empirical analysis of constraints
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Kerala and Andhra Pradesh. Fishery Techn 43(1):107- S N (2019). Emergence of shrimp farming and profile of
114. shrimp farmers in Palghar district, Maharashtra. Contemp
Kumaran M, Kumar J A Anand P and Paul J (2015). Training Res in India 9(1):24-27.
needs of extension personnel in pacific white shrimp Yomi-Alfred S D and Odefadehan O O (2007). Analysis of
(Litopenaeus vannamei) farming. Fishery Techn 52: 265- information needs of agricultural extension workers in
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aquaculture. Indian J Fish 58(4):147-153. Received on Accepted on

Relationship Between Socio-demographic and Communication

Characteristics of the Farmers about All India Radio programme
A Manoj, A Lalitha, M Venkataramulu and K S Purnima
Agricultural Information and Communication Centre, ANGRAU, Guntur, (Andhra Pradesh)
ABSTRACT
The present study was conducted in the state of Andhra Pradesh with an objective to find out the relationship
between socio-demographic and communication characteristics of the farmers about All India Radio
Vyavasaya Patasala programme. All 13 districts in the state of Andhra Pradesh were selected for the study.
A purposive sampling procedure was employed to select the sample who had an exposure to the Vyvasaya
patasala programme. A sample of 150 farmers who were the members of Scientific Advisory Committee of
KVKs and District Level Coordinating Committee of DAATTCs selected for the study. Results of the study
revealed that half of them (49.33 %) had listened Vyvasaya patasala programme frequently and rest of them
listened the programme at occasionally (32.00 %) and rarely (18.67 %). The study showed that majority
of the farmers had medium to high levels of socio-demographic and communication characteristics. It was
inferred that communication characteristics such as frequency of listening of Vyvasaya patasala programme
and extension contact had a positive and highly significant relationship at 0.01% level of significance.
Whereas socio-demographic characteristics viz., age, education, land holding farming experience had a
positive and significant relationship with their perception about Vyavasaya patasala programme at 0.05%
level of significance. This indicated that as the extent of these characteristics increased, the perception of
farmers towards Vyvasaya patasala programme also increased.
Key Words: Broadcast, Information, Perception, Radio, Technology.
INTRODUCTION performance. In order to assist the farmers in this

One of the important strategies to enhance the changing scenario, All India Radio Station has
agriculture productivity is technology and alone it incepted a programme named ‘Vyavasaya Patasala’
cannot bring changes but should be disseminated (farm school on air) in the state of Andhra Pradesh to
through effective channels. The success of any give a right time and reliable information by reputed
technology largely depends on the application of experts on different technologies in agriculture and
efficient and effective extension service delivery allied sectors. Information given in this programme
mechanism (Hailu, 2017). All India Radio (AIR) is highly relevance to the context of the farmers and
is one which has been widely accepting by Indian their farming situation.
farmers from age old as viable information and In order to increase the access among farmers,
communication tool to create awareness and the AIR Station has designed ‘News on AIR’ app
increases knowledge on various cultivation aspects recently. As this programme is serving the farmers
among farmers in rural areas to enhance the farm of the state of Andhra Pradesh from years together,
productivity (Nazari and Husbullah, 2010). Radio the perception of the programme among the
programmes has been used for dissemination listening farmers is of prime concern to understand
of agricultural information for better farmers’

Table 1. Selection plan of the sample.

Sr. No Name of the District Name of the Institution No. of SAC & DLCC Total sample
Members (farmers) size
Selected
Institutions under SAU
1 Srikakulam KVK, Amadalavalsa 5
DAATTC, Srikakulam 5
2 Vizianagaram KVK, Rastakuntubai 5
DAATTC Vizianagaram 5
3 Visakhapatnam KVK, Kondempudi 5
DAATTC, Visakhapatnam 5
4 East Godavari DAATTC, East Godavari 5
5 West Godavari KVK, Undi 5
130
DAATTC, West Godavari 5
6 Krishna KVK, Ghantasala 5
KVK, Garikapadu 5
DAATTC, Krishna 5
7 Guntur DAATTC, Guntur 5
8 Prakasam KVK, Darsi 5
DAATTC, Prakasam 5
9 Nellore KVK, Nellore 5
DAATTC, Nellore 5
10 Chittoor KVK, Kalikiri 5
DAATTC, Chittoor 5
11 kadapa KVK, Utukur 5
DAATTC, kadapa 5
12 Anantapur KVK, Kalyandurg 5
KVK, Reddipalli 5
DAATTC, Anantapur 5
13 Kurnool KVK, Banavasi 5
DAATTC, Kurnool 5
Institutions under NGO
1 Visakhapatnam KVK, BCT 5 15
2 Chittoor KVK, RASS 5
3 Kurnool KVK, Yagantapalli 5
Institutions under SVU
Guntur KVK, Lam 5 5
Total sample (n) 150

Table 2. Thematic area wise distribution of farm information broadcasted through AIR Vyvasaya
Patasala Programme.
Sr. No Thematic area No. of broadcasted Programmes
Frequency Percentage
1 Varietal information 7 3.27
2 Improved methods of cultivation 31 14.49
3 Crop management 55 25.70
4 Nutrient management 16 7.48
5 Weed management 8 3.74
6 Pest and disease management 37 17.29
7 Post-harvest technology 5 2.34
8 Agriculture engineering 7 3.27
9 Value edition 4 1.87
10 Nutritional security 10 4.67
11 Weather based information 6 2.80
12 Information Communication Technology 6 2.80
13 Animal husbandry 17 7.94
14 Agricultural Marketing 5 2.34
Total 214
the success or failure of programme. Thus, keeping (SVU) were taken into the study. A total of 30
in view of the above facts, the present study was institutions, 5 farmers from each institution were
undertaken to assess the relationship between socio- selected purposively (Table 1). Thus, a total of 150
demographic and communication characteristics of farmers were selected for the study. Selection of
the farmers with their perception about All India farmers from SAC & DLCC Members is because
Radio vyavasaya patasala programme in Andhra of they are generally progressive and innovative
Pradesh. in nature and having medium to high exposure to
the most of the ongoing government programmes.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Expost-facto research design was used for the study.
The investigation was conducted in all 13 Farmers were interviewed with semi structured
districts of Andhra Pradesh during the year 2021- interview schedule through virtual mode to assess
22. Farmers who were the members of District the perception of All India Radio Vyavasaya
level Coordination Committee (DLCC) of District Patasala programme. Data were analyzed by using
Agricultural Advisory Transfer of Technology the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS).
Centres (DAATTCs) and farmers who were the Statistics such as frequency, percentage, correlation
members Scientific Advisory Committee (SAC) of were used to analyse the data collected.
Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) were purposively
selected for this study. In the state of Andhra RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Pradesh, there are 13 DAATTCs, 13 KVKs under The data (Table 2), it was found that majority
State Agricultural University (SAU), 3 KVKs (25.70 %) of the farm information was broadcasted
under Non-Governmental organizations (NGOs) in AIR Vyvasaya Patasala Programme on crop
and 1 KVK under State Veterinary University management aspects followed by pest and disease

Table 3. Socio-demographic characteristics of the farmers.

Sr. No. Characteristic Category Respondents (n=150)
1 Age Young age 26 17.33
Middle Age (36 to 58 yr) (< 35 yr)
Old age (> 58 yr) 78 52.00
46 30.67
2 Education Primary 36 24.00
High school school
Intermediate Education 74 49.33
Graduation 26 17.33
Post-graduation
10 6.67
4 2.67
3 Occupation Non- 4 2.67
Agriculture agriculture
146 97.33
4 Land Marginal 16 10.67
Holding (0.1 to 1.0
Small (1.1 to 2.0 ha) ha)
Semi-Medium (2.1 to 4.0 ha) 34 22.67
Medium (4.1 to 10.0 ha) 72 48.00
Large (>10.0 ha)
20 13.33
8 5.33
5. Farming <10 yr 18 12.00
experience 10-20 yr 22 14.67
21-30 yr 60 40.00
31-40 yr 32 21.33
>40 yr 18 12.00
Annual Low (<1Lakh) 36 24.00
6. Income Medium (1Lakh – 2 Lakh) 84 56.00
High (>2) 30 20.00
management (17.29 %), improved methods rural development, agricultural marketing and social
of cultivation (14.49 %). Whereas, very less forestry among farmers. Hardevinder et al (2012)
coverage was in the areas such as post-harvest reported that maximum amount of information sent
technology, value addition, weather-based to farmers through kisan mobile advisory services
information, Agricultural Marketing, Information related to agronomy followed by plant protection,
Communication Technologies. The findings were in soil science, animal science, horticulture, weather
tune with the findings of Biswajit (2012). He narrated related information and information pertaining to
that a considerable amount of farm information was training programmes.
broadcasted in Radio about technology transfer,

Table 4. Communication Characteristics of the farmers.

Sr. No. Characteristic Category Respondents (n=150)
1. Information Neighbour 8 5.33
source on Friends 15 10.00
AIR programme AEO/AO 10 6.67
Scientist 79 52.67
Radio 38 25.33
2 Extension contact Rarely 0 0.00
Occasionally 98 65.33
Frequently 52 34.67
3 Frequency of Seldom 28 18.67
listening of AIR programme 48 32.00
74 49.33
Some times
Regularly
Social participation No 0 0.00
4 membership
Membership in one organization 94 62.67
Membership in more than one 56 37.33
organization
It was inferred that half of (52.00 %) the category with 2.1 to 4 ha of the land and more than
respondents belonged to middle age, one-third one-fifth (22.67%) of them were small farmers with
(30.67 %) of the respondents belonged to middle 1 to 2 ha of the land followed by farmers with 4.1 to
age fallowed by young age (17.33). Njoku (2016) 10 ha (13.33%). Whereas, less and a smaller number
said that majority of the respondents belong to the of them were marginal (10.67%) and big farmers
age group of 40 to 49 years. This revealed that (5.33%). Majority (40.00 %) of the respondents
farmers were in the active stage of life and had the having 21 to 36 yr of farming experience followed
advantage of increased investment for utilization of by 31-40 yr (21.33 %) and 10-20 yr (14.67%) of
technology and create innovations in the technology experience. Whereas, equal number (12.00%) of
for better farming. The present study stated that half the respondents were having less than 10 and more
of (49.33 %) them having high school education than 40 yr of farming experience. In case of the
followed by primary school education (24.00%) income levels of the respondents, more than half of
and intermediate education (17.33%). In addition to them were getting 1 to 2 lakhs of annual income
these, there 6.67 per cent of the respondents were followed by less than 1 lakh (24.00%) and more than
graduates and post graduates (2.67 %) found among 2 lakhs (20.00%) of annual income. The findings
them. All most all (97.33 %) the farmers were doing were also in conformity with Tomar et,al (2016).
agriculture as compared to non-agriculture (2.67 They reported that majority of farmers who were
%). The results were in line with the results of Hailu using ICT belonged to middle age group, having
et al (2017). agriculture as main occupation, small farmers and
The study revealed that near to half of (48.0%) the having medium family income.
respondents belonged to semi medium land holding

The data (Table 4) showed that half of (52.67 large (16.20 %) farmers who were using radio sets
%) of the farmers expressed that scientist were the for agricultural information.
major sources of information about the vyvasaya Table 5. Perception levels of farmers about AIR
patasala programme followed by one-fourth vyavasaya patasala programme .
(25.33%) of the farmers expressed that Radio was
the major source about the programme. As selected Sr. No Level of Respondents (n=150)
farmers were the members of the SAC and DLCC, Perception of Frequency percentage
farmers
they visit the KVK & DAATTCs and interact with
scientists habitually. Regular contact with scientist 1 Low 11 7.33
made the farmers aware about the programme. Study 2 Medium 38 25.33
further indicated that two-third (65.33%) of the 3 High 101 67.33
farmers expressed that they could contact extension Findings (Table 5) stated that two-third
personals like scientists, AEOs, AOs occasionally (67.33 %) of the farmers perceived that high
and rest of them (34.67%) had frequent contact with effectiveness of all India Radio vyavasaya patasala
the extension officials to get farm information. With programme followed by medium (25.33 %) and
respect to social participation of the respondent, all low effectiveness (7.33 %) of the programme in
the farmers having membership in one (62.67%) giving information on agriculture and allied sector.
and more than one (37.33%) organizations. Since Garg (2014) found that majority of the respondents
the farmers were innovative and progressive in were perceived medium effectiveness of farm
nature had high level of extension contact and broadcast in transfer of agricultural technology
social participation. Moderate to high level of followed by high effectiveness of farm broadcast
extension contact and social participation helped the and low effectiveness of farm broadcast in transfer
farmers to attend the vyvasaya patasala programme of agricultural technology.
constantly. Study stated that Half of (49.33 %)
Table 6. Association between socio-demographic
them listening Vyavasaya Patalasala programme
and communication characteristics of the
regularly followed by some times (32.00%). The
farmers with their perception about vyavasaya
farmers who were attending programme at some
patasala programme.
time expressed that they were busy with farm and
home works during the time of broadcasting of the Sr. No Socio-demographic ‘r’ values
programme. The findings of this study were in line and communication
with Mtega (2018), Longkumer and Muni (2020), characteristics
Kakade (2013) and Mwantimwa (2018). Sadaqath 1 Age 0.1224*
and Mariswamy (2007) conducted a study on 2 Education 0.4481*
analysis of usefulness and credibility of radio as 3 Occupation -0.0300NS
perceived by literate farmers revealed that majority 4 Land holding 0.2607*
of the farmers (72.00%) were observed in medium 5 Farming experience 0.2945*
category of exposure towards radio followed by 6 Annual income 0.0750 NS
14.5 per cent and 13.5 per cent in high and low 7 Information source 0.3205*
category of exposure respectively. Sharma et.al 8 Extension contact 0.5119**
(2012) stated that with respect small, marginal and
9 Frequency of listening 0.5271**
large farmers, half of the them having radio sets
10 Social participation 0.1825*
but out of them only 37.7 per cent of small farmers
were using radio for getting information related to ** 0.01% level of Significant;
agriculture followed by marginal (33.33 %) and * 0.05% level of Significant; NS- Non-Significant

Correlation Analysis CONCLUSION

Correlation analysis was employed to test It was concluded that majority of the
the relation between socio demographic and respondents who were exposed to Vyvasaya
communication characteristics of the farmers patasala programme (Farm School on Air) having
with their Perception towards vyvasaya patasala medium to high level of socio-demographic and
programme. It was inferred (Table 6) that the communication characteristics. It can be said that
age, education, land holding, farming experience, Vyvasaya patasala programme was one among the
information source and social participation were important innovation lunched by All India Radio for
found to be positive and significant relation with the benefit of farming community in dissemination
the perception of the farmers. This indicated that of agricultural information. At the same time, the
as these characteristics increased, the perception radio programme was not being widely popularised
of farmers towards vyvasaya patasala programme among farmers except a smaller sect of the farmers
also increased. Results of the study were supporting with the help of KVK and DAATTCS may be
the above findings that majority of the sample fallowing the programme regularly and reaping the
farmers having the age of above 36 yr with high benefits due to limited in access and other factors.
school education to post graduation having more A higher level of publicity should be needed on
than 2 ha of land with more than 20 yr of farming Vyavasaya patasala programme and its new apps.
experience having membership in minimum one Publicity through mass media channels like TV,
to more than one organization has widened their Mobile phone, displaying posters during kisan
perception towards vyvasaya patasala programmes. mela, agricultural campaigns should be encouraged
Furthermore, extension contact and frequency to create awareness about the programme as well as
of listening of vyvasaya patasala programme enhance the participation among farmers including
were found be highly significant relation with the the tile end farmers to yield maximum amount of
perception of the farmers showing similar type of farm benefits with optimum efforts.
impact on the perception towards the programme.
These results were in agreement with results of REFERENCES
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Rearing Practices and Performance Attributes of

Assam Hill Goat in Assam, India
Monuj Kumar Doley1, Subal Maibangsa1, Manoranjan Neog2, Neethi Baruah3,
Bhrigu Kumar Neog2, Luit Moni Barkalita4, Jupi Talukdar4, R. Hazarika4 and Prasanna Kumar Pathak2
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Karbi Anglong, Assam Agricultural University, PIN-782460
ABSTRACT
The study was conducted in the hill district of Assam to collect information on existing management
practices of Assam hill (AH) goat and assess their productive and reproductive performances under field
conditions. The data were collected through field survey, PRA, focus group discussion, pre-tested interview
schedule and records obtained through individual farm visits. The study showed that 94 per cent of the goat
farmers didn’t have knowledge on availability of different goat breeds. Most of the tribal farmers didn’t
maintain breeding buck (75.5%) and used natural service method (100%). A large share of the farmers
reared their goat in open grazing/tethering under semi intensive system (89%) followed by semi stall
feeding (11%) with provision of temporary house (84%) made of locally available materials (81%). The
study on feeding practices showed that 94.5 per cent farmers didn’t cultivate green fodder and 65.5 per cent
farmers didn’t provide concentrate feed. The study revealed that 92.5 per cent of the farmers don’t vaccinate
their goats and while only 10.0, 7.0 and 11.0 per cent used antibiotics, deworming and ectoparasitic drugs,
respectively. Tick/mange/mite infestation, diarrhoea, PPR, or goat pox and mastitis were reported by 71,
78, 61.5, 47, 30 and 13 per cent of the goat farmers, respectively. Most of the farmers had flock size of
5-10 (66%) with average litter size of 1.69. The mean body weight gain of Assam Hill goat at birth, 3,
6, 9 and 12 months were 1.61±0.03, 4.62±0.09, 8.48±0.08, 11.75±0.08 and 15.24±0.14 kg, respectively.
The mean age at puberty, sexual maturity, length of estrus cycle, first kidding, post-partum estrus period,
gestation length were 276.19±1.19,298.39±0.94, 20.97±0.03, 449.56±0.85, 64.78±0.71, 247.73±0.95 and
147.91±0.16 days, respectively. No significant differences were observed in productive and reproductive
performances (p>0.05) among the districts.
Key Words: Artificial Insemination, Breed, Disease, Goat, Puberty, Survey
INTRODUCTION and fecundity (Deori et al, 2016). The goat breed
Goat produces meat, milk, hide, fibre and is native to the hill agro-climatic region of Assam
manure. It plays an incredibly significant role for and adjoining areas of Meghalaya. The Assam hill
upliftment and rural economy of small, landless goat is very popular among the rural farmers due
and weaker section of the society including women to its ability to adopt wide range of environmental
folk (Ravikumar et al, 2019). It has the widest conditions, lower disease incidence and better meat
range of ability to adopt in diverse agro-climatic quality.
regions and capacity to convert poor quality feed The hill agro-climatic region of Assam
into a valuable human food (Doley et al, 2018). comprises of Karbi Anglong (now divided into West
Among the recognized goat breeds in India, Assam Karbi Anglong) and Dima Hasao district accounts
hill goat is considered as one of the most prolific, for 19.4 per cent of the total geographical area in
small size, meat type goat breed with high fertility
1
Directorate of Extension Education, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat
2
Regional Agricultural Research Station, Diphu,Assam Agricultural University
3
College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University, Guwahati

Rearing Practices and Performance Attributes of Assam Hill Goat
Table 1. Brief profile of the districts.

Sr. Particular Karbi Anglong Dima Hasao
No.
1. Geographic location 25º33′-26º35′N latitudes and 92º10′- 24º58-25º32′N latitude and 92º27′-
93º50′E longitudes 93º43′E longitudes
2. Average rainfall 1572.2 mm 1145 mm
3. Altitude (Highest) 1360 m 1868 m
4. Temperature 6ºC-32ºC 6.02ºC-33.06ºC
5. Total geographical area 10,438 sq. Km (undivided) 48,90 sq. Km
6. Forest cover 7939 sq. Km 4528.87 sq. Km
state of Assam. Demographically, majority of the From each of the selected district, two community
population in the district Karbi Anglong and Dima development blocks were selected viz., Lumbajong
Hasao are inhabited by different tribes, constituting and Bokajan block from Karbi Anglong district
about 56.3 per cent and 70.9 per cent, respectively. and New Sangbar and Diyung Valley development
As per 20th livestock census (2019), Assam has total block from Dima Hasao randomly making a total of
goat population of 43.15Lakh out of which the hill four blocks. From each selected block five villages
district contributes 10.17 per cent alone. The basic were selected at random. From each village 10tribal
source of livelihood in the districts are agriculture goat farmers were selected purposefully making
and allied farming activities, which accounts for total of 200 tribal farmers from two districts.
more than 85 per cent of the total population and The various field data pertaining to goat farming
90 per cent of the tribal population residing in pattern, productive and reproductive performances
rural areas (Doley et al, 2022). Goat farming is of Assam Hill goat were collected through field
considered as an age-old traditional practice along survey, Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA),
with other livestock enterprises which provides focus group discussion, farm visit along with
supplementary income and nutritional support pre-tested questionnaire. The data on productive
(Haque et al, 2021). The goat farming practices in and reproductive attributes were collected from
the district are still in infancy stage although it has performance records obtained from farmers after
huge potential for commercialization. Till today, no proper marking of the animals under the study
study has been conducted in respect to traditional area. The prior informed consent was also obtained
goat farming pattern followed by the indigenous from the participating farmers before collection of
tribal farmers which is required to designing suitable different information.
scientific and policy intervention. Under the above Farmers rearing a minimum of three does of 3-5
circumstances the present study was conducted months age were selected thereby forming 50-unit
with the objectives to know about traditional goatsize in each block. During the period all together
farming practices followed by tribal goat farmers and
552 progenies from two hundred dams from two
to study productive and reproductive performances kidding’s were included to assess the productive and
attributes of AH goat in field condition reproductive performances. All the animals were
maintained under routine traditional management
MATERIALS AND METHODS system with no history of crossbreeding. The
The study was conducted in Karbi Anglong, and statistical analysis of the data was done as per
Dima Hasao districts of Assam during April 2015 standard procedures (Snedecor and Cochran, 1994).
to June 2021 among the schedule tribe families.

Table 2. Breeding practices in goat followed by tribal farmers under field condition.
Breeding practices Category Hill zone area (n=200) Pooled
Karbi Anglong Dima Hasao (n=200)
(n=100) (n=100)
F % F % F %
Knowledge on Yes 8 8 4 4 12 6.00
diverse types of goat No 92 92 96 96 188 94.00
breed
Knowledge on Yes 68 68 56 56 124 62.00
selection of goat No 32 32 44 44 76 38.00
Rearing of Buck for Reared 22 22 27 27 49 24.50
breeding purpose Not reared 78 78 73 73 151 75.50
Service time of Doe Once 24 24 28 28 52 26.00
immediately after
onset of heat
Twice after 12 hr 18 18 15 15 33 16.50
interval
Not fixed 58 58 57 57 115 57.50
Method of service to Natural 100 100 100 100 200 100.00
Doe
Artificial 0 0 0 0 0 0.00
insemination
Knowledge on signs Yes 98 98 97 97 195 97.50
of heat in Doe No 2 2 3 3 5 2.50
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION and need of farmers’ awareness programme among

Breeds and breeding practices goat farmers. All the farmers follow natural method
Most of the goat farmers in the districts have of breeding (100%) and 97.5 per cent of the farmer
limited knowledge on availability of different types has the knowledge on sign of heat in doe. The use
of goat breeds (6%) (Table 2). This may be due to the of natural method of breeding may be because
reason that majority of the farmers in the study area artificial insemination (AI) required high skill
have low level of education, socio-economic status manpower and not readily available in the farmers
and minimal exposure to modern farming practices. doorstep. Furthermore, the AI centres were located
However, majority of the respondents showed basic far away from the farmhouse and involve labour
knowledge on selection suitable progeny of goat for and transportation cost of doe.
breeding (62%) and only 25.5 per cent respondent Housing practices
kept buck for breeding purposes (Table 2).57.5 per The study on housing practices (Table 3)
cent of the farmers were unaware of appropriate revealed that majority of the goat farmers reared
time for service (Table 2) implying for need of goat under semi-intensive with day time open
extension activities for scientific goat rearing. grazing/tethering (89%) without provision of stall
Khadda et al (2017) reported similar observations feeding followed by semi stall feeding (11%) and

Table 3. Housing practices of tribal farmers under field condition.

Housing Category Hill zone area (n=200) Pooled
practices Karbi Anglong Dima Hasao (n=200)
(n=100) (n=100)
F % F % F %
System of (a) Open grazing/Tethering 86 86 92 92 178 89.00
rearing (b) Semi-stall feeding 14 14 8 8 22 11.00
(c) Stall feeding 0 0 0 0 0 0.00
Location/ Near dwelling (<10 m) 56 56 65 65 121 60.5
construction of Away from dwellings 36 36 31 31 67 33.5
the house No housing/Kept under open 08 08 04 04 14 6.00
yard /under trees
Type of Temporary 82 82 78 78 160 80.00
housing Permanent 18 18 22 22 40 20.00
Floor structure Chang type/Raised slatted 96 96 98 98 194 97.00
floor
Deep litter 04 04 02 02 6 3.00
Housing Locally available materials 80 80 73 73 153 76.50
materials Others 20 20 27 27 47 23.50
Provision of Present 08 08 05 05 13 6.50
drinking water Not present 92 92 95 95 187 93.50
Electricity Present 03 03 06 06 9 4.50
facility Not present 97 97 94 94 191 95.50
Cleaning Daily 08 08 11 11 18 9.00
practices Weekly 26 26 23 23 49 24.50
>week 66 66 65 65 131 65.50
none kept under stall feeding system. This finding type/raised slatted floor (97 %%) followed by deep
agrees with Khadda et al ( 2017) who reported litter (3%) with provision of wooden plunk, saw
that 11.60 per cent farmers adopted semi-stall dust etc on the floor. In Chang type housing the
feeding while 99.60 per cent farmers followed floor is made up of slatted floor with bamboo splints
grazing and none of the goat keeper kept under stall(78%) followed by unusable leftover wooden plunk
feeding. The study on different housing practices (22%). This might be due to the fact that the North
revealed that most of the farmers do not follow Eastern part of India including the hill district of
any scientific housing practices whether in terms ofAssam has high degree of rainfall which compelled
space requirements, site selection, height, drainage,
the farmers to build raised floor or Chang type of
waste disposal facility etc. This might be due to the
goat house. The average heights of the goat house
reason that farmers were less aware about scientificare ranging from 5’-8’ in Chang type and 4’-7’ in
housing practices and involvement of high cost, case of deep litter housing. The roof of the house
non-availability of raw materials for housing. made of Galvanized Iron (GI) sheet (52%), plastic
The housing structures mostly consist of locally tarpaulin (18%) and thatch, rice straw, or some
available bamboo with wooden post with Chang locally available materials (30%). Only, 6.5% of

Table 4. Feeding practices.

Feeding practices Category Hill zone area (n=200) Pooled (n=200)
Karbi Anglong Dima Hasao
(n=100) (n=100)
F % F % F %
Cultivation of green Cultivate 07 07 04 04 11 5.50
fodder crops/tree Not cultivate 93 93 96 96 189 94.50
Concentrate feed (a) Offered daily 01 01 0 0 1 0.50
(b) Offered 32 32 36 36 68 34.00
sometime
(b) Not offered 67 67 64 64 131 65.50
Knowledge on green Yes 12 12 08 08 20 10.00
fodder cultivation No 88 88 92 92 180 90.00
Feed additives/ Yes 08 08 04 04 12 6.00
supplementation of No 92 92 96 96 188 94.00
multivitamin/mineral
Provide drinking water Yes 12 12 18 18 30 15.00
No 88 88 82 82 170 85.00
the farmers have provision of water and 95.5% water. The cultivation practices on green fodder
of the farmers don’t have electricity facility in showed (Table 4) that majority of the farmers didn’t
the house. The cleaning practices of the goatry undertook fodder cultivation for goat (94.50%) and
shed revealed that only 7 per cent of the farmers 90 per cent of the farmers don’t have knowledge
cleaned daily followed by weekly (24.5%) majority on green fodder cultivation. The present finding is
farmers cleaned their shed in more than one week coincide with observation of Bhikya et al (2021).
period (65.5%). In a similar study in Indonesia, it Only, 0.5 per cent of the farmers provide concentrate
was reported that majority of the farmers (97.92%) feed in daily basis. None of the farmers in the study
cleaned their goat house with a frequency of every area provide routinely balanced concentrate ration
day (14.89%), every three days (17.02%), once a (95.50%) except occasional whole maize grain
week (40.43) and without fixed frequency by 27.66 supplementation and common salt. In contrast to
per cent respondent (Rahadi et al, 2020). present findings, Gurjar et al (2009) and Khadda
et al (2018) reported that majority of the farmers
Feeding practices provided concentrate feed to goat. Regarding use
The study on feeding practices revealed that of feed additives/multivitamin/mineral mixture
goats were mostly reared by browse in natural revealed that 94 per cent of the farmers don’t
vegetation, pasture, hilly track and forest area use during the entire production period. Study
that other ruminants usually do not consume. The on provision of drinking water revealed that 85
farmers informed that usually in the morning around per cent farmers do not provide drinking water
7 to 8 am (during summer) and 8.30 am to 9.30 am routinely during day time except during kidding
(during winter) let loose/tethered their goats for and emergency.
entire day with occasional provision of drinking

Table 5. Health care practices.

Health care practices Category Hill zone area (n=200) Pooled
Karbi Anglong Dima Hasao (n=200)
(n=100) (n=100)
F % F % F %
Vaccination to goat Practiced 01 01 0 0 1 7.50
Not practiced 99 99 100 100 199 92.50
Use of antibiotics Used 8 8 12 12 20 10.00
Not used 92 92 88 88 180 90.00
Deworming Practiced 8 8 6 6 14 7.00
Not practiced 92 92 94 94 186 93.00
Use of ectoparasitic drugs Used 14 14 8 8 22 11.00
Not used 86 86 92 92 178 89.00
Treatment of sick goat by Veterinarian/ Yes 03 03 01 01 4 29.50
para-vet No 97 97 99 99 196 70.50
Commonly encountered diseases/ailing
Tick/Mange/mite and other skin 78 78 64 64 142 71.00
infestation
Pestes des petits ruminants (PPR) 65 65 58 58 123 61.50
Orf 46 46 48 48 94 47.00
Goat pox 32 32 28 28 60 30.00
Mastitis 14 14 12 12 26 13.00
Health care practices and popular in traditional ethnoveterinary practices

The data (Table 5) indicated that 92.5 per which are affordable and easily accessible. Majority
cent of the farmers did not practices vaccination of the farmers indicated more goat infestation with
against any infectious viral and bacterial disease tick/mange/mite and other skin infestation in Karbi
while only 10, 7 and 11 per cent used antibiotics, Anglong (78%) district than farmers of Dima
deworming and ectoparasitic drugs respectively. Hasao district (64%) whereas less numbers with orf
Tick/mange/mite infestation, diarrhoea, Peste des disease outbreak.
petits ruminants (PPR), sore mouth, goat pox and
mastitis were reported by 71, 78, 61.50, 47, 30 and Purpose of rearing
13 per cent of the farmers, respectively. Incidence The study on purpose of rearing of goats
of different diseases such as diarrhoea, ectoparasitic revealed that basic purpose of majority of farmers
infestation, pneumonia, pox etc were reported in was to sell during emergency (58%) to meet sudden
Black Bengal goat in West Bengal (Nandi et al, monetary needs followed by own used in rituals and
2011) in different age groups of goats. Regarding socio-cultural activities (35%) and least farmers for
treatment of sick animals reveals that 70.50 per cent direct consumption (7%). In a study, Kumar (2007)
farmers treat their goat by their own with traditional reported that 55.83, 42.50, 22.50, 16.67,12.50
practices and 29.50 per cent farmers through and 10.83 per cent of the farmers sale their adult
veterinarian and para-vets. This might be due to the goat to fulfilled family needs including foods,
reason that tribal farmers in the district are very rich social obligations, repayment of loan, unforeseen

expenses like illness, purchase of seeds/fertilizers live goats and 70 per cent of the total trade of live
for crops and children education respectively. goats through farmers-butcher/trader in village
and weekly market (Kumar, 2007). It was reported
Average flock size the farmers that the middlemen directly visit to the villages in
A perusal of the data (Table 6) indicates that search of farmers produce and directly sell to them.
irrespective of the districts, 66 per cent of the The farmers also informed that although in doing
farmers are small farmers with flock size of 5-10 so farmers can save labour, time and transportation
followed by medium with flock size of 11-15 goats cost. Moreover, as the market areas were located far
and rest 10 per cent farmers were large flock with way which also a factor that compelled the farmers
flock size of >16 goat. In a similar study, an average to sell their produce at lower cost than actual market
flock size of 1-4 goat (56.3%) in West Bengal and price.
up to 38 goats (90.80%) in Telangana was reported
(Bhikya et al, 2021; Nandi et al, 2011) Productive performances
The mean body weight gain of Assam Hill goat
Form of selling at birth, 3, 6, 9 and 12 m were recorded and shown
The study revealed that 49 per cent of the farmers (mean ± SE) in the Table 7. The mean body weight
sale their stock at grower stage followed by sale of at birth was recorded 1.67±0.03 and 1.59±0.04
goat as fattener and castrated goat (30%) whereas 7 kg in Karbi Anglong and Dima Hasao district,
per cent as kid and 14 per cent as meat by the owner respectively. No significant difference was observed
directly to consumer. In Rajasthan, 38.79, 23.08, in different growth performances (p<0.05) of AH
11.09, 5.62, 11.01 and 10.41 per cent farmers sale goat in terms of body weight gain between the two
their produce at <3-m, 3-6 m, 6-12 m male, 6-12 m district. In a similar observation, the average body
female, >12 m male and >12 m female, respectively weight of AH goat was recorded to be 1.24, 5.29,
(Kumar, 2007). In Karbi Anglong district, 12 per 8.03, 10.73 and 13.94 kg at birth, 3, 6, 9 and 12
cent farmers directly involved in selling of goat months of age, respectively (Das et al, 2021). In
meat in comparison to 14 per cent in Dima Hasao another study, Doley et al (2017) recorded average
district as indicated in the Table 6. body weight of 1.46, 4.68, 8.75, 11.97 and 15.32 kg
Price of goat meat, kid, grower, castrated goat at birth, 3, 6, 9 and 12 months of age respectively
and adult female goat under field condition. These findings were in line
Table 6 also reflects that average price of kid, with our observed data. Ravimurgan et al (2009)
grower and fattener/castrated goat was 2426.5, and Malau-Adauli et al (2004) observed birth
3936.75 and 5350.5, respectively in the hill district. weight of 1.80 kg and 1.3-1.4 kg, respectively.
The average price of per kg goat meat (Chevon) Reproductive performances
was recorded to be Rs. 564.80 in the hill district. Reproductive performance of goat is a major
Mode of selling determinant of productivity and economic viability
It was evident that 80.5 per cent of the farmers of commercial goat farm (Mellado et al, 2006).
were selling their produce directly to middlemen The different reproductive performance attributes
followed by directly to consumer (14.5%) in the such as age at puberty, sexual maturity, length of
local market during festive season and rest 5 per estrus cycle, duration of estrus period (hr), age at
cent directly to wholesaler occasionally. A study in first kidding, post-partum estrus period, kidding
Uttar Pradesh revealed that, 53 per cent farmers used interval and gestation length of Assam Hill goat
farmer to butcher/trader channel for marketing goat were presented in the Table 4. A perusal of the
in the village and sold their 44 per cent of surplus Table 8 indicates that mean age at puberty, sexual

Table 6. Distribution of respondents according to marketing pattern of goat stock, kid and chevon.
Sr. No. Particulars Hill zone area (n=200)
Karbi Anglong (n=100) Dima Hasao Pooled
(n=100) (n=200)
A. Purpose of rearing
1. Own consumption 08(8.00) 06(6.00) 14 (7.00)
2. For sale during emergency 54(54.00) 62(62.00) 116(58.00)
3. Rituals and other socio-cultural 38(38.00) 32(32.00) 70(35.00)
activities
B. Average flock size the farmers
4. Small (5-10) 68(68.00) 64(64.00) 132(66.00)
5. Medium (11-15) 26(26.00) 22(22.00) 48(24.00)
6. Large (> 16) 06(6.00) 14(14.00) 20(10.00)
C. Form of selling
7. Kid (at 3 months) 8(8.00) 6(6.00) 14(7.00)
8. Grower 46(46.00) 52(52.00) 98(49.00)
9. Fattener/Castrated male 34(34.00) 26(26.00) 60(30.00)
10. Meat 12(12.00) 16(16.00) 28(14.00)
D Market Price, Kid (Rs)
11. Low (<2000-2500) 74(74.00) 78(74.00) 152(76.00)
12. Medium (2501-3000) 14(14.00) 14(14.00) 28(14.00)
13. High (>3000) 12(12.00) 08(8.00) 20(10.00)
Mean ± SE 2442.5 ± 32.22 2410.5 ± 32.87 2426.5 ± 22.98
t value=0.487825NS
E Goat meat/Chevon
14. Low (<400-500) 4(4.00) 6(6.00) 10(5.00)
15 Medium (501-600) 82(82) 76(76) 158 (79.00)
16. High (>601) 14(14) 18(18) 32(16.00)
Mean ± SE 566.5 ± 5.99 563.1 ± 5.54 564.8 ± 4.07
t value=0.677424NS
F Castrated goat (Live)
17. Low (<4000-4500) 6(6.00) 10(10) 16(8.00)
18 Medium (4501-5500) 32(32) 38(38) 70(35.00)
19. High (>5501) 62(62) 52(52) 114(57.00)
Mean ± SE 5415 ± 57.60 5286 ± 59.51 5350.5 ± 41.55
G Grower goat t value=0.120932NS
20. Low (<3000-3500) 16(16) 20(20) 36(18.00)
21. Medium (3501-4000) 44(44) 48(48) 92(46.00)
23. High (>4001) 40(40) 32(32) 72(36.00)
Mean ± SE 4057 ± 49.36 3816.5 ± 41.57 3936.75 ± 33.29
t value=0.000253NS

H Mode of selling
24. Directly to consumer 16(16) 13(13) 29(14.50)
25. Directly to middlemen 78(78) 83(83) 161(80.50)
26. Directly to wholesaler 06(6.00) 04(04) 10(5.00)
Table 7. Mean growth performance of Assam Hill goat under field condition.
Sr. No. Age group Body weight (Mean ± SE) Pooled (n=200) t value
Karbi Anglong Dima Hasao (Mean ± SE)
(n=100) (n=100)
1. At birth 1.67±0.03 1.59±0.04 1.61±0.03 0.077013NS
2. 3m 4.78±0.14 4.45± 0.10 4.62±0.09 0.074152 NS
3. 6m 8.62±0.11 8.34±0.12 8.48±0.08 0.095945 NS
4. 9m 11.95±0.13 11.55±0.09 11.75±0.08 0.017471 NS
5. 12 m 15.32±0.11 14.88±0.17 15.24±0.14 0.009814 NS
NS: Non-significant (p>0.05)
maturity, length of estrus cycle, first kidding, post- attributes revealed that AH goat was highly suitable
partum estrus period, gestation length was 276.19, and promising goat breed that can be promoted
298.39, 20.97, 449.56, 64.78, 247.73and 147.91d, for commercialization for sustainable income
respectively. The mean duration of estrus period generation. Scientific intervention is highly needed
was recorded to be 24.52±0.52 hr. No significant through capacity building and field demonstration
differences were recorded on different reproductive on AH goat to promote and conserved the highly
performances (p>0.05) of AH goat in terms of age at prolific meat breed in the hill region and adjoining
puberty, sexual maturity, length of estrus cycle, first part of Assam.
kidding, post-partum estrus period, gestation length
as well as duration of estrus period between the two REFERENCES
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and Das et al (2021) recorded age at first kidding India.
and gestation period of 448.00 and 147.47 d, 405.07 Bhikya B R, Kumar P, Rathod S and Venkateswarlu M (2021).
and 147.31 d, respectively in Assam Hill goat. The Socio-economic profile and knowledge on management
practices of goat rearing farmers in the Mahaboobnagar
average litter size of AH goat was recorded 1.69. district of Telangana. Pharma Innov J 10 (10):392-397.
Hasan et al (2014) recorded overall litter size of 1.6
Das B, Sarma, R, and Sarma J (2021). Production system
under semi-intensive and 1.46 extensive condition of Assam Hill Goats and their performance under field
in Bangladesh. condition. Int J Livest Res 11(11):33-37.
Deori S, Deka B C, Biswas R K, Nahardeka N, Arangasamy
CONCLUSION A, BhuyanD, Kalita D J, Borah R Sand Phookan A
Assam Hill (AH) goat is an important goat (2016). Characteristics and freezability of Assam Hill
germplasm found in Assam and its adjoining areas. goat semen. Indian J Anim Res 52(1): 25-28.
It is one of the most prolific, high fecundity and Doley M K, Baruah N, Deka A K, Maibangsa S, Bhuyan S and
small size goat breed popular among the tribal Phookan A (2018). Performance of Assam Hill goat and
their crossbred Beetal through Artificial Insemination in
farmers. The study on productive and reproductive hill district of Assam. Int J Agric Sci 10(10): 6168-6169.

Table 8. Mean reproductive performances of Assam Hill goat under field condition
Sr. No. Reproductive traits Reproductive performances (Mean Pooled t value
± SE) (Mean ± SE)
Karbi Anglong Dima Hasao
1. Age at puberty (Days) 272.91 ± 1.49 279.47±1.60 276.19±1.19 0.00698NS
2. Age at sexual maturity (Days) 295.08±0.89 301.69±1.36 298.39±0.94 0.00021NS
3. Length of estrus cycle (Days) 20.95±0.23 21.00±0.46 20.97±0.03 0.93377NS
4. Duration of estrus period (hrs) 24.78±0.80 24.26±0.71 24.52±0.52 0.43383NS
5. Age at first kidding (Days) 447.78±0.94 451.34±1.34 449.56±0.85 0.03591NS
6. Post partum estrus period (Days) 63.65±0.96 65.91±1.01 64.78±0.71 0.11406NS
7. Kidding interval (Days) 245.39±1.26 250.87±1.27 247.73±0.95 0.01226NS
8. Gestation length (Days) 147.73±0.19 148.08±0.25 147.91±0.16 0.28501NS
NS: Non-significant (p>0.05)
Doley M K, Maibangsa S, Baruah N, Neog M, Shyam J, Malau-AduliB S, Eduvie L, Lakpini C and Malau-Aduli A E
Hazarika R and Pathak P K(2022).Ethnoveterinary (2004). Reprod Nutr Dev. 44(2):111-121.
practices amongst tribal pig farmers in Karbi Anglong Mellado M, Valdez R, Garcia J, Lopez R, and Rodriguez A
district of Assam, India. Indian J Tradit Know 21(3): (2006). Factors affecting the reproductive performance of
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region of Southern Rajasthan. Indian J Small Rumin 15 rearing system of Black Bengal goat and their farmers in
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performances of Black Bengal goat under semiintensive L,Ciptadi G, Susilawati T and Nurgiartiningsih VM A
and extensive conditions at rural areas in Bangladesh. J (2020). Improving Tropical Animal Production for Food
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Agric Ecol 5: 61-66. (2009). Tamilnadu J Vet Anim Sci 5(5): 203-207.
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hoc Research Scheme 2004-07, Central Institute for
Research on Goats, Makhdoom, Mathura. Received on 22/02/2023 Accepted on 16/05/2023

Scenario of Dairy Animals Kept by Different Categories of

Farmers in Punjab
Manoj Sharma and Madhu Shelly
Directorate of Extension Education
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana
ABSTRACT
Punjab Agricultural University is regularly organizing kisan mela since 1967 and a large number of farmers
visits these melas in order to acquaint themselves with the recent technologies developed by the university.
Further, in order to disseminate latest technologies amongst farming community, it is essential to assess the
training needs and availability of existing resources with the farmers. The present study was thus conducted
to assess the status of dairy animals kept by those farmers who visited kisan mela during September,2022
in order to plan various extension activities to be undertaken in near future for the benefit of dairy farmers
in the state of Punjab. The study was conducted on 85 farmers who visited PAU exhibition stall to get
themselves registered for future extension activities of the university. A total of 85 were interviewed through
questionnaire specially designed in order to know the status of dairy farmers in the state. It was found that
maximum number of farmers were from district Moga (17.64%) followed by Ferozepur (16.47%) and
Sangrur (12.94%), Ludhiana (8.23%) , Barnala (7.05%) and Mukatsar (5.88%)
INTRODUCTION 2020-21 and 2021-22 was 209.96 MT and 221.06

India has vast resource of livestock and poultry, MT, respectively showing an annual growth of
which play a vital role in improving the socio- 5.29%. The per capita availability of milk is around
economic conditions of rural masses. There are 444 g/day in 2021-22.
about 303.76 million bovines (cattle, buffalo, Animal husbandry and dairying activities, along
mithun and yak), 74.26 million sheep, 148.88 with agriculture, continue to be an integral part of
million goats, 9.06 million pigs and about 851.81 human life since the process of civilization started.
million poultry as per 20th Livestock Census These activities have contributed not only to the
in the country. Livestock sector is an important food basket and draught animal power but also by
subsector of the agriculture in Indian economy. maintaining ecological balance. Owing to conducive
It forms an important livelihood activity for climate and topography, animal husbandry and
most of the farmers, supporting agriculture in the dairying sectors have played prominent socio-
form of critical inputs, contributing to the health economic role in India. They also played a
and nutrition of the household, supplementing significant role in generating gainful employment
incomes and offering employment opportunities. in the rural sector, particularly among the landless,
It acts as a supplementary and complementary small and marginal farmers and women, besides
enterprise. Several measures have been initiated providing cheap and nutritious food to millions of
by the Government to increase the productivity of people. Sharma et al (2013) reported that majority
livestock, which has resulted in increasing milk of dairy farmers were either land less or small and
production significantly. Milk production during medium in the district Kapurthala. On the other

Scenario of Dairy Animals Kept by Different Categories
Table 1. Proforma for kisan mela information about dairy farmers.

Sr. No. Questions Farmer 1 F2
1. Name
2. District
3. Mobile No.
4. Total land (ha.)
5. Number of Cows
6. Number of Buffaloes
7. Feed Self prepared: YES/NO
8. Purchased from market. YES/NO
9. Mineral mixture used YES/NO
10. Silage YES/NO
11. Major problem faced in dairy
12. Total milk production daily (l)
13. Where do you sell milk?
14. Rate of milk ( Rs/l)
15. Brand of feed
16. Cost of feed(Rs / 50 kg )
17. Homemade YES/NO
18. Shed type:
Pucca, Kucha, Temporary, Scientific
19. No. of workers kept
20. Automatic milking machine available YES/NO
21. Want to increase dairy unit . YES/NO
22. Do you know about
KVK in the district ? YES/NO
23. Are you coming for the first time kisan mela? YES/NO
24. Who told you about mela?
hand, only 8 per cent farmers who were possessing (93.3%) were having up to15 animals. Further, it
land more than 10 ha. kept dairy animals which was also noticed that dairy farmers (74.9%) were
show that large farmers gave more attention to crop possessing cows with daily milk yield varying from
production than the dairy farming. Similarly, it was 4 to 10 l/d and 85.8 per cent of farmers were keeping
observed that 44.5 and 48.8 per cent of population buffaloes with daily milk yield ranging between 2
was keeping up to 5 and 15 animals, respectively. to 8 l/d.
Only 4.3 per cent farmers possessed between 16 to Punjab Agricultural University is regularly
25 animals and a very small population (2.4%) was organizing kisan mela since 1967 and a large number
possessing more than 25 animals. This showed that of farmers visits these melas in order to acquaint
very few farmers were practicing dairy business on themselves with the recent technologies developed
commercial scale (2.4%) and majority of farmers

by the university. Further, in order to disseminate Table 2. District wise participation of dairy
latest technologies amongst farming community, farmers in the Kisan mela organized by the PAU,
it is essential to assess the training needs and Ludhiana.
availability of existing resources with the farmers. Sr. No. Name of the Number of farmers
The present study was thus conducted to assess the district participated in kisan
status of dairy animals kept by those farmers who mela
visited kisan mela during September,2022 in order 1. Ambala 1
to plan various extension activities to be undertaken 2. Amritsar 1
in near future for the benefit of dairy farmers in the
3. Barnala 6
state of Punjab.
4. Bathinda 2
MATERIALS AND METHODS 5. Faridkot 2
During the kisan mela, the study was conducted 6. Fatehgarh Sahib 2
on 85 farmers who visited PAU exhibition stall to get 7. Ferozepur 14
themselves registered for future extension activities 8. Gurdaspur 1
of the university. A total of 85 were interviewed 9. Jalandhar 2
through questionnaire specially designed in order 10. Kapurthala 3
to know the status of dairy farmers in the state. The 11. Ludhiana 7
format is given as under: 12. Mansa 2
Based on the filled performa, the data were 13. Moga 15
arranged and classified depending on land possessed 14. Mohali 2
by a farmer. Different class intervals were 0-2ha., 15. Mukatsar 5
2-4ha.,4-10ha. and more than 10 ha. Likewise, all 16. Patiala 2
the farmers were divided in these 4 groups and the 17. Ropar 1
information provided was classified accordingly.
18. Samrala 1
19. Sangrur 14
20. Sirsa 1
Participation of farmers 21. Tarn Taran 1
There are 23 districts in Punjab state and in
Grand Total 85
this study, farmers from 21 districts participated.
Maximum number of farmers were from district Land holding
Moga (17.64%) followed by Ferozepur (16.47%) The data (Table 3a) show that there were 4
and Sangrur (12.94%), Ludhiana (8.23%), Barnala categories used to classify the farmers based on
(7.05%) and Mukatsar (5.88%) (Table 5). It was the land holding possessed by them. The maximum
revealed that there are 7 kisan melas organized by number of farmers were from 0 to 2 ha (32.94 %)
the university in different districts falling under category followed by 4ha to 10 ha (25.88%), 2 ha to
3 agro-ecological zones twice in a year. Those 4 ha (21.17 %) and more than 10 ha (20.0 %).
farmers who were not able to attend those kisan
Type of animals kept by the farmers
mela prefer to attend at the university main campus
at Ludhiana. It was also noticed that at the main It was emphasized by the research institutes
campus, farmers from all over the Punjab attended that rearing of crossbred cows is more economical
the kisan mela and took part in the study undertaken compared to buffaloes but the findings revealed
at the directorate level. that small and large farmers preferred to keep both

Table 3a. Statistics of land holding, number of animals and milk production available with dairy
farmers
Land holding (ha) Average Average Total milk Total animals Average milk
number of number of produced daily available yield/animal
Cows kept buffaloes kept (L)
0-2 2.36 2.25 485 129 3.76
2-4 1.94 3.94 414 106 3.91
4-10 2.55 6.45 418 198 2.11
More than 10 1.94 1.94 248 66 3.76
Total 2.24 3.64 1565 499 3.14
cow and buffaloes in equal proportions (Table 3b). about the type of animals to be kept by different
Farmers with land holding from 2-4 ha and 4 to categories of the dairy farmers.
10 ha preferred to keep more buffaloes than cows.
The probable reasons may be that since buffaloes Average milk yield
are more efficient converters of low-quality feeds or The data about total milk produced daily by
coarse fodder. They require a relatively low level of the farmers were recorded irrespective of type of
inputs in the predominantly mixed farming systems, animals kept by them. It was found that the average
and are well known for their ability to thrive on low- milk yield /animal/day was highest (3.91 L) with
quality crop residues and green forage under harsh those farmers possessing land holding between
climatic conditions. Moreover, buffalo milk has a 2-4 ha. This might be probably due to the fact that
higher fat, protein, lactose, vitamin, and mineral in category 0-2 ha land holding, there were some
content than cow’s milk. It’s also whiter and has a landless farmers, who may not be able to provide
thicker consistency, which makes it perfect for the required quantity of feed and fodder to the animals
production of fat-based dairy products. However, what to talk of concentrate and mineral mixture
cows give more milk than buffaloes but buffalo feeding required for optimum milk production.
milk fat content is twice as much as cow milk so Contrary to this, lowest average milk yield was
buffalo milk gets better price. Milking a cow can be recorded with farmers with 4-10 ha category (2.11
automated using milking machines - for buffaloes it L) due to the reason that these farmers preferred to
is difficult. Therefore, it can be said that it depends keep more number of buffaloes (142) than cows
upon the resources a farmer possesses. Similarly, (56) and at the same time total number of animals
marketing of milk plays a major role in deciding kept were also maximum (198) and total milk yield
Table 3b. Average milk yield , land holding and feed preparation by different categories of farmers.
Land holding Number of Total number Total Total land Average milk Number
(ha) farmers of Cows number of available prod daily of farmers
Buffaloes (ha) (L) prepared
feed at home
0-2 28 66 63 34.4 20.20 17
2-4 18 35 71 59.3 25.87 8
4-10 22 56 142 150.2 24.58 10
More than 10 17 33 33 100 16.53 8
Grand Total 85 190 309 343.9 21.73 43

Table 4. Type of commercial feeds used by the dairy farmers of Punjab.

Brand of feed Number of farmers
Not Known 27
Amul cattle feed 5
Aashish 7
Binala 1
Cargill 13
Cotton Seed Cake 1
Goyal 1
G S Feed 1
Home Made 4
Jawala Feed 1
Markfed 2
Muskan 3
Sardar 4
Shahideep 1
Sampurna 3
Shudh Gold 1
Tara 1
Tiwana 2
Tractor 1
Trishul, Ramdev Patanjali, 1
Verka Feed 5
Grand Total 85
obtained was 418 L ( Table 3a). It was observed that way. In the present study, it was found that only 2
since maximum number of buffaloes was kept by farmers constructed animals shed on scientific lines
these farmers and thus, due to low milk production whereas others made sheds as per their own whim
potential of buffaloes, average milk yield value without consulting any expert. In such sheds, during
was reduced. Under such situation, it becomes very high day temperature in summer, milk yield as well
difficult to decide which animal species would be overall health conditions of the animals are affected
economical because cow milk is being sold in the adversely. Hence, it can be said that there is ample
villages @ Rs. 30/kg compared to buffaloes milk scope to educate the dairy farmers to make aware
@ Rs 55/kg. Hence, ease of marketing farmers’ about the construction of dairy sheds which should
produce will be the deciding factor in adoption of be well ventilated, easy to clean and accommodate
an enterprise by the participants. maximum number of animals in order to reduce
cost of milk production besides keeping animals in
Housing management good health conditions.
The study revealed that farmers preferred to
keep the animals in pucca houses ( 77.64 %) than Feeding management
kacha (22.35 %) because government is providing Farmers who possessed land are able to feed
incentives for shed construction on scientific sufficient quantity of green and dry fodder but did

not feed concentrate due to high cost. Therefore, Gupta et al (2017) reported that continuous feeding
emphasis is given to prepare compound cattle of mineral mixture bettered performance of dairy
feed at the household level so that margin of cross bred animal in respect of their production and
profit from dairy enterprise can be increased. The reproductive performance.
results revealed that 50 per cent farmers prepared
cattle feed at home level and out of these, only CONCLUSION
small farmers (0-2 ha) preferred to prepare feed at It can be concluded that the average milk
home whereas medium (2-4 ha) and large (>10 ha) production of dairy animals per day per animal in the
farmers were least interested. Sharma (2015) has rural area was very low whereas it is perceived that
reported that poor knowledge about the nutritive there is marketing problem of milk. Further, with
value of feed ingredients (86.5 %), high cost of so little milk production, keeping of dairy animals
raw feed ingredients (28 %), shortage of skilled can never be remunerative. Thus, there is need to
and committed labour (32.5 %) were found to be educate the farmers about various management
major bottlenecks regarding adoption of cattle practices to be followed in order to enhance the
feed formulation technology at the dairy farm. total milk production per animal per day so that
Simultaneously, other 50 per cent purchased cattle livelihood security can be ensured.
feed of different brands available in the market.
There were about 20 brands of cattle feed available REFERENCES
in the market which dairy farmers were using at the Sharma M (2015). Bottlenecks in adoption of feeding practices
dairy farms and the maximum popular brand was for dairy animals in district Kapurthala. J Krishi Vigyan
3 (2): 12-18
of Cargill (Table 4). Hence, it will be of interest to
evaluate performance of available compound feeds Sharma M, Singh Gurdeep and Shelly Madhu (2013).
Technological problems and training needs of dairy
under in vivo conditions because farmers keep on farmers. J Krishi Vigyan 2 (1): 59-63
using these brands after discussion with the dealers
Sharma M, Singh Tejbeer and Singh Gurinder (2020).
or traders who are known to them. Farming practices followed by dairy farmers in district
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar of Punjab. J Krishi Vigyan
Use of mineral mixture as feed supplement 8 (2): 133-137.
It was revealed that only 50 per cent were
Gupta R, Singh K, Kumar M and Sharma M (2017). Effect
making use of mineral mixture in the daily feeding of supplementation of minerals on the productive and
schedule of dairy animals but again it is not used reproductive performance of crossbred cattle. Int J
for feeding of young stock. This results in various Livestock Res 7 (12): 231-236. http://dx.doi.org/10.5455/
types of nutritional deficiencies and as a result of ijlr.20170717113236
reproductive problems were noticed. In a study Received on 10/3/2023 Accepted on 12/5/2023


Puja Debnath1, Parag Mani Deka2, Hemanta Pokhrel1, Rijusmita Sarma Deka2 ,
Saurav Baruah2 and Prasanna Kumar Pathak*
College of Fisheries Science, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, (Assam)
ABSTRACT
Jagiroad, located in Morigaon district of Assam is known for the Asia’s largest dry fish market. The market
is currently dealing with 300 different types of dried fish product with more than 100 species of freshwater
and remaining from marine water fish. Among the freshwater fishes only 10-15 species (Puntius spp,
Notopterus Notopterus, Amblypharyngodon mola and Labeo spp etc and from marine sardinella, Mackeral
spp and Harpodon neherus) are highly in demand in market. Freshwater dry fish species are mostly procured
from West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Tripura and marine water dry fish species are received from
Gujarat, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh. Dried fish products are available only for wholesale and the price of
the product depends on several factors like type of dried fish product, transportation cost, cost of storage etc.
In the present study protein content of dried fish was found higher than the fresh fish. It was also observed
that women were actively participating in dry fish market as wholesaler, business dealer and as day labour
etc. The major constraints observed in dry fish market were contaminated with faecal matter, blow flies,
lack of infrastructure and proper storage facility.
Key Words: Analytical, Diversity, Participation, Sanitation, Women.
INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS

Dried fish is very popular in north eastern India Study Area
and often consumed as a daily dish or as taste The study was carried out at Jagiroad dry fish
enhancer. Dried fish is used along with other food market during August to December, 2022. During
items for its specific flavor and aroma. Dried fish is survey all fish retailers were questioned. Selected
the good source of protein, minerals and nutrients market intermediaries, other functionaries, and
especially for economically weaker section of Jagiroad dry fish committee were questioned.
society who cannot afford meat or fresh fish. (Banu Jagiroad dry fish market is situated near Jagiroad
et al, 1985; Murray and Little, 2000). Jagiroad dry railway station and is at distance of 650 m from
fish market located in Morigaon district of Assam is NH 127. It is well connected through rail and road
famous for its species diversity which includes both transport. Identification of fish species was done
fresh water and marine water fish species (Mallick following standard protocols given by Jayaram
et al, 2022). Thus, in the present study, a detailed (1999).
study was conducted on its species diversity,
marketing channel and quality analysis of the dry Analytical study: - Analytical study was carried
fish imported from different states of India. out for identification of different species, import-
export price and management system of market

1
College of Fisheries Science, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, (Assam)
2
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Morigaon Assam Agricultural University
*Director of Extension Education, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat

Table1. Species diversity at Jagiroad dry fish market

Fish name Family Genera Class Local Imported from Im- Whole-
name port sale
price Price
(Rs/ (Rs/kg)
kg)
Notopterusno- Notop- Notopterus Actinop- Kandhuli Uttar Pradesh West 250 270
topterus teridae terygii Bengal,
and Bihar
Puntius Cyprini- Puntius Actinopter Puthi West Bengal, 200- 230-250
sophore dae ygii UP, 220
Tripura,
Morigaon
Puntiusjavan- Cyprini- Puntius Actinop- Javaputhi West Bengal 70- 100-120

icus dae terygii Bihar 100
Puntiusticto Cyprini- Puntius Actinop- Ceni- West Bengal 70- 100-120

dae terygii puthi Bihar 100
Acetessp. Sergesti- Acetes Malacost- Singri/ West Bengal Biha- 120- 150
dae raca micha r,Tripura 130
mach
Channa Channi- Channa Actinopter Goroi West Bengal, 70 90
Punctatus dae ygii Bihar, UP
Amblypharyn- Cyprini- Amblypharyn- Actinop- Mua- Tripura 7 9-10
godonmola dae godon terygii mach West Bengal,Bihar
Labeobata Cyprini- Labeo Actinopter Vangun West Bengal 270- 200-220
dae ygii Uttar Pradesh 180
Bihar, Tripura
Channa Channi- Channa Actinopter Shawl West Bengal, 40-50 60-70
striatus dae ygii Bihar, UP
Mystusvittatus Bagridae Mystus Actinop- Singhora WestBengalBihar 150- 200-250
terygii 200
Tenualosilisha Clupei- Tenulosa Actinop- ilish WestBengal 500- 600-650

dae terygii 550
Anguilasp. Anguilli- Anguilla Actinopter Bami West Bengal 650- 750-800

dae ygii Bihar, UP 700
Sardinella Clupei- Sardinella Actinopter Sardine Gujarat, Kerala,A 170- 200-250

longiceps dae ygii P 200

Rastrelliger Scombri- Rastrelliger Actinopter Mackerel Gujarat, Kerala,AP 150- 200-250

kanagurta dae ygii 200
Chanos Chanidae Chanos Actinop- milkfish/ Gujarat, 170- 240-270

chanos terygii chandusi Kerala,AP 230
Johnius Scianidae Johnius Actinop- Panna Gujarat, 90- 150-200

dussumieri terygii dry fish Kerala, A P 130
Stolephorusindi- Mandeli Engruilidae Actinop- Stolepho- Gujarat mostly 150 200-220
cus dryfish terygii ru s
Labeogonius Cyprini- Labeo Actinop- Kuhi WestBengalmostly 150- 200
dae terygii 180
Gudusiachapra Clupei- Gudusia Actinop- Karati WestBengal,UP 180- 220-250

dae terygii 200
Coiliadussum- Engruili- Coilia Actinop- (Golde- Gujarat,Kerela 70-90 110

ieri dae terygii nAncho-
vy)
Heteropneus- Heterop- Heteropneutes Actinop- Singhi WestBengal,Tri- 250- 300
tesfosilis neustidae terygii pura 270
Xenontodon- Belonidae Xenontodon Actinop- Kokila West Bengal, 200 250

cancila terygii UttarPradesh
Rasboradanico- Cyprini- Rasbora Actinop- Dorikona WestBengal,AP 160- 200
nius dae terygii 180
Glossogobius- Gobidae Glossogobius Actinop- Pati- WestBengal 140- 180

giuris terygii mutura 150
Aorichthysaor Bagridae Aorichthys Actinop- Aari West Bengal,Uttar 200- 250-300

terygii Pradesh 220
Mystusspp Bagridae Mystus Actinop- Singora WestBengal,Uttar 150- 200

terygii Pradesh 170
Oreochro- Cichili- Oreochromis Actinop- Tilapia Tripura, 120- 150-170

misniloticus dae terygii West Bengal 140
Clariusmagur Claridae Clarius Actinop- Magur WestBengal, 450 500

terygii AP
Macrognathus- Masta- Macrognathus Actinop- Tura WestBengal,Bihar 750- 800
puncalus cembeli- terygii 780
dae

Ompoksp. Siluridae Ompok Actinop- Pavo WestBengal 670- 700-800

terygii 690
Mastacembelu- Masta- Mastacembelus Actinop- Bami WestBengal 450- 500

sarmatus cembeli- terygii 480
dae
Nandusnandus Nandidae Nandus Actinop- Gedgedi WestBengal, Biha- 200 220-240
terygii r,UP
Labeocalbasu Cyprini- Labeo Actinop- Mali,Ko- WestBengalUP 130- 160-170

dae terygii liajai 150
Wallagoattu Siluridae Wallago Actinop- Borali WestBengalmostly 270- 300

terygii 290
Thryssamystax Engrauli- Thyrssa Actinop- Gangeti- Gujarat,WestBen- 200- 230-250

dae terygii canchovy gal 220
Caranxmala- Carangi- Caranx Actinop- Gujarat,AP 150- 180-200

baricus,(Para) dae terygii 170
Harpadonne- Synodon- Harpadon Actinop- Bumla Gujarat,Kerela 120- 150-170

hereus,(Bumla) tidae terygii 140
Labeobata Cyprini- Labeo Actinop- Bhagan MostlyWest Bengal 170- 200

dae terygii 180
Biochemical and Quantitative analysis: market (Table 1)

Protein was analyses for biochemical analysis Protein analysis- A quantitative analysis was
following Lowry’s et al (1951) method. done for five numbers of fish species that were also
available in fresh in Morigaon district for both dried
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION and fresh condition. The result reveled that crude
Dry Fish market is currently dealing with more protein content was almost twice in dried fish than
than 300 different types of dried fish product with those of fresh fish (Table 2).
more than 100 species of freshwater and remaining
from marine water fish. Among the freshwater Retail Price. Retail price of dried fish was
fishes only 10-15 species (Puntius spp, Notopterus mainly influenced by market demand, quality of
notopterus, Amblypharyngodon mola and Labeo dried fish, mode of transportation and cost of dried
spp and from marine sardinella, Mackeral spp and fish production.
Harpodon neherus) were high in demand in the

Photo plates of different species collected from Jagiroad dry fish market


TABLE 2. Quantitative Analysis of Protein of sun-dried and in Jagiroad dry fish market
(Mean± Standard Deviation)
Fish species Protein content (μg/mL)
Fresh fish Sundried fish
Puntius sophore 140±0.07 200±0.40
Amblypharyngodon mola 140±1.01 155±0.42
Notopterus chitala 150±1.01 230±1.11
Channa punctatus 140±0.01 165±0.50
Labeo rohita 180±1.01 335±1.01
Retail cost was calculated as follows

Retail cost = purchase cost from producer +
transportation cost + labour charge + tax + storage
charge + ice cost + packaging charge + electric
charge.
Export of dry fish. Below figure ( a) shows the
export of dried fish to foreign nation from Jagiroad.
Fig b- Percentage export of dry fish in north eastern

India
Import of Dry Fish- The import percentage
of dried fish is fluctuating in different season but
almost 50-55 % dried fish was procured from
Gujarat followed by Uttar Pradesh (12-15%), West
Bengal (10-12%), Andhra Pradesh (8-10%), Bihar
(5-7%) fig (c).
Fig a: Percentage Export of Dry Fish
Jagiroad dried fish market mostly exports to

North east (70-80%). Maximum export took place
in Tripura (25%) followed by other state (data
shown on fig b)
Fig. c: -Arrival of dry fish from different state of India

Jagiroad fish market

Pic 5:-Blow flies in dried fish Pic 6 :- Garbage’s near the dried fish Pic 7: Interaction with first woman
product wholesaler of Jagiroad dry fish
market
Jagiroad fish market hygiene and sanitation Major limitations observed in Dry Fish Market
hygiene and sanitation- During the market survey It was observed that lack of proper sanitation
it has been observed that main market area was facility, lack of storage facility, lack of garbage
contaminated with fecal matter due to the lack of eradication facility, poor infrastructure, lack of
proper garbage eradication system. Some of the proper market management system, less number
dried product gets contaminated by blow flies of women participation and contamination of dried
and insects. Quality of dried product also gets fish product were common which needs special
deteriorated by mold and fungal infection during attention of the authorities.
rainy season.
Role of women in Jagiroad dry fish market. CONCLUSION
Women in dry fish market of Jagiroad plays a crucial Diversity in species was observed in dry fish
role by actively participating in inter-state dry fish market of Jagiraod. However, among the 100
business especially in Meghalaya, Manipur and different species available, only 10-15 species are
Mizoram. Women were also involved in cleaning widely available and have huge market demand
of market, eradication of garbage andloading and in north-eastern India as well as in neighboring
unloading of dry fish bags. Puja Saha is the only countries. Considering the nutritional aspect of dried
woman wholesaler in the market who adopted her fish, biochemical analysis of protein revealed that
father’s business after his sudden death in the year protein content of dried fish is almost double than
2021.
Pic 8:-Dried fish business woman from Meghalaya Pic 9: Woman labour at dried fish market

that of the fresh fish. Species diversity fluctuation REFERENCES

occurs in every month and season depending Govindan T K (1985). Fish Processing Technology. Oxford
on factors like market demand, supply, cost of IBH Pub Co. Pvt. Ltd. 137 – 157
production, market chain, nutrient availability Lowry O H, Rosebrough N J, Farr A L and Randall R J (1951).
etc. Lack of proper hygienic and storage facility Protein measurement with the Folin Phenol Reagent. J
Biol Chem 193 : 265 – 275
deteriorates the quality of dried fish which reduces
the price of the product. During the survey, it was Aziz A, Sahu S, Das B K, Dora K C, Chowdhury S, Hazra
S and Sahu S (2019). The efficiency comparison of
observed that sometimes due to spoilage, price marketing channels at jagiroaddried fish, market, Assam.
of dried fish decreased upto Rs. 10-15 /kg which J Ento and Zoo Stud 7: 1273-1275
is used in local fish meal industry. Growth of the Deka J, Rahman M, Bidyut B, Bhaishya A and Kumar D
market is ceased due to poor sanitary condition, (2022). Dry fish market – An analytical study of Jagi
lack of proper infrastructure and storage facility. Road dry fish market, Assam, India. Inter Edu S Res J
There is a need to develop policy for the growth 5: 30-32
and development of the largest fish market of Asia. Mallick S, Gogoi R, Deka R S, Deka P M and Hoque J (2022).
Study on North-East India’s largest dry fish market, its
production and marketing channels. J Krishi Vigyan 10
(2): 301-305.
Jayaram K C (1999). The freshwater fishes of the Indian
region. Narendra Publishing house, Delhi, 551pp.

Strategies for Efficient Use of Natural Resources to Sustain

Agricultural Production in Indo-Gangetic plains
M S Gill*, Manoj Sharma** and K B Singh***
*Gulzar Group of Institutions, Khanna, Ludhiana (Punjab)
ABSTRACT
The natural resources are at stack and creating very alarming situation for the future under irrigated and
rain fed conditions. The adoption of rice-wheat system in Indo-Gangetic plains greatly contributed to
India’s food self-sufficiency and livelihood of millions of people. However, deterioration of soil health
and its quality, ground water depletion and climate change are jeopardising the sustainability of rice-wheat
cropping system. Traditional agronomic practices had various negative implications on the agricultural
sustainability. The naturally available resources are now under threat because of their irrational use. A
perspective strategic plan is delineated to efficiently utilize these resources so that the agricultural production
can be made sustainable for long time. Some technologies for efficient management of water, soil and air
resources have been suggested which can be helpful in saving irrigation water, maintain soil productivity
and decrease climate change.
Key Words: Depletion of underground water, Natural Resources, Soil degradation, Soil productivity,
Sustainability.
INTRODUCTION groundwater. Groundwater management is the key

The rice–wheat crop rotation has led to a manifold to combat the emerging problem of water scarcity.
increase in irrigation water demand. Unreliable Rice and wheat are also the exhaustive cereal crops
surface water supplies coupled with excessive that lead to a heavy depletion of soil nutrients, and
groundwater extraction due to free electricity (in the problem is further aggravated when farmers
Punjab) and agricultural practices, has led to a long- burn the rice crop residues left in their fields after
term groundwater decline of 41.6 cm/yr in the state mechanized harvesting. Air pollution from crop
(Baweja et al, 2017). The recent report published residue burning also causes human health problems.
in 2022 by Central Ground Water Board and IIT, The major challenges related to water, soil and
Hyderabad have shown that 73.4, 3.5, 9.1 and 14 air that affect the sustainability of rice-wheat system
percent area of Punjab is overexploited, critical, can be managed as:
semi critical and safe with respect to underground
water use. Now in Punjab 13.83 million Acre feet A. Management of ground water resources
(MAF) total water is available through surface and The following approaches should be adopted
underground recharge from all sources. The water for the best use of water resource:
pumped out to meet irrigation requirement of crops • Timely sowing and transplanting of paddy:
(21.62 MAF) and domestic and industrial use (1.08 The Punjab Preservation of Subsoil Water Act,
MAF) is 22.7 MAF. Thus, there is a deficit of 8.87 2009, prohibits farmers from sowing nursery of
MAF which is met through overexploitation of paddy before 10th May and transplanting paddy

** Principal Extension Scientist (Animal Science), Directorate of Extension Education, PAU, Ludhiana
*** Director, Regional Research Station, Ballowal Saunkhari, SBS Nagar.

Strategies for Efficient Use of Natural Resources to Sustain Agricultural
before 10th June in a year. The main purpose of supply and minimum support price, paddy will
the Act was to save groundwater by prohibiting remain the most remunerative crop (Sarkar
sowing and transplanting paddy before specified and Das, 2014) and farmers may not move
dates in hot and dry periods. With the successful towards diversification until incentivised by
implementation of this Act, it is estimated that economically attractive alternatives. However,
276 million units of electricity can be saved and keeping in view the prevailing water and soil
the fall in water table can be checked by about health conditions of Punjab, there is dire need
30 cm (Singh, 2009). to reduce some area from paddy crop. Another
• Direct seeded rice also helps to save substantial problem has been created by some private
quantity of water because no puddling is required companies who have started cultivation of
and irrigations are applied at 3-5 days interval spring maize for silage production. The water
led to save water substantially. Moreover, the requirement of spring maize is at par with that of
crop does not suffer from transplanting shock paddy. On the other hand, the area under cotton
and crop take about 10 days less for maturity. is not increasing rather it has been drastically
Adoption of short duration rice varieties are reduced in south-west Punjab during the year
recommended for cultivation for example 2023-24. Therefore, there is an urgent need to
PR115 and IR36. acquaint the farmers for efficient use of natural
resources particularly irrigation water.
• Alternate wetting and drying: It has been
observed that farmers in Punjab keep on water • Artificial recharge: The Central Ground Water
ponded in transplanted rice fields continuously, Board (2013) has proposed new schemes on
which is not required. Researchers have made it artificial recharge and aquifer mapping and
clear that there is need to keep standing water in management under the Twelfth Five-Year Plan
rice field just for first 15 days after transplanting period (Planning Commission, 2013). In this,
in order to establish the crop more vigorously about 79,924 structures in rural and 375,000 in
and to enhance the use efficiency of applied urban areas are proposed for the Punjab State. It
herbicides thus keep weeds under check. After is estimated that influence of recharge scheme
that irrigation should be applied as and when will be observed about 26,650 km2 area and it
ponded water is percolated in the soil. This will help to check decline in water level.
practice can save irrigation water consumption • Laser land levelling: A remarkable innovation
up to 25 per cent. in the water conserving technique which saves
• Crop diversification: The promotion of basmati 25–30 per cent water and increases water and
rice over the common paddy is often suggested nutrient use efficiency through uniform depth of
as an option to reduce the groundwater demand water. Likewise, it improves germination, crop
in the light of less water requirement by the stand, productivity, resource use efficiency and
former and on account of the growing season farm profitability.
of basmati rice coincidence with the rainy • Using appropriate method of irrigation: Apply
season (Hindustan Times, 2014). A shift in the irrigation to the crops based on criteria for
cropping pattern away from Rice-Wheat to a applying irrigation to the crops viz., soil indices,
Maize-Wheat has been one of the suggestions climatic parameter or plant indices. It helps the
to curb the groundwater depletion since the sizeable saving of water. Moreover, the right
submission of Johl committee report in 1986 method of irrigation are considered highly
(Sarkar and Das, 2014). However, under useful to enhance the use efficiency of irrigation
the prevailing conditions of free electricity viz., Ridge and furrow method of irrigation,

drip and sprinkle method of irrigation save water and water should be saved by following
substantial amount of irrigation water. measures:
• Watershed management under rainfed • Not keeping water taps running.
conditions: The adoption of watershed • Check water leak and repair.
management approach is a boon. It has catchment
area and command area. The catchment area • Adopt minimum water use pattern.
sheds water to a given point viz., dam, reservoir, • Installing water saving toilet that use
tank, pond. The command area where water optimum water for flush.
is used for applying irrigation using gravity • Collect waste water in your home and use it
method. This approach not only enhances for watering kitchen garden.
the productivity of crop but also sustained
• Watering lawn and kitchen garden plants in
the productivity along with the conservation/
the evening to minimize evaporation losses
improvement in the ecological balance. In the
and not watering then in the midday.
catchment area, the economic value plants viz.
timber plants and Bhabar grass as inter crop B. Management of soil resources
during rainy season are planted after digging The following measures should be adapted to
trenches across the slope. These dug out tunnels take care of soil resources.
act as water barrier and help to retain water.
• Recycling of crop residues: For the last so
More the covered space in the catchment area
many years, different innovative rice residue
ensures the regular flow of clean water without
management strategies have been developed
carrying soil in the reservoir. The other benefits
including in situ residue incorporation and zero-
of watershed can also be availed viz., multiple
till sowing of wheat with surface-retained rice
use of water, adoption of integrated farming
residue. These technologies have many benefits
approach, recharging of ground water, making
over rice residue burning, such as improving
condition favourable to ecology and also create
soil health, creating a positive nutrient balance
the employment along with ensuring the regular
in the soil, decreasing environmental pollution,
income flow.
and ultimately lowering the cost of cultivation.
• Use of poor quality water: In areas where the
• Inclusion of legumes in crop rotation: It is one
underground water is of poor quality should
of the agricultural practices in which different
also be used by following precaution measures
crops are grown in the same area following a
such as conjunctive use of water:
rotation system which helps in replenishment
• The poor quality is applied after mixing with of the soil. A short window of about 65–
good quality water. On account of dilution 70 days i.e.,after harvesting of wheat and
of salt, the crop growth is not affected. before transplanting of rice, can be utilized as
• The poor quality water should be avoided at an opportunity to include short-duration legume
germination (early stage). crop such as mungbean. Inclusion of short-
duration mungbean after wheat harvest has the
• The conjunctive use of water can be given
potential to increase productivity of rice–wheat
in alternate row, to save water.
system, besides improving the physical and
• The salt amendments should also be used in chemical properties of soil. The incorporation of
the field on the basis of soil test. mungbean or Sesbania green manuring into soil
• Domestic use of water: Every household use also resulted in recycling of 77–113 kgN/ha and

improved plant nitrogen uptake by 12–35 kg/ lower elevation should be in a zigzag manner

ha/year, besides increasing the productivity to reduce the flow water disposal rate from the
of rice–wheat system by 0.5–1.3 t/ha/year field.
(Khedwalet al, 2022) over rice–wheat system • Riparian farming: The trees are planted along
without summer crop. Inclusion of legumes the river embankments. The inter space is
in the cropping system enhanced the nitrogen planted with perennial grass such as Napier
economy and also contributed to cropping bajra which acts as a barrier and help to filter the
systems’ sustainability (Arora et al, 2020). water through vegetative barrier and siltation is
• Ridge and Furrow formation: Soil erosion is one drastically reduced in the river, canal or water
of the factors responsible for land degradation. disposal stream.
It can be prevented by formation of ridge and
furrow during irrigation which decreases the C. Management of air pollution/climate change
run-off. The following measures should be adopted
• Construction of Bunds: This usually checks • Reduce, Reuse and Recycle: Buying products
or reduces the velocity of run-off so that soil with minimal packaging will help to reduce
support vegetation. waste. By recycling of your household waste,
one can save 2400 pounds of carbon-dioxide
• Plantation of Wind brake: It is the common annually.
method to reduce the velocity of wind which
cause soil erosion and harm the crop by lodging • Use less heat and air conditioning: Adding
and dropping of fruits. insulation to your waste and installing weather
stripping or caulking around doors and windows
• Plantation of vegetative barrier across the slope: can lower your heating cost by 25 percent.
This practice has also proved very effective
where in SaccharumMunja(Cynodondactylon), • Replace light bulbs with compact florescent
Arundodonax and Sorghum halepenseplanted light(CFL) bulbs.
at 50 m interval across the slope help to retain • Drive less and drive smart: Less driving means
water and siltation takes place. Only decant few emissions. Besides saving gasoline, walking
filtered water moves to the next strip and and biking are great forms of exercise.
ultimately soil and water both are conserved. • Plant a tree: Tress absorbs Carbon-dioxide
• Formation of terraces: The small fields are and give off Oxygen. A single tree absorbs
levelled at different elevations and for disposal approximately one ton of CO2 during its life.
of excess water, the brick structures are installed • Carbon sequestration concept: It helps of strong
in each field. The exit point of structure has high carbon in a carbon pool. Carbon-dioxide is
level than the field, which restrict water up to naturally captured from the atmosphere through
certain depth allowing to settle down the soil biological, chemical and physical processes.
particles and only excess water free from silt It is the one method to reduce the CO2 in the
comes out to the nearly field. The same processes atmosphere with the goal reducing global
are adapted in the lower field. The excess water climate change.
of the farm is stored in dam/ tank/reservoir
• Stop burning of crop residue: The emission
and can be used for life saving irrigation or
from burning crop residues consist of methane
supplemental irrigation. The only precaution
(CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O), carbon mono
kept in mind the brick structure installed in the
oxide, carbon dioxide gasses produced by the
bunds in different field from high elevation to

combustion of a percentage of crop residue quality can save good quality water. The recharging
burn on site. Moreover, it increased level of of groundwater can take care of underground
particulate matter and smog that cause health water. The climate change has taken places and
hazard, loss of bio-diversity of agricultural land proved true. The ways and means discussed here
and deterioration of soil fertility. will help to check the menace to some extent in the
• Adoption of conservation agriculture: The coming future. Therefore, it is the duty of every
technology evolved for using second generation person on earth to think twice about the natural
machinery such as happy or smart seeder, which resource if we want to protect the planet from
can sow crop in the standing stubble and crop natural calamities. The policy makers have already
residue without cultivating the soil complete made some efforts to prevent further depletion of
provides the solution of crop residue burning. this resource, like delayed paddy transplanting;
This practice helps to benefit the ecosystem in implementation of various artificial groundwater
following ways: recharge schemes; promoting crop diversification
of low water consuming crops and providing
• No cultivation saves fossil fuel thus avoiding training and subsidies for promoting drip, sprinkler,
pollution. and poly house technology. All these activities need
• It improve the soil fertility when decomposes to be adopted in the right spirit and in a holistic
with the passage of time. manner for tangible results. Also, there is a need
• It conserves water in the soil. to strengthen more people participatory projects
to create public awareness regarding the natural
• The water is saved while applying first
resource degradation and its management
irrigation on account of hard soil surface.
• It reduces the heat terminal effect by keeping REFERENCES
the soil moist when abruptly temperature Arora S, Bhatt R, and Somani L L (2020).Handbook of Soil
increases. Health and Water Management. Vol. 313. Agrotech
Publishing Academy, Udaipur, 1–550.
• Time is saved and ensured timely sewing of
Baweja S, Aggarwal R and Brar M (2017). Groundwater
crops thus increasing productivity. Depletion in Punjab, India. Encyclopedia of Soil
• It reduces the cost of cultivation and checks Science, Third Edition: Three Volume Set DOI:
the pollution problem. 10.1081/E-ESS3-120052901
Central Ground Water Board (2013) Master Plan for Artificial
Recharge to Ground Water in India, Ministry of Water
CONCLUSION
Resources; Government of India: New Delhi.
On the basis of these strategies, it is imperative
to conserve the natural resources by strictly Department of Agriculture. Available at http://agripb.gov. in/
pdf/ Crop_Diversification_ Action_Plan.pdf, 2013-14.
following these conservative measures. The
Hindustan Times (2014), “Punjab Wants Farmers to Grow
groundwater demand can be reduced by adopting Basmati”, October 2, http:// www. Hindustantimes .com
efficient irrigation practices/technologies i.e., micro /chandigarh/punjab-wants-farmers-to-grow-basmati/
irrigation, bed planting, laser levelling, zero tillage, article1- 1270997.aspx
crop diversification, and others. The soil resources Khedwal RS, Chaudhary A,Sindhu VK, Yadav D B , Kumar
must be avoided from the various degradation N, Chhokar RS,Poonia TM, Kumar Y and Dahiya S
processes. The efficient management of water (2022). Challenges and technological interventions
resources under rain fed conditions will enhance in rice–wheat system for resilient food–water–
energyenvironment nexus in Northwestern IndoGangetic
water productivity. The adoption of conjunctive Plains: A review. Cereal Res Communications https://doi.
use of water where underground of water is of poor org/10.1007/s42976-023-00355-9

Planning Commission (2013) Government of India. Twelfth
Five Year Plan (2012–2017): Faster, More Inclusive and
Sustainable Growth; Planning Commission, Government
of India; Sage Publications India Pvt. Ltd.: New Delhi.
Sarkar A and Das A (2014). “Groundwater Irrigation –
Electricity - Crop Diversification Nexus in Punjab:
Trends, Turning Points and Policy Initiatives”, Economic
and Political Weekly, Vol.49, No.52, December 27, pp.
64-73.
Singh K( 2009). Act to save groundwater in Punjab: Its impact
on water table, electricity subsidy and environment. Agri
Econ Res Rev22: 365–386.


Ajay Kumar
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Nag Kalan-Jahangir, Majitha Road, Amritsar-143601(Punjab)
ABSTRACT
Protected cultivation practice is a cropping technique wherein the microclimate surrounding the plant body
is controlled partially or fully as per the requirement of vegetables. The study regarding status of protected
cultivation technology was conducted by selecting various farmers who were adopting this technique in
district Amritsar and Tarn Taran and the data were collected by personal field visit and interview schedule
with farmers. In Amritsar district of Punjab, total area under protected cultivation was 158.70 ha with a
production of 806.88 Mt of vegetables and 2 lakh seedlings of vegetables while in Tarn Taran district of
Punjab the area was 23.4 ha with production of 476 Mt of vegetables. The low cost technology of vegetable
cultivation was helpful for cultivation of vegetables like Brinjal, Tomato, Pumpkin, Cucumber, Capsicum,
Summer Squash, Chilli, Squash Melon, Summer Squash + Cucumber and Capsicum + Cucumber in both
of districts. By growing these crops in poly houses, shade nets and under low tunnels farmers were getting
early yield of 9 to 46.6 q/ha, total yield of 115 to 650 q/ha and net income of Rs38,000/- to Rs.1,12,000/-ha
by advancing the crop to about 30-40 days. Crops like Capsicum + Cucumber, Summer Squash + Cucumber
and Capsicum were more responsive under protected cultivation of vegetables.
Key Words: Protected cultivation, Low tunnel technology, Yield, Off-season cultivation
INTRODUCTION Cultivation of off-season vegetables by

The cultivation of vegetables has special the adoption of protected cultivation is the
significance in horticulture because of their short best alternative for vegetable growers to fetch
duration, low volume and high value. The total higher prices in the market through earlier crop
area under vegetable production in Punjab during production by 30-35 days as compared to the main
2021 was 305.5 lakh ha and production of 6109.56 season crop (Paroda, 2013). Off season vegetable
lakh tones with total productivity of 19.91 t/ha cultivation is needed to increase the total vegetable
(Anonymous, 2021). Protected cultivation practice production, ensure year-round supply of fresh
is a cropping technique wherein the microclimate vegetables, manifold increase in production from
surrounding the plant body is controlled partially same unit area and ensuring better quality produce
or fully as per the requirement of vegetables (Nair by exploiting existing agro-climatic advantages
and Barche, 2014). This technology is modern and and using protected structures (Singh, 2005 and
capital intensive, but has capacity to increase the Sanwal, 2013). Moreover, cultivation of vegetables
productivity of vegetable by many folds and also is possible in hostile climates through protected
improve the quality of the vegetables. It has very structures. Jensen and Malter (1995) reported that
good potential for growing high values vegetables protected cultivation is a technique used to modify
crops like tomato, cucumber, pepper, summer a plant’s natural environment in order to optimize
squash, brinjal, beans, spinach, pea and coriander, plant growth. Many cucurbits (Squash, Cucumbers
healthy and virus free seedlings. and Melons) respond well under row covers
*Corresponding Author’s Email:[email protected]

with increased yields of as much as 25 per cent Vegetable crops like Brinjal, Tomato, Pumpkin,
(Helbacka, 2002). Row covers are used to enclose Cucumber, Summer Squash, Chilli, Squash Melon
one or more rows of plants in order to enhance and combination of vegetables like Summer squash+
crop growth and production by increasing both air Cucumber, Capsicum+ Cucumber and vegetable
and soil temperatures and reducing wind damage nursery were grown in protected cultivation under
(Hochmuth et al, 2000). The farmers generally poly houses, low tunnels and by shade nets. The
enquire about the enhancement of the economic sowing was done during first fortnight of November
returns by the adoption of low tunnel technology. to December before the onset of winter and chilling
Dickerson (2009) also reported that row covers temperature. The whole crop was protected by using
supported with wire hoops will protect the crop non perforated plastic sheet of 50-micron thickness.
from wind. Therefore, the objective of the study When the temperature starts warming, remove the
was to find the response of different vegetables sheet in second fortnight of February.
under protected cultivation in Amritsar and Tarn Various farmers practicing protected cultivation
Taran district to get off season vegetables. technology in district Amritsar and Tarn Taran were
identified by field visit and survey. The cultural
MATERIALS AND METHODS practices and crops grown by them were identified.
A study was undertaken regarding protected For the collection of data, about twenty random
cultivation technology to get early vegetable crops farmers who were practicing this technology were
for early and higher yield during off season at selected from Amritsar and Tarn Taran district.
district Amritsar and Tarn Taran of Punjab during The data were collected by personal field visit and
2020-2021. Amritsar, city is Northern Punjab state interview schedule with farmers. The package of
of Northwestern India. The latitude of Amritsar is practices regarding various crops cultivated in
31.63 and the longitude is 74.87. Tarn Taran district protected structure were identified along with their
is one of the districts in the Majha region of Punjab, sowing time, harvesting time, early yield in (q/ha),
India. Tarn Taran Latitude 31.46 Longitude 74.92. total yield in (q/ ha) and net income (Rs/ha).
A total of fifteen blocks where vegetable growers
practicing protected cultivation were selected from RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
district Amritsar and Tarn Taran. These blocks were The data regarding various blocks of district
Attari, Ajnala, Rayya, Tarsika, Majitha, Verka, Amritsar and Tarn Taran of Punjab where protected
Jandiala Guru, Chogavan and Harsha Chhinna from cultivation has been practiced is presented in Table
Amritsar. In Tarn Taran, the various blocks include 1 and 2. In these blocks various vegetables crops
Patti, Bhikhiwind, Gandiwind, Khadoor Sahib and like tomato, cucumber, summer squash, brinjal,
Chohla Sahib. The various protected cultivation pumpkin, chilli, capsicum, and squash melon were
structures include Polynet houses, low tunnels grown under protected conditions by poly houses,
and walk in tunnels. Polynet-house is a framed low tunnels and shade nets.
structure consisting of GI pipes covered with ultra In district Amritsar (Table1), the total area
violet (UV) stabilized plastic film of 200-micron under protected cultivation was 158.70 ha having
thickness at the top and UV stabilized net of 40- production of 806.88 Mt and 2 lakh vegetable
mesh size on the sides. A low tunnel is made of seedlings. The major blocks where protected
flexible transparent materials and is used to enclose cultivation was done were Attari, Ajnala, Rayya,
one or more rows of plants in order to promote the Tarsika, Majitha, Verka, Jandiala Guru, Chogavan
crop growth by warming the air around the plants and Harsha Chhinna. The maximum area of 123.02
during winter season. ha was found in block Jandiala while lowest area of

Table 1. Area, yield of vegetables under low tunnel and protected cultivation in Amritsar district.
Sr. No Block Mode of cultivation of Area Average Yield Production
Vegetables (ha) (Kg/ha) (MT)
1. Attari Poly House 0.177 70000 11.9
2. Ajnala Poly House 0.40 90000 36.0
3. Rayya Low Tunnel 8.0 37000 296.0
4. Tarsika Low Tunnel 15.0 38000 570.0
5. Majitha Low Tunnel/Shade net houses 9/1.2 37500/120000 337.5/
144
6. Verka Poly house 1.2 80000 96.0
7. Jandiala Guru Poly house/Low Tunnel 0.2/ 0/52500 2 lakh seedlings/
123.0 6457.5
8. Chogavan Poly house 0.23 65000 14.9
9. Harsha Chhinna Poly house 0.30 35000 10.5
Total 158.70 806.88/
2 lakh seedlings
0.12 ha in block Attari, having total area of 158.70 crops were protected against winter during
ha. In Jandiala block the production under poly December to February under various protected
houses and low tunnels was 2 lakh seedlings from structures like low tunnel and poly houses. The
vegetable nursery and 6457.5 mt of vegetables. Capsicum seedlings were transplanted during first
In block Tarsika the total area under protected fortnight of November and crop was harvested from
cultivation of 15 ha having production of 570 Mt end of March to May. The crop of Summer Squash
of vegetables. + Cucumber was sown during Mid December while
In district Tarn Taran (Table 2) the total area harvested from first week of March to end May. The
under protected cultivation was 23.4 ha having crop of Capsicum + Cucumber was sown during
production of 476 Mt. The major block for protected first fortnight of November while harvested from
cultivation includes Patti, Bhikhiwind, Gandiwind, February-May.
Khadoor Sahib and Chohla Sahib. The highest The harvesting span (days) and early yield (q/
area was found in block Chohla Sahib having area ha) of different vegetables grown under protected
of 13.2 ha having production of 141 mt followed cultivation is presented in Table 4.
by other blocks. In Khadoor Sahib block the total The minimum harvesting span was given
area under protected cultivation was 5.2 ha having by vegetable like Summer Squash of 35 days
production of 77 Mt. while maximum harvesting span was reported
The sowing and harvesting time of different by Capsicum +Cucumber of 93 days crops under
vegetables grown under protected cultivation is protected structure, having average of 57.3 days
presented in Table 3. in Amritsar district. In Tarn Taran district, the
The crops like Brinjal, Tomato, Pumpkin, minimum harvesting span was given by Brinjal
Summer Squash and Cucumber were sown during of 36 days while maximum harvesting span was
December while the harvesting was done from reported by Capsicum +Cucumber crops of 95
February onward to catch early yield. Different days, having average of 58.7 days.

Table 2. Area, yield of vegetables under low tunnel and protected cultivation in Tarn Taran district
Sr. No Block Mode of cultivation of Area Average Yield Production
Vegetables (ha) (Kg/ha) (MT)
1. Patti Shade Net/ Low tunnel 3.2 173600 66
2. Bhikhiwind Low tunnel 0.4 14650 5
3. Gandiwind Poly house 0.4 115500 46
4. Khadoor Sahib Low tunnel 5.2 59300 77
5. Chohla Sahib Low tunnel 13.2 150000 141
6. Tarn Taran Shade Net/Poly house 1.2 230540 81
Total 23.4 476
Table 3. Sowing various vegetable crops along with their sowing and harvesting time grown under
protected cultivation at district Amritsar and Tarn Taran.
Sr. No Vegetable Sowing Time Harvesting Time
1. Brinjal First fortnight of December Mid February to April
2. Tomato First fortnight of December Mid February to April
3. Pumpkin First fortnight of December Mid February to April
4. Cucumber First fortnight of December End February to 20th April
5. Capsicum Seedlings were transplanted during first End March to May
fortnight of November
6. Summer Squash Mid December March to first week of April
7. Chilli April to 10th June
Seedlings were transplanted during first fortnight of November
8. Squash Melon First fortnight of December First week of April to end
May
9. Summer Squash + Mid December First week of March to end
Cucumber May
10. Capsicum + Cucumber First fortnight of November February-May
The minimum early yield was given by vegetable The total yield (q/ha) and net income (Rs/
like Cucumber 11.2q per ha while maximum early ha) of different vegetables grown under protected
yield was reported by Capsicum +Cucumber 46 q cultivation is presented in Table 5.
per ha under protected structure, having average The minimum total yield was given by
of 28.76q per ha in Amritsar district. In Tarn Taran vegetable like squash melon 125q per ha while
district, the minimum early yield was given by maximum total yield was reported by Capsicum
vegetable like Pumpkin 9 q/ha while maximum 650 q/ha and Capsicum + Cucumber 625q/ha under
early yield was reported by Cucumber 42 q/ha under protected structure, having average of 457.5q/
protected structure, having average of 24.7q/ha. ha in Amritsar district. In Tarn Taran district, the
The early yield of different vegetables significantly minimum total yield was given by vegetable like
differs from each other in both the districts. This squash melon 115q/ha while maximum total yield
may be due to different effect of climate, soil and was reported by Capsicum 625 q/ha and Capsicum
cultural operations under both the districts. + Cucumber 540q under protected structure, having

Table 4. Sowing various vegetable crops along with their harvesting span in days and early yield (q/
ha) at district Amritsar and Tarn Taran.
Sr. No Vegetable Harvesting Span Harvesting Span Early yield (q/ Early yield (q/
(days) (days) ha) ha)
Amritsar Tarn Taran Amritsar Tarn Taran
1. Brinjal 38 36 34.8 30.1
2. Tomato 40 42 29.4 20.5
3. Pumpkin 39 41 11.2 9.0
4. Cucumber 52 55 44.0 42.0
5. Capsicum 65 62 38.2 35.1
6. Summer Squash 35 39 15.0 12.3
7. Chilli 67 68 13.8 12.9
8. Squash Melon 55 58 11.2 10.2
9. Summer Squash + 89 91 43.4 35.9
Cucumber
10. Capsicum + Cucumber 93 95 46.6 39.0
Mean 57.3 58.7 28.76 24.7
Range 35-93 36-95 11.2-46.6 9-42
average of 418.5q/ha. The total yield of different by Capsicum+ Cucumber of Rs 95,000/-ha and
vegetables significantly differs from each other Capsicum of Rs 84,000/- under protected structure,
in both the districts. This may be due to different having average net income of Rs 62,100/-ha. The net
effect of climate and soil conditions under both the income of different vegetables significantly differs
districts. Bhullar (2012) suggested that protected from each other in both the districts. This may be
cultivation of vegetables increased yield in covered due to different buying conditions of customers
vegetables as compared to plots without covering. under both the districts.
The covering also affected the size of vegetables
and better quality of vegetables. Gupta (2012) CONCLUSION
suggested that the off-season cultivation of chilly as It was concluded that protected cultivation by
main crop along with cucumber as intercrop under low tunnels, shade nets and poly houses was very
low tunnels is the most beneficial cropping pattern effective for getting early vegetable in different
to enhance the economic returns of the farmers. blocks of Amritsar and Tarn Taran and gave good
The minimum net income was given by profit to farmers in producing off season vegetables.
vegetable like Summer Squash Rs 42,000/-ha while The crops like Capsicum + Cucumber, Capsicum
maximum net income was reported by Capsicum+ and Cucumber produced maximum yield and
Cucumber of Rs 1,12,000/-ha and Capsicum of Rs net income of Rs38,000/- to 1,12,000/-ha. This
90,000/- under protected structure, having average technology was helpful to protect the plants from
net income of Rs 67,280/- ha in Amritsar district. In cold during December to February months and
Tarn Taran district, the minimum net income was helpful to advance the crop by 30 to 40 days than
given by vegetable like summer squash Rs 38,000/- normal season.
ha while maximum net income was reported

Table 5. Sowing the total yield (q/ha) and net income (Rs/ha) of various vegetable crops grown under
protected cultivation at district Amritsar and Tarn Taran
Sr. No Vegetable Total yield Total yield Net Income Net Income
(q/ha) (q/ha) (Rs/ha) (Rs/ha)
Amritsar Tarn Taran Amritsar Tarn Taran
1. Brinjal 550 500 56000 52000
2. Tomato 575 525 64000 61000
3. Pumpkin 375 337 72000 68000
4. Cucumber 500 462 70000 65000
5. Capsicum 650 625 90000 84000
6. Summer Squash 225 205 42000 38000
7. Chilli 375 350 52000 50000
8. Squash Melon 125 115 52800 50000
9. Summer Squash + Cucumber 575 525 62000 58000
10. Capsicum + Cucumber 625 540 112000 95000
Mean 457.5 418.5 67280.0 62100.0
Range 125-650 115-625 42000-112000 38000-95000
REFERENCES Jensen M H and Malter A J (1995). Protected Agriculture: A

Anonymous (2021). Package of Practices for Vegetable Global Review, World Bank 9-51
Crops, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab. Nair R and Barche S (2014). Protected cultivation of
2. vegetables: Present status and future in India. Indian J
Bhullar K S (2012). Effect of polypropylene covers on frost Appl Res 6(4): 245-247.
protection and yield of potato crop. J Krishi Vigyan Paroda R S (2013). Strategies for protected cultivation. In:
1(1):18-20 National seminar on advances in protected cultivation,
Dickerson G W (2009). Production Techniques. Guide H 10- March 21, 2013 by Indian Society for Protected
251. Cultivation, CPCT, IARI, New Delhi, India, 1-12.
Fisher RA (1934). Statistical Methods for Research Workers, Sanwal S K, Patel K and Yadav D S (2013). Vegetable
5th edn. Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh production under protected conditions in NEH region,
problems and prospects ENVIS Himalayan Ecology.
Gupta M (2012). Effect of intercropping of vegetables and
Bulletin 12(2): 65-71.
width of polythene sheet on yield and economic returns
under low tunnel technology. J Krishi Vigyan 1(1):14-17 Singh B (2005). Protected cultivation of vegetable crops.
Kalyani Publishers. New Delhi. 350.
Helbacka J (2002). Row covers for vegetable gardens,
Washington State University, King County Cooperative Received on 19/02/2023 Accepted on 15/05/2023
Extension Service, Fact Sheet No 19:21-23
Hochmuth, G J, Kostewicz S and Stall W (2000). Row covers
for commercial vegetable culture in Florida, Florida
Cooperative. Extension Service, University of Florida,
Circular 21: 728.

Suitability of a Self-Propelled Pre Germinated Paddy Drum

Seeder For Women Farmers
Bini Sam
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kollam ( Kerala)
ABSTRACT
Rice is the most important food crop in the world and is the staple food for more than half of the world
population. Transplanting of rice seedlings, being a high labour-intensive and expensive operation needs to
be substituted by direct seeding which could reduce labour needs and drudgeries with comparable yields.
At present manually operated pre germinated paddy seeder is being used in certain rice tracts of Kollam
district. Rice Research Station, Moncombu, Kerala Agricultural University developed a self-propelled
paddy drum seeder by attaching the pre germinated drum seeder to a 8 row Yanji-Sakthi paddy transplanter.
Therefore, a study was undertaken to evaluate the existing self-propelled pre germinated paddy drum seeder
in rice growing tracts of Kollam district. Nine female subjects were selected, those having anthropometric
dimensions conforming to statistical requirements based on the anthropometric survey. There was
significant difference in heart rate in the operation of selected rice farming equipment. Minimum heart rate
was observed in self-propelled pre germinated paddy seeder with a value of 120 beats/ min. Studies showed
that operation of self propelled paddy drum seeder resulted in higher rice yield (34.43 q/ha) followed
by manually operated paddy drum seeder (33.96 q/ha) and sowing in lines manually (32.49q/ha). The
maximum discomfort was experienced by the subjects in the manual line sowing of paddy with a value of 6.1
and scaled as More than moderate discomfort. Lowest overall discomfort rating was observed in self-propelled
pre germinated paddy drum seeder operation with a value of 5.0. The B:C ratio was higher for self-propelled
paddy drum seeder (1.43), followed by manually operated paddy drum seeder (1.32) and sowing in lines
( (1.23).The rest time, for achieving functional effectiveness during operation of self-propelled paddy drum
seeder was found to be 10 minutes followed by 1 hour of work.
Key Words: Discomfort, Drum seeder, Heart rate, Machinery, Paddy, Woman, Yield.
INTRODUCTION bending posture, putting support on knees and

Rice is generally sown either by direct seeding repetitive movement of hands for planting of
or by transplanting depending upon the availability seedlings in different environmental conditions
of water. Human energy is predominantly used in cause more discomfort and develop risk factors.
most of the rice farming operations starting from The developed risk factors leads to musculockeletel
land preparation to threshing. Rice transplanting is disorders (Ojha and Kwatra, 2014). So, direct
a highly labour-intensive and expensive operation seeding is much helpful due to less labour, drudgery
which can replaced by direct seeding that can and time requirement by skipping the operation
reduce labour needs by more than 20per cent in of nursery raising and transplanting to the field
terms of working hours required. In rice cultivation manually.
operations, during transplanting the women workers Broadcasting of pre-germinated paddy seeds
adopt strongly bent posture in the muddy field for a will results in non-uniformity in plant stand and
long time in sweltering weather. The continuously difficulty in adopting the improved intercultural tools

for weeding. Therefore, an introduction of efficient operated pre germinated paddy seeder and self-
and inexpensive implement for line sowing of pre- propelled pre germinated paddy seeder were selected
germinated paddy is obvious. Baruah et al (2001) for the study for comparing the performance and
mentioned that the manually drawn 8-row drum also to assess the suitability of self-propelled pre
seeder was one of the revolutionary equipment that germinated paddy seeder for women farmers of
changed the face of sowing paddy seeds in wetland Kollam district.
fields. Direct paddy drum seeder has eliminated
the need of transplantation and hours of manual Manually operated pre germinated paddy
work which literally broke the back of the farmers seeder
involved in sowing the paddy seeds to the field. At Pre germinated paddy seeder is a manually
one stretch with single operator effort, it covers 8 pulling implement developed by IRRI, Philippines,
rows of 20 cm row to row spacing at a time. The seed for line sowing of paddy. Tamil Nadu Agricultural
drums are made up of plastic material, which makes University, Coimbatore has further simplified and
it easy to carry from one place to another. However, improved by incorporating certain modifications
the operators have to walk during the entire period in the design. This manually pulled implement
of operation in the muddy field. To reduce the covers 8 rows of 20 cm row to row spacing at a
drudgery, the existing self-propelled transplanter time. The seed drum is hyperboloid shaped with 20
was modified by Rice Research Station, Mancompu cm diameter. There are eight numbers of seeding
in Kerala Agricultural University to accommodate metering holes of 9 mm diameter. Baffles in the
the drum seeder and it was evaluated by the AICRP drum maintain the uniformity in seed rate. Nine
on farm Implements and Machinery at KCAET, numbers of seed metering holes of 10 mm diameter
Tavanur (Anonymous, 2017). The transplanting are provided along the circumference of the drum
assembly was removed and a new transmission at the both ends for a row to row spacing of 200
system was incorporated to attach the drum seeder mm. Baffles are provided inside the seed drum
so that the operator can comfortably sit and operate between seed holes resulting in uniformity of seed
the drum seeder. rate throughout the operation. These drums can
be assembled together to sow 8 rows. A door is
Men and women differ in their ergonomical provided in the drum to fill the seed.
characteristics and therefore, it is necessary to give
due consideration to their characteristics while Self-Propelled pre germinated paddy drum
developing farm equipment suitable to them. Also, seeder
skill up gradation of women workers is necessary A self-propelled pre germinated paddy seeder
to enable them to operate the machines ( Mehta is a riding type machine operated by an air cooled
et al, 2018). The safety and efficiency aspects of single cylinder 2.94 kW diesel engine of the Yanji
self-propelled pre germinated paddy drum seeder transplanter. Chinese design Yanji-Sakthi 8 row rice
have not been studied for women and therefore, a transplanter has eight rows with 23.8 cm row to row
study was undertaken to evaluate the existing self- spacing and four standard positions (10-12cm, 12-
propelled pre germinated paddy drum seeder for 14cm, 17-20cm and 20-23cm) for hill to hill spacing.
women farmers in Kollam district for more safety The machine was provided with a three speed gear
and output. box for transplanting, planting and reverse speed. It
had a crank type planting mechanism. The machine
MATERIALS AND METHODS is provided with a pneumatic wheel in front and two
Selection of Rice farming implements smaller rigid rubber treaded steel wheels on the rear
Two rice farming implements such as manually for transporting the machine. The existing improved

pre germinated paddy drum seeder developed at were given information about the experimental
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore requirements so as to enlist their full cooperation.
was attached at the rear end of the machine. The The seeder was filled with Uma variety of paddy
transplanting arm and gear box unit of Yanchi to be sown to its 2/3rd capacity. The heart rate was
transplanter was replaced by the drum seeder measured and recorded using heart rate monitor for
assembly. The drum seeder assembly contains the entire work period. Each trial started with taking
drum seeder and a gear box with a chain drive unit. five minutes data for physiological responses of the
The power from the engine is transmitted to drum subjects while resting on a stool under shade. Each
seeder gear box by a propeller shaft. The propeller trial was carried out for 15 minutes of duration and
shaft rotates at 200 rpm which was reduced to 70 same procedure was repeated to replicate the trials for
rpm for drum seeder by using suitable sprocket and all the selected subjects.
chain transmission. The physiological response of the subjects while
Measurement of Heart rate sowing the seeds in lines was also assessed to compare
Heart rate measurements have a major the work load in farmers practice. The experiment
advantage over oxygen consumption as an indicator was conducted in the adjacent plot of same field. The
of metabolic process. As the heart rate integrates the heart rates of the nine subjects were measured for
total stress on the body and responds more quickly comparison.
to changes in work demand and indicates more Overall discomfort rating (ODR)
readily the quick changes in body function due to For the assessment of overall discomfort rating
changes in work environment, the physiological a 10 - point psychophysical rating scale (0 - no
response was assessed through the measurement of discomfort, 10 - extreme discomfort) was used
heart rate while performing field operations. which is an adoption of Corlett and Bishop (1976)
Evaluation of Implements technique. A scale of 70 cm length was fabricated
The evaluation of the machines was carried having 0 to 10 digits marked on it equidistantly
out in the paddy field Nediyapadam Ela, Sooranad (Fig.1). A moveable pointer was provided to indicate
north, Kollam district, Kerala. The field was well- the rating. At the ends of each trial subjects were
ploughed and puddled using power tiller rotovator asked to indicate their overall discomfort rating on
and properly leveled. Water was drained out at least the scale. The overall discomfort ratings given by
24 hours before sowing to form hard slurry pan of each of the nine female subjects were added and
the puddled soil. At the time of sowing only paper averaged to get the mean rating.
thin of water was maintained in the puddled field. Body part discomfort score (BPDS)
The manually operated pre germinated paddy To measure localized discomfort, Corlett and
seeder and self-propelled pre germinated paddy Bishop (1976) technique was used. In this technique
seeder were put in proper test condition before the subject’s body is divided into 27 regions as
conducting the tests, i.e. in full working order shown in Fig.2. A body mapping similar to that
with the drum filled to 2/3rd of its capacity. Nine of Fig.2 was made to have a real and meaningful
women farmers were selected for the study. They rating of the perceived exertion of the subject. The
were asked to report at the work site at 7.30 AM subject was asked to mention all body parts with
and have a rest for 30 minutes before starting the discomfort, starting with the worst and the second
trial. To minimize the effects of variation, the worst and so on until all parts have been mentioned.
treatments were given in a randomized order. All the The subject was asked to fix the pin on the body
subjects used similar type of clothing. The subjects part in the order of one pin for maximum pain,

Fig.1: Visual analogue discomfort scale for assessment of overall body discomfort
two pins for next maximum pain and so on. The Work rest Cycle
body part discomfort score of each subject was During every strenuous work in field, adequate
the rating multiplied by the number of body parts rest is required to have an optimum work output.
corresponding to each category. The total body part Better performance results can be expected from
score for a subject was the sum of all individual the operator only when proper attention is given for
scores of the body parts assigned by the subject. the work rest schedule for different operations.
The body discomfort score of all the subjects was The actual rest time taken for each subject in all
added and averaged to get a mean score. the selected equipment was found from the heart
rate response of respective operations. The rest time
was measured from the cease of the operation till
the heart rate of the subject reaches resting level.
The rest time taken was averaged to arrive at the
mean value for each selected implement. The rest
pause for each of the operation conducted in the
present study was calculated theoretically using the
Pheasant (1991) equation.

Heart rate of operation
The mean heart rates of selected operations
are furnished in Table 1. There was significant
difference in heart rate in the operation of selected
equipment. Minimum heart rate was observed in
self-propelled pre germinated paddy seeder with
a value of 120 beats/min. The heart rate recorded
while operating manually operated pre germinated
Fig.2: Regions for evaluating body part discomfort paddy drum seeder was 126 beats/min. Maximum
score

Table 1. Mean heart rate of selected operations.

Sr. No. Selected operation Average heart rate
( beats/min)
1 Sowing in lines 128
2 Manually operated pre germinated paddy drum seeder 126
3 Self-propelled pre germinated paddy drum seeder 120
heart rate was recorded in traditional method of germinated paddy drum seeder (Rs 99900/ha), lower
sowing. gross return was obtained with manual sowing (Rs
In traditional method of sowing in lines, 96225/ha). Similarly, the net return was also higher
female subjects took a tedious bending posture. In in self-propelled pre germinated paddy drum seeder
the distorted posture, the muscles have to contact (Rs 30272/ha), followed by manually operated pre
unnecessarily for holding the body erect. Such germinated paddy drum seeder (Rs 24274/ha) and
postures may also affect the pulmonary ventilation for manual sowing (Rs 11899/ha). The Benefit Cost
rate and increase the respiration frequencies to expel ratio was higher for self-propelled pre germinated
out the extra carbon dioxide produced in the tissues paddy drum seeder (1.43), manually operated pre
by increased metabolic rate. The major portion germinated paddy drum seeder (1.32) and sowing
of energy expended is consumed in bending and in lines ( (1.23).
walking in the puddle field. In the case of manually Postural discomfort
operated pre germinated paddy drum seeder, the The maximum discomfort is experienced by the
subjects have to walk in the muddy field during subjects in the manual line sowing of paddy with a
the entire period of operation. The workers had to value of 6.1 and it is scaled as More than moderate
spend more energy for taking out their legs out of discomfort. Lowest ODR value (5.0) was observed
the puddle field at each and every step. However in in self-propelled pre germinated paddy drum
self-propelled pre germinated paddy drum seeder, seeder operation. Body part discomfort score was
an operator’s seat is provided to comfortably sit and minimum with a value of 26.6 for the operation of
ride the drum seeder. self-propelled pre germinated paddy drum seeder,
Field Capacity and Yield while it was maximum with a value of 36.1 for the
Among all technology options, operation of manual sowing. Body part discomfort score while
self propelled pre germinated paddy drum seeder using manually operated pre germinated paddy
gave the highest rice yield (34.43 q/ha) followed drum seeder was 35.8. This is further confirmative
by manually operated pre germinated paddy drum of earlier result arrived that Self Propelled paddy
seeder (33.96 q/ha) and for manual sowing in lines drum seeder was more comfortable to operate than
by 32.49q/ha. Area covered per day during operation manually operated paddy drum seeder.
of self-propelled pre germinated paddy drum seeder Work rest cycle
was 1.51 ha/day while using manually operated pre The rest time of the subjects for the selected
germinated paddy drum seeder it was only 0.81 ha/ operations were calculated and compared with the
day and for manual sowing 0.4 ha/day. actual rest time taken by the subjects in the field to
Economics and Benefit Cost ratio reach the heart rate to resting level. It was observed
The highest gross return received from self- that the average actual rest time taken by the subjects
propelled pre germinated paddy drum seeder (Rs for the selected pre germinated paddy drum seeders
101075/ha) followed by manually operated pre and traditional method were in close agreement

with the computed value of rest time. The work ha/day. The body part discomfort score value was
rest cycle for achieving functional effectiveness maximum in the operation of manual sowing in lines,
of the selected operations and for maintaining or where as it was minimum in the operation of self-
enhancing the human comfort were arrived. propelled pre germinated paddy drum seeder.
The rest time, for achieving functional
effectiveness during operation of self- propelled pre REFERENCES
Anonymous ( 2017). AICRP on Farm Implement and
germinated paddy drum seeder was found to be Machinery. Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur,
10 minutes followed by 1 hour of work. The rest India:27.
pause for manually operated pre germinated paddy Baruah D C, Goswamy N G and Saikia R(2001). Manual
drum seeder was 14 minutes followed by 1 hour of Transplanting vs. Mechanical Transplanting of Paddy. A
work. The rest pause for traditional method was 16 Techno-economic Analysis in Assam. J Agric Engineer
minutes followed by 1 hour of work. 38(3):66-72.
Corlett E N and Bishop R P(1976). A technique for assessing
CONCLUSION postural discomfort. Ergonomics 19 (2):175-182.
A self-propelled pre germinated paddy drum Mehta C R, Gite L P and Khadatkar A (2018). Women
seeder was assessed for its performance and empowerment through agricultural mechanization in
India. Curr Sci 114(9):1934-1940.
suitability to women farmers. Minimum heart rate
was observed in self-propelled pre germinated Ojha P and Kwatra S (2014). Development of MSD among
farm women involved in traditional and mechanized
paddy seeder with a value of 120 beats/min followed
method of rice cultivation of northern India. Indian J
by manually operated drum seeder ( 126 beats/min Tradit Knowl15 (1):162 – 166.
) and manual sowing in lines (128 beats min-1 ). Phesant S (1991). Ergonomics, Work and Health. The
The area covered per day during operation of self- Macmillan Press Ltd., London.
propelled pre germinated paddy drum seeder is 1.51
ha/day while using manually operated paddy drum
seeder it is 0.81 ha/day and for manual sowing 0.4


Swathy I M and *Malini Nilamudeen
Department of Agricultural Entomology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani,
Thiruvananthapuram – 695522, Kerala, India.
ABSTRACT
Jasmine, is a rising crop in Kerala with lot of commercial value with limited knowledge regarding their
natural enemies. This study aims to document important spider predators of jasmine and evaluate effect
of various biopesticides on them to develop an eco-friendly management. Nine spiders of four families
were documented from Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam and Alappuzha districts of Kerala. Oxyopes shweta
Tikader, Camaricus sp., Plexippus paykulli (Audonin), Hyllus semicupreus (Simon), Telamonia dimidiate
(Simon), Thomisus lobosus Tikader, Argiope catenulate (Doleschall), Tetragnatha maxillosa Thorell and
Phintella vittata (C. L Koch) were documented out of which Camaricus sp., A. catenulate and T. maxillosa
were reported for first time from jasmine. In field experiment conducted at College of Agriculture, Vellayani
microbials, oil based Beauveria bassiana, Metarzhiium anisopliae and talc based Lecanicillium lecanii and
botanical formulations used were found safe to spiders.
Key Words: Biopesticide, Beauveria bassiana, Jasmine, Metarzhiium anisopliae, Lecanicillium lecanii,
Spiders.
INTRODUCTION Spiders are the most abundant terrestrial

The queen of fragrance, Jasmine (Jasminum invertebrate predator and most ubiquitous
spp.) encounters variety of pests that deteriorates predaceous group in the animal kingdom which
quality and quantity while hampering their aesthetic plays major role as a natural enemy in agricultural
value. Now a days, increase in rate of pest and ecosystem (Silwal and Molur, 2007). These non-
disease incidence has become a major challenge in insect arthropods belong to the class Arachnida and
commercial jasmine cultivation. Reddy et al (2018) order Araenae. Presently more than 49,000 known
documented more than 20 insect and mite pests in species of spiders belonging to 120 families are
jasmine. David (1958) reported jasmine budworm found around the world (World spider Catalogue,
(Hendecasis duplifascialis Hampson), jasmine 2021). The attributes like predatory potential, wide
gallery worm (Elasmopalpus jasminophagus host range and good environmental tolerance makes
(Hampson)) and blossom midge (Contarinama them better candidate as predators for biological
culipennis Felt) as severe pests of jasmine which control of pests among cultivated crops (Rajeswaran
cause highest reduction in market value of flowers. et al, 2005). The population and species abundance
Jasmine leaf webworm (Nausinoe geometralis of spiders can be similar in both cultivated and
(Guenee), Tingid bug (Corythauma ayyari Drake) natural ecosystems when kept undisturbed (Shukla
and mites adversely affects the foliage of the plant. and Sandu, 1983). The spiders present in jasmine
As jasmine is highly acknowledged for their scent ecosystem consume large number of larvae of
and aesthetics, farmers often tend to avoid use of jasmine pests and play significant role in controlling
chemical controls. This increases the demand for them. Hence, the knowledge regarding spiders and
the development of biological controls which are other natural enemies is prerequisite and to evolve
safe to natural enemies especially spiders.

Table 1. Spiders documented on Jasminum spp. from Kerala

Sl. Common name Scientific name Family Ecological Incidence
No. guild Thiruvananthapuram Kollam Alappuzha
1 White lynx O. shweta Oxyopidae Stalkers + + +
spider
2 Crab spiders Camaricus sp. Thomisidae Ambushers + + -
3 Pantropical P.paykulli Salticidae Stalkers + - +

jumping spider
4 Heavy bodied H. semicupreus Salticidae Stalkers + + +
jumper
5 Two striped T. dimidiate Salticidae Stalkers + - +
jumper
6 Flower crab T. lobosus Thomisidae Ambushers + - -
spider
7 Grass cross A. catenulate Araneidae Orb + + +
spider weavers
8 Long jawed orb T.maxillosa Tetragnathidae Orb + + -
weaver weavers
9 Banded phintella P. vittata Salticidae Stalkers + - -
integrated pest management strategy in jasmine T1: Oil based formulation of B. bassiana NBAIR
has high worth and the present study is aimed to Bb 5 @ 10 ml/L
document the spiders from jasmine ecosystem in T2: Talc formulation of L. lecanii NBAIR Vl 8 @
Kerala and to evaluate the safety of bio pesticides 20 g/ L
against spiders in jasmine ecosystem.
T3: Oil based formulation of M. anisopliae NBAIR
MATERIALS AND METHODS Ma 4 @ 10 ml/L
Documentation of spiders from jasmine was T4: A. paniculata formulation @ 50 ml/L
conducted in Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam and T5: Azadirachtin 1% @ 2 ml/L
Alappuzha districts of Kerala during the period
T6: Cashew Nut shell Liquid (CNSL) 20 EC @ 5
of 2019-2021. The districts were selected based
ml/L
on availability of jasmine farmers with help of
Agricultural Officers in Kerala. In each district, five T7: Horticultural mineral oil (HMO) @ 25 ml/L
random jasmine growing areas were selected for T8: Chlorantraniliprole 8.8% w/w+Thiamethoxam
collection of spiders. The specimens were labeled 17.5 % w/w SC @150g a.i/ ha
and preserved in alcohol (70%) for identification.
T9: Untreated
Later pot study was conducted at College of
Agriculture, Vellayani to evaluate effect of various Before spraying pre count of spiders were taken.
treatments against spiders present in Jasminum The data were subjected to statistical analysis using
sambac (L.) Ait. The design adopted was CRD with the software- GRAPES (Gopinath et al, 2021).
four replications. The treatments used were,

Table 2: Effect of different treatments on the population of spiders

Treatments Mean population of spider per plant Reduction
over control
Pre- 4 6 8 10 DAS 12 DAS (%)
count DAS DAS DAS
T1: Oil based formulation of B. 1.25 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.75 1.00 50.00
bassiana (1.31) (0.97)bc (0.97)bc (0.97)bc (1.10)b (1.23)b
NBAIR Bb 5 @ 10 mL L-1
T2: Talc based formulation of L. 1.25 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 1.00 50.00
lecanii (1.27) (1.10)b (1.10)b (1.10)bc (1.10)b (1.23)b
NBAIR Vl 8 @ 20g L-1
T3: Oil based formulation of M. 0.5 0.75 1.00 1.00 0.75 0.75 62.50
anisopliae (0.97) (1.06)bc (1.23)b (1.23)ab (1.10)b (1.10)b
NBAIR Ma 4 @ 10 mL L-1
T4: A. paniculata formulation @ 50 1.25 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 62.50
mL L-1 (1.27) (1.10)b (1.10)b (1.10) bc
(1.10)b (1.10)b
T5: Azadirachtin 1% @ 2 mL L-1 1.5 0.75 1.00 0.50 0.5 0.75 62.50
(1.40) (1.10)b (1.18)b (0.97)bc (0.97)bc (1.10)b
T6: Cashew Nut Shell Liquid (CNSL) 1.25 1.25 1.00 0.75 0.50 0.50 75.00
20 EC @ 5mL L-1 (1.27) (1.31)ab (1.23)b (1.10)bc (0.97)bc (0.97)b
T7: Horticultural Mineral Oil (HMO) 0.5 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 62.50
@ 25 mL L-1 (0.97) (0.71)c (0.71)c (0.84)cd (0.97)bc (1.10)b
T8: Chlorantraniliprole 8.8% w/w + 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 100.00
Thiamethoxam 17.5 % w/w SC @ (1.18) (0.71)c (0.71)c (0.71)d (0.71)c (0.71)c
50g a.iha-1
T9: Untreated 1.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.75 2.00 -
(1.18) (1.56)a (1.56)a (1.56)a (1.49)a (1.58)a
CD (0.05) (NS) (0.37) (0.31) (0.35) (0.36) (0.29) -
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION punjabensis Tikader, Paradosa sp., Cheiracanthium

Documentation sp. and Theridion sp. as important predatory
Nine different species of spiders were documented spiders found in jasmine ecosystem. Similarly,
from three districts - Thiruvanathapuram, Kollam and Kamala and Kennedy (2017) also referred Argiope
Alappuzha. The spiders were white lynx spider (O. anasuja (Thorell), Neoscona theisi (Walkckenaeur),
shweta), crab spiders (Camaricus sp.), pantropical Neoscona mukherjee (Tikader), Olios millet
jumping spider (P. paykulli), heavy bodied jumper (Pocock), Chikunianigra (O. Pickward-Cambridge),
(H. semicupreus), two striped jumper (T. dimidiate), Pisaura putiana (Barion and Litsinger), Peutica
flower crab spider (T. lobosus), grass cross spider (A. viridana (Stoliczka), Oxyopesjavanus (Thorell),
catenulate), long jawed orb-weaver (T. maxillosa) Oxyopes birmanicus (Thorell), O. shweta, P. vitata,
and banded phintella (P. vittata) (Fig.1) out of which Myrmaplata plataleoides (O. Pickard-Cambridge),
Camaricus sp., A. catenulate and T. maxillosa were P. paykulli, T. dimidiata, Rhenedanieli (Tikader),
reported for the first time. The spiders were found Carrhotus viduus (C. L Koch), Thyeneim perialis (
preying on the adult moths and larvae of jasmine Rossi), H. semicupreus, Thomisus projectus (Tikader)
pests. Rajeswaran et al (2005) reported Phidippus as prominent spiders observed on jasmine twigs, trunk,

leaves, flowers and buds preying on the larvae and population of spiders was recorded on oil based
adult of jasmine leaf webworm. Heiling et al (2005) formulations of B. bassiana NBAIR Bb 5 @ 10
reported the ability of crab spiders to manipulate the ml/L and M. anisopliae NBAIR Ma 4 @ 10 ml/L
flower signals through UV- reflecting body coloration (1.00). It can be concluded from the results that
as deceptive signaling and to catch its prey. the microbials and botanicals used in experiment
were safe to spiders. These findings were in tune
Field evaluation with Manu (2005) who reported that M. anisopliae,
An investigation was conducted to evaluate B. bassiana and L. lecanii as safe to spiders in
the effect of different treatments against predatory vegetable ecosystem. Nanda et al (1996) also
spiders of J. sambac at College of Agriculture, found population of natural enemies, Tetragnatha
Vellayani. Pre-treatment counts of spiders had no sp. and Oxyopes sp. in cucurbits remained similar
significant difference in population. However, after even after application of neem-based pesticide.
spraying. mean number of two spiders per plant But, Raguraman and Kanan (2014) found that plant
was the highest population recorded and it was derived insecticides in crude formulations may
the in untreated plot (Table 2). Spiders avoided have some ill effects against predators and other
the plants sprayed with Chlorantraniliprole 8.8% beneficial insects in laboratory condition however
w/w +Thiamethoxam 17.5 % w/w SC @ 50g a.i/ their risk is highly reduced after application in
ha throughout 4, 6, 8 and 12th day after spraying. the fields which synchronized with the findings of
But this was contradictory to findings of Baehaki Vijayasree et al (2012) who reported botanicals
et al (2017) who found that Chlorantraniliprole + neem oil, neem oil garlic emulsion and azadirachtin
Thiamethoxam 300 SC was safe with less than 25 as safe to spiders.
per cent mortality of Lycosa pseudoannulata in pre-
treated paddy hills inside a nylon cage. However, CONCLUSION
Pekar (2012) opined that spiders sometimes tends Presently, about nine spiders are documented
to show more sublethal effects than lethal effects in from jasmine ecosystem from Kerala. White lynx
normal field conditions where they actively avoid spider (O. shweta), crab spiders (Camaricus sp.),
the treated plants and recolonize to untreated plants. pantropical jumping spider (P. paykulli), heavy
Similar finding was also reported by Riechert and bodied jumper (H. semicupreus), two striped jumper
Lockley (1984) who studied the effect of spiders (T. dimidiate), flower crab spider (T. lobosus), grass
as biocontrol agents. This could have been one of cross spider (A. catenulata), long jawed orb-weaver
the reasons for absence of spiders in the chemical (T. maxillosa) and banded phintella, (P. vittata) were
treated plants in the field throughout spraying documented. Spiders Camaricus sp., A. catenulate
periods. and T. maxillosa were reported for the first time from
After four days of spraying the untreated control Kerala on jasmine. From the field experiments, it
with highest spider population (2.00) was on par with was found that spiders avoided plants treated with
Cashew Nut Shell Liquid (CNSL) 20 EC @ 5 ml/L Chlorantraniliprole 8.8% w/w +Thiamethoxam
(1.25). It was also found on par with the oil based 17.5 % w/w SC @ 50g a.i/ha whereas treatments,
formulation of B. bassiana NBAIR Bb 5 @ 10 ml/L oil based B. bassiana NBAIR Bb 5@ 10 ml/L, talc
(0.50), oil based formulation of M. anisopliae NBAIR based L. lecanii NBAIR Vl 8 @ 20g/ L, oil based M.
Ma 4 @ 10 ml/L (0.75), talc based formulation of L. Anisopliae NBAIR Ma 4 @ 10 ml/L, A. paniculata
lecanii NBAIR Vl 8 @ 20g/L (0.75), Azadirachtin 1% formulation @ 50 ml/L, azadirachtin 1%@ 2 ml/L,
@ 2 ml/L (0.75) and A. paniculata formulation @ 50 Cashew Nut Shell Liquid 20 EC @ 5 ml/L and
ml/L (0.75). By the end of twelfth day of spraying, Horticultural Mineral Oil @ 25 ml/L population of
among the biocontrol treatments, the highest mean spiders were significantly high.

Fig.1: A. Oxyopesshweta Tikader, B. Camaricus sp., C. Plexippuspay kulli (Audouin), D. Hyllus semicupreus
(Simon), E. Telamonia dimidiate (Simon), F. Thomisus lobosus Tikader, G. Argiope catenulata (Doleschall), H.
Tetragnatha maxillosa Thorell, I. Phintella vittata (C. L Koch)).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT KAU (Kerala Agricultural University) 2016. Package of

Authors acknowledge the funding by Kerala Practices Recommendations: Crops(15thEd.). Kerala
Agricultural University, Thrissur, p 392
Agricultural University and Dr. Adarsh C. K.,
Junior scientist, Kerala Forest Research Institute for Manu Mani P (2005). Major spiders in vegetable ecosystem
and their predatory potential. M.Sc (Ag.) Thesis, College
identifying spiders. of Agriculture, Vellayani
Mean of four replications;* DAS – Days After Nanda U K, Parija B, Pradhan N C, Nanda B, Dash D O (1996).
Spraying; Value in the parenthesis – Square root Bioefficacy of neem derivatives against the insect pest
transformed values complex of rice. P 367-78 In: Neem and Environment,
Vol 1. Singh RP, Chari MS, Raheja AK, Kraus W (eds)
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Baehaki S E, Surahmat E C, Susetyo A, Senn R (2017). Ecotoxicological Review. Pest Manag Sci 68(11):1438-
Toxicity and persistence of insecticides to rove beetle 1446.
Paederusfuscipes and wolf spider Lycosa pseudoannulata Raguraman S and Kannan M (2014). Non-target effects
using semi field method. J Agri Vet Sci 4(9):331-337 of botanicals on beneficial arthropods with special
David S K (1958). Insects and mites affecting jasmine in reference to Azadirachta indica. P 173-05 In: Advances
Madras state. Madras Agric J 45:146-150 in Plant Biopesticides Singh D. (eds).
Gopinath Pratheesh P, Rajender Parsad , Brigit Joseph and Rajeswaran J, Duraimurugan P, Shanmugam P S (2005). Role
Adarsh V S (2021). Grapes Agri1: collection of shiny apps of spiders in agriculture and horticulture ecosystem. J
for data analysis in agriculture. J Open Source Software Food Agric Environ 3(4):147-152.
6(63): 3437, https://doi.org/10.21105/joss.03437 Reddy R G, Kumar P, Ramegowda G K and Jayappa J (2018).
Heiling A M, Chittka L, Cheng K and Herberstein M E (2005). Population dynamics of pests on Jasminum Multiflorum.
Colouration in crab spiders: substrate choice and prey Indian J Ento 80(3): 572-576.
attraction. J Exp Biol 208 (10): 1785-1792 Riechert S E and Lockley T (1984). Spiders as biological
Kamala I M and Kennedy J (2017). Survey on the prevalence control agents. Ann Rev Ento 29 (1):299-320.
of jasmine leaf web worm, Nausinoegeo metralis and Shukla GK and Sandhu G S (1983). New records of natural
its natural enemies in Tamil Nadu. J Entomol Zool enemies of jasmine leaf–web worm in India. B Entomol
Stud 5(6):.409-414. 24(2):135-136.

Silwal M and Molur S (2007). Checklist of spiders (Arachinida:
Araneae) of South Asia including the 2006 update of
Indian spider checklist. Zoo’s Print J 22(2): 2551-2597.
Vijayasree V, Beevi SN and Xavier G (2012). Efficacy of
botanicals and synthetic insecticides against pests of
coccinia and their safety to predatory spiders. Pesticide
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World Spider Catalog ( 2021). Version 22.5. Natural History
Museum Bern, online at http://wsc.nmbe.ch, accessed on
10 December 2021. doi: 10.24436/2.

Training Need of Agricultural Input Dealers in Transfer of

Agricultural Technology
Rajni Agashe, D R Agashe, S R Dhuware and S L Waskel
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Surguja (Chhattisgarh)
ABSTRACT
In India, there are about 2.82 lakh practicing agri-input dealers, who are the prime source of farm
information to the farming community. The first contact point for majority of farmers is the agri-input
dealer. During purchasing different inputs required for farming operations, the farmer naturally tries to
find out from the input dealer about the usage of inputs, both in terms of quality and quantity. However,
most of these input dealers do not have formal agricultural education. If these input dealers can be shaped
as para-extension professionals by providing requisite knowledge then they can professionalize extension
services and contribute to bring a paradigm shift in Indian Agriculture. It is in this context, one-year diploma
course entitled Diploma in Agricultural Extension Services for Input Dealers (DAESI) imparts relevant and
location-specific agricultural education to equip input dealers with knowledge to transform them into para-
extension professionals enabling them to address the day-to-day problems being faced by the farmers at
field level. In rainfed faming state of Chhattisgarh, agro input dealers play vital role in farm production.
Input dealers can contribute towards strengthening agriculture extension system through creation sound
technological linkage with farmers. So, it is very essential to know the knowledge level of input dealers
with modern crop production technologies including agro machinery. Present study was conducted during
2016-18 in Surguja district of Northern hill region of Chhattisgarh to prioritize need for training of agro-
input dealers. Through personnel interview of 40 retailers, 47.5 % were young (36-45 yr), and 35 % were
graduates. Training in computer and its application with record keeping software was another preferred
area. For dealers the major problems faced is the lack of knowledge of new product (90 %), Lack of
knowledge of maintenance of stock (87.5 %), Non availability of bank loan (82.5 %), fluctuation of selling
season (80 %) followed by lack of capital and need based training (77.5 %) .
Key Words: Agriculture, Entrepreneur, Rainfed, Record keeping, Technology.
INTRODUCTION delivery mechanism is required. As such, efforts

There has been a steady transformation of Indian are underway to proactively integrate private sector
agriculture from the food-deficit subsistence farming companies, farmers’ organizations, agripreneurs,
to food-self-sufficient commercial farming. Modern NGOs, cooperatives and other agencies in the non-
technologies, dedicated efforts of Indian farmers governmental sector, including practicing input
and the programmatic support of Central and State dealers, into the extension delivery mechanism.
governments have all contributed significantly for Raahalya and Sreedaya (2021) observed that job
the current land mark (2014) achievement of 264.77 satisfaction, scientific orientation and facilities at
MT of food production. However, for sustaining training center were having positive and significant
this growth rate and achieving the required food relationship with the training need of Agricultural
grain production, multi-prolonged strategy, Officers in agricultural practices and extension.
including effective and efficient farm information

Table 1. Socio-economic profile of the agri-input dealers. (N=40)

Variable Category Number Percentage
Age Young (< 35 yr) 14 35.0
Middle (36-45 yr) 19 47.5
Old age (> 6 yr) 7 17.5
Up to VIII standard 3 7.5
Education High school 7 17.5
(Xth) Higher 10 25.0
Secondary Graduate 14 35.0
PG and above 5 12.5
Experience Low (0-4 yr) 5 12.5
Medium (5-15 yr) 23 57.5
High (16 -25 yr) 12 30
In India, there are about 2.82 lakh practicing ATMAs, KVKs, NGOs, Agrl. Colleges etc. are located
agri-input dealers, who are the prime source of farm at district level. The cropping pattern, the package of
information to the farming community. The first practices and the field visits were location-specific.
contact point for majority of farmers is the agri- Hence, decentralized approach was adopted to cover
input dealer. Hence, it is very essential to know the 300 batches per year. Each batch comprised of 40
knowledge level of input dealers about modern crop input dealers. The study was conducted during 2016-
production technologies including agro machinery. 17 and 2017-18 in Surguja district of Chhattisgarh.
total 40 agro- input dealer/retailers were selected
MATERIALS AND METHODS randomly from the district. Respondents were
Diploma in Agricultural Extension Services surveyed through personnel interview using
for Input Dealers (DAESI) D has been designed pretested structured interview schedule. Different
in such a way that the input dealer can pursue the data viz., socio-economic profile of the Agri- input
program without adversely affecting his day-to-day dealers , training required for sale improvement
business. The program is spread over a period of 48 of inputs, specific crop, pest and management,
weeks, with 40 classroom sessions and 8 field visits to constraints, computer application , type of business
various institutions and farmers’ fields. The classroom , most preferred input and Increase of business were
sessions and field visits were conducted on sunday rated by the respondents on three point scale as Most
or market holidays. The field visits were intended to needed, Needed and Not needed. Training need was
acquaint the input dealers with location-specific field measured by computing the weighted mean score.
problems and expose them to relevant technologies.
They are trained to identify pests, diseases and RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
nutritional disorders. Study material in local language
is provided and multi-media instructional devices are Socio-economic profile of the Agri-input dealers
used in the classrooms. The socio-economic profile of the agri-input
dealers such as age, education and experience to
All the stakeholders involved in DAESI program join DAESI were analyzed. It was evident that
i.e., the input dealers, resource persons, facilitators,
majority (47.5%) of the respondents belongs to
institutions capable of delivering the program viz.

Table 2. Training needs in crop specific management.

Training areas Most needed Needed Not needed
Rice 32 8
Wheat 28 8 4
Maize 31 9
Potato 29 10 1
Litchi 27 10 3
Mango 30 8 2
Strawberry 31 5 4
young age 36-45 yr and 35 per cent dealers were Problems faced by Input Dealers
graduates. Majority of input dealers (57.5) were For dealers the major problems faced is the
possessing medium experience followed by high lack of knowledge of new product (90 %), lack of
(30) and low (12.5) level of experience respectively. knowledge of maintenance of stock (87.5), non-
(Table 1). availability of bank loan (82.5%) fluctuation of
selling season (80 %) ,lack of capital and Need
Training needs in crop specific management based training (77.5 %) .
The data (Table 2) show that training needs
in crop specific management were Most Needed Perception of Input Dealers about DAESI
for crops namely rice, maize, strawberry, mango, Program
potato, wheat and litchi and Needed for crops Perception of trained input dealers to various
namely potato, litchi, maize rice, wheat mango, perception items about DAESI program such as
strawberry whereas Not Needed, for crops namely topics covered, study material, resource person
wheat, strawberry, litchi, mango and potato. respectively were collected and analyzed
The training needs of the agro input dealers in The values (Table 5) show that most of
ICT the input dealers who have undergone DAESI
The training needs of the agro input dealers in program have the feeling that the topics covered
ICT areas were application of computer for record in classroom, study material, field visits conducted
keeping, record keeping software having most were most relevant to them. Similarly, 95 per cent
needed followed by use of computer, internet and of respondents have felt that the quality of resource
E-mail, Scanning. persons in delivering the sessions was very good,
Table 3. Training needs in computer application

Sr. Training area Most needed Needed Not needed
No.
1. Record keeping 37 3
2. Record keeping Software 37 3
3. Computer 32 8
4. Internet 33 7
5. E-mail, Scanning 35 5

Table 4. Problems faced by Input Dealers.

Sr. No. Statement No. Percentage
1. Lack of capital 31 77.5
2. Non availability of bank loan 33 82.5
3. Fluctuation of selling season 32 80
4. Transportation cost 29 72.5
5. Lack of extension approach 28 70
6. Need based training 31 77.5
7. Lack of knowledge of maintenance of stock 35 87.5
8. Lack of technical knowledge of new product 36 90
9. Departmental cooperation 29 72.5
Table 5.Perception of Input Dealers about DAESI Program . (N-40)

Sr. No. Perception Item Category Number Per cent
1. Relevance of the topics covered in Most relevant 37 92.5
classroom Relevant 3 7.5
2. Relevance of study material Most relevant 35 87.5
Relevant 5 12.5
3. Relevance of the field visits conducted Most relevant 36 90
Relevant 4 10
4. Quality of resource persons in delivering Very good 38 95
the sessions Good 2 5
5. Classroom sessions Very good 36 90
Good 4 10
6. Visit of research stations Very good 38 95
Good 2 10
7. Visit to labs Very good 34 85
Good 6 15
8. Visit to Farmers field Very good 36 90
Good 4 10
9. Facilities in the classroom Very good 35 87.5
Good 5 12.5
10 Assessment of program Very good 38 95
Good 2 10
class room session (90 %), visit of research station Table 6 evaded that majority of the respondents
(95 %), visit of lab (85%), visit of farmers’ field (90 have gained knowledge in crop production
%) , facilities in the classroom (87.5 %), assessment technologies (77.5 %), gained knowledge in pest
of program (95 % ) of respondents. disease management (92.5 %), gained knowledge in
soil health management (95 %), gained knowledge

Table 6. Change in knowledge level of trained participants.

Sr. No. Statement Category Number Per cent
1. Gained knowledge in crop production Fully 31 77.5
technologies Partially 9 22.5
2. Gained knowledge in pest disease management Fully 37 92.5
Partially 3 7.5
3. Gained knowledge in soil health management Fully 38 95
Partially 2 5
4. Gained knowledge in water management Fully 36 90
Partially 4 10
5. Overall knowledge and skill gained in DAESI Fully 34 85
program to give advice to the field level problems Partially 6 15
of farmers
Table 7. Perceived Impact of DAESI program

Sr. No. Category Number Per cent
1. Gained confidence in technology dissemination 40 100
2. Not gained confidence in technology dissemination 0 0
3. Customer base after DAESI program Increased 37 92.5
Not Increased 3 7.5
4. Extent of increase in customer base after DAESI program
Up to 10% 4 10
11-15 % 0 0
16-25 4 10
26-50 13 32.5
More than 50% 19 47.5
in water management (90 %) and overall knowledge REFERENCES

and skill gained in DAESI program to give advice Babu, Suresh Chandra, Claire J. Glendenning, Kwadwo
to the field level problems of farmers (85%). Asenso-I kyere, and Senthil Kumar Govindarajan (2011).
Farmers’ Information Needs and Search Behaviors: Case
Perceived Impact of DAESI program Study in Tamil Nadu, India, IFPRI, pp.1 to 53.
The data in table 7 revealed that after DAESI Ganiger Sangamesh (2012). Knowledge, Perception and
program gained confidence in technology Role Performan ce of Input Dealers in Agro Advisory
Services in Northern Dry Zone of Karnataka, (Thesis)
dissemination (100 %), customer base after DAESI ANGRAU. Government of India (2014). Guidelines for
program increased (92. %) and extent of increase [ ]perationalization of Diploma in Agricultwal Extension
in customer base after DAESI program from 10 to Services for Input Dealer (DAESI) program, 2014,
47.5 per cent. Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of
Agriculture.

Raahalya Sandipamu and Sreedaya G S (2021). Training
need Analysis of Agricultural Officers of Department of
Agriculture Development and Farmers’ Welfare Kerala. J
Krishi Vigyan 10 (1): 287-292
Singh A K, H K De and Pal P P (2015). Training needs of
agro-input dealers in South 24 Parganas district of West
Bengal. Indian Res J Ext Edu 15 (2), pp 7-10.
N Balasubramani (2017). Impact of DAESI program on trained
input dealers a perception study. J Agri Ext Manage Vol.
XVIII No. (2) 2017.

Training Needs of Dairy Farm Women and their Multiple

Regression Analysis toward Animal Husbandry Practices
Kiran Chandravadia1 and M K Bariya2
College of Agricultural Information Technology, AAU, Anand (Gujarat)
ABSTRACT
Animal husbandry is an integral component of rural farmers in India. It is established that women always
participated in animal husbandry activities in addition to the daily household chores. Training is one of the
important aspects, which can enhance knowledge, improve skills and change the attitude of farm women.
Keeping this in view, the present attempt has been made to analyze the training needs of dairy farm women
and their multiple regression analysis in animal husbandry practices. The study was carried out in the
Chhotaudepur district of Gujarat State. Data were collected with the help of a pre-tested semi-structured
interview schedule on 90 farm women. The study revealed that training was most needed in feeding,
breeding, health care and management practices. Further, out of 11 variables, only 2 variables i.e., education
and mass media exposure had significant contributions to the training needs of farm women. However, all
the 11 variables fitted in the model show a 66.30 per cent contribution to the training needs of farm women.
Key Words: Animal, Dairy, Farm women, Husbandry, Regression, Training.
INTRODUCTION Training provides a systematic improvement of

Animal husbandry plays a pivotal role in knowledge and skills which in turn helps the trainees
the economy as well as the socio-economic to function effectively and efficiently in their given
development of our country. Women play an task on completion of the training (Sajeev and Singh,
important role in animal husbandry occupations 2010). Transfer of technology through training has
as managers, decision-makers and skilled workers. become a common and major extension activity in
In fact, the major share of the credit for India’s the field of agriculture (Sharma et al, 2014). After
position as the largest milk producing country in the acquiring training, the rural women not only learn
world and the significant increase in the per capita about the improved animal husbandry practices but
availability of milk in the country has to go to the also opt them into practices (Sharma et al, 2021).
largely illiterate rural women dairy farmers (Patel,
1998). Moreover, the Dairy sector plays a prominent MATERIALS AND METHODS
role in strengthening India’s rural economy. It has The proposed investigations were carried out in
the potential to act as an instrument to bring socio- Pavi-Jetpur and Bodeli taluka of the chhotaudepur
economic transformation. Dhayal and Mehta (2019) district, from each of which, three villages were
concluded that it will help the extension agencies to selected. Thus, total of six villages were selected
organize the suitable training programmes for the for the study and from each village, 15 farm women
dairy farm women in improved animal husbandry involved in animal husbandry were selected,
practices to improve their milk production and making a total sample of 90 farm women, which
make the dairying a successful enterprise. was selected by using simple random sampling
1 Assistant Professor, College of Agricultural Information Technology, AAU, Anand
2 Associate Professor, CoA, Junagadh Agricultural University, Mota bhandariya, (Amreli)
Corresponding author e-mail : [email protected]

Training Needs of Dairy Farm Women and their Multiple Regression
Table 1: Distribution of the dairy farm women according to their practice-wise training needs in
animal husbandry practices n=90
Sr. Animal husbandry practice Most Somewhat Not needed Total Mean Rank
no. needed needed Score Score
1 Feeding 13 (14.44) 56 (62.22) 21(23.33) 188 2.09 I
2 Breeding 10 (11.11) 63(70.00) 17 (18.89) 187 2.08 II
3 Health care 08(8.89) 67(74.44) 15(16.67) 187 2.08 II
4 Management 12(13.33) 61(67.78) 17(18.89) 185 2.06 III
5 Clean milk production, 15(16.67) 56(62.22) 19(21.11) 184 2.04 IV
preservation and value addition
6 Fodder 16 (17.78) 57(63.33) 17(18.89) 181 2.01 V
(Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage)
method. The research design followed in the study the farm women. This included areas on breeding,
was ex-post facto. To assess the training need of feeding, fodder production, management practices,
farm women, a well structured pre-tested interview health care practices, clean milk production,
schedule was prepared in consultation with dairy, preservation and value addition.
veterinary and extension experts and based on The data presented in (Table 1) indicated that
the review of the literature. Each respondent was farm women need training in animal husbandry
asked to mention their response against the training practices about feeding practices with a mean score
needs on three point continuum viz; ‘Most needed’, of 2.09 ranked first, followed by breeding and
‘Somewhat needed’ and ‘Not needed’ for which health care practices (2.08), management practices
a score of 2, 1 and 0 respectively. On the basis of (2.06), Clean milk production, preservation and
perceived training need score, all respondents were value addition (2.04), fodder practices (2.01)
categorized in to three groups, viz; low, medium secured with rank second, third, fourth and fifth,
and high by using mean and standard deviation. To respectively. These findings were in consonance
measure the extent of training needs ‘training needs with the findings of Singh et al (2018), Vahora
index’ was calculated by following formula: (2015), Rajkumar et al (2018), Patel et al (2012),
Total obtained Deka et al (2020), Sharma et al (2021) and Arora
Perceived training score et al (2022).
x 100
needs index = Maximum In the case of multiple regressions analysis out
obtainable score of 11 variables, only 2 variables i.e. education and
The statistical analysis of tabulated data was mass media exposure had significant contributions
done to establish the relationship of selected traits to the training need of farm women, the remaining
of dairy farmers with perceived training needs 9 variables i.e. education, experience in animal
husbandry practices, occupation, land holding,
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION annual income, herd size, milk production, family
type and social participation did not indicate any
Practice-wise training needs of farm women significant contribution in participation of tribal
toward animal husbandry practices women. However, all the 11 variables fitted in the
An attempt was made to ascertain aspect-wise model show a 66.30 per cent contribution to the
raining needs in animal husbandry practices for

Table 2: Multiple regression analysis between the training need of farm women and their selected
independent variables.
n = 90
Sr. No. Independent Regression Standard “ t” value Standard Rank R2
variable coefficient error of for partial regression
“b” value regression ‘b’ co-efficient
coefficient “β” value
1 Age 0.142 0.074 1.907 0.173 I
2 Education 8.007 0.933 8.585** 0.719 II
3 Experience -1.062 1.397 -0.760 -0.067 IX
in animal
husbandry
practices
0.6630
4 Occupation -2.140 1.307 -1.638 -0.115 V
5 Landholding 0.297 0.340 0.874 0.060 VIII
6 Annual income -7.723 0.000 -1.239 -0.084 VII
7 Herd size -0.763 1.131 -0.674 -0.096 XI
8 Milk production 0.235 0.330 0.711 0.096 X
9 Family type -2.719 1.731 -1.571 -0.106 VI
10 Social 2.230 1.250 1.785 0.125 IV
participation
11 Mass media 0.818 0.229 3.576* 0.272 III
exposure
R2 = 0.6630
* 5 Per cent level of significant
** 1 Per cent level of Significant
training need of farm women. The results were in awareness campaign, exhibitions, demonstration,
line with the findings of Sharma et al (2020), Arora etc. to obtain more output from their animal
et al (2022) and Ahuja et al (2018). husbandry. Education and mass media had a
significant contribution to the training need of farm
CONCLUSION women. So, there is a need to motivate farm women
It can be concluded that training was most towards education and mass media exposure.
needed by dairy farm women in feeding, breeding,
health care and management practices. There is a REFERENCES:
need for conducting more needs-based and well- Ahuja Rakesh, Singh Sukh Pal, Singh Sumer, Khatri Sarita
tailored training programmes suited to animal and Choudhry Rahul (2018).
husbandry and given top priority in the curriculum Perceived Training needs of dairy farmers about Animal
Breeding Practices. Int J Livestock Res 8(9): 143-150.
of the training programmes which would in turn
help them to have more extension agency contacts. Arora A S, Rajput Devi Singh, Sharma Neeraj Kumar, Dewal
V S and Dawra Vasundhra (2022).
Thus, the dairy farm women should be acquainted
with improved animal husbandry practices through Assessment of knowledge based training needs regarding
scientific cattle management practices among cattle
appropriate extension programmes like training,

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Bhattacharyya S K (2020). Devendra Kumar (2020).
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and poultry farmers of Baksa district of Assam. J Krishi selected independent variable about improved animal
Vigyan 9(1): 333-336. husbandry practices. Int J Chem Stu 8(1): 2552-2555.
Dhayal B L and Mehta B M (2019).Training needs of tribal Sharma Diksha, Kalsariya B N, Sharma Sonika and Sunil
farm women in relation to improved animal husbandry Kumar (2021). Training needs of farm women about
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Traditional Method of Mithun Production System in

Arunachal Pradesh
Tilling Tayo1*and Neeta Longjam2 and Sourabh Deori3
KVK–Longding, ICAR A.P. Center Basar for NEH region
1
KVK-East Siang, CHF Pasighat, Central Agricultural University (CAU), Arunachal Pradesh.
2
1
ICAR Barapani, Umiam Meghalaya
ABSTRACT
Mithun (Bos frontalis) is considered as a majestic Gold of Arunachal Pradesh because of its economic,
socio-cultural, and religious importance. Three systems of rearing are practiced, free-range, tethering and
lura systems. Free range system is the most prevalent method of rearing, followed by tethering system during
treatment or introduction into new environment/ place or to tame the mithun. Lura system synchronizes
agriculture cultivation system, where mithun are kept inside community-based enclosure to prevent crops
raid. No extra shed is constructed for mithun, no provision of health care like vaccination or deworming,
except few farmer vaccinated their mithun for FMD, no extra feeds are offered except for common salt.
Breeding is done by natural mating under favorable condition in forest. Identification mark is done by ear
notching. Fallow jhum is good source of 14 different kind of fodder for mithun, while some farmers practice
of rejuvenation of fodder by burning dry biomass of hillock during dry season (November-December).
Tenant system of caring mithun is followed, as a dual owner of mithun, the tenants get one calf after every
two calves born for absolute owner of mithun. Due to tenants system of caring and exchange of mithun
during bridal gift within inter village to inter district practices may reduce inbreeding depression along
with conducive, vast grazing forest area. These three factors are the reason for continuous increasing in
mithun population in Arunachal, in contrast to decline mithun population in other state. 90.6 per cent of
mithun population of India is found in Arunachal. There is need to inculcate the scientific ways to improve
production potential of certain Research Centre or Sub Centre on Mithun may be established in Arunachal
Pradesh for livelihood improvement of tribal society of Arunachal Pradesh.
Key Words: Arunachal, Majestic Gold, Mithle, Mithun, Tenants.
INTRODUCTION exchange for movable or immovable property and

Mithun (Bos frontalis) is a huge animal with use for settlement of disputes. So, it also acts as an
royal looks, has a unique attraction for the tribal instrument for peace and understanding amongst
people of Northeast India in general and particularly tribes. In tradition and customary practices, Mithun
for Arunachal Pradesh. Mithun is considered as most is the Choice animal to be sacrificed in the religious,
important livestock of Arunachal Pradesh not only festivals and other auspicious social occasions
because of their royal looks and body size but they and most importantly exchange for bridal gift
are deeply rooted in the socio-culture, economic during marriage ceremony. So, for matrix of good
and religious life of the tribes of Arunachal. It reason, Mithun is considered as a Majestic Gold of
has the highest value on barter table and often the Arunachal Pradesh.
status of a person is ranked based on the numbers Mithun can also be considered as a geographical
of Mithuns the owner possess. Mithun serves as the indicator animal because the distribution pattern
ready source of hard or soft currency for the rural of Mithun in India is limited to North-East and
people because like Gold Coin any time it can be within Northeast it is restricted to only four states

viz. Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, and Habitat

Mizoram. As per the 20th livestock census of India Mithun is generally found at an altitude between
(2019), the total mithun population of India is 300-3000 m MSL. They are shed loving animals
3,86,293 which is 90.6% (3,50,154), is present in and cannot tolerate strong sun light. They prefer
Arunachal followed by Nagaland 5.98% (23,123), to travel length and breadth of forest in search
Manipur 2.35% (9,059) and Mizoram 1.02 % of favorable feeding and breeding ground. They
(3957). However, a few studies have been done thrive well in cold-humid and shady area of terrain
to document the mithun production system of topography. Often Mithuns share the common
Arunachal Pradesh, despite the highest density of territory of yaks at higher altitude and cattle in
mithun population in India. Considering the above lower altitude, so sometimes there is out crossing
point in view an exploratory study on traditional (species hybridization) between mithun, and cattle
method of mithun production system in Arunachal cross (Fig. 1; Tayo et al, 2019).
Pradesh was undertaken during the period 2019 to
2021. Rearing System
Tethering system
MATERIALS AND METHODS In this system mithun are tied with rope locally
The study was carried out in five districts made up of cane or plastic rope on the neck in
of Arunachal Pradesh. Ethnographic fieldwork female and horn in case of male and other end of
techniques were used during the explanatory survey rope tied to pole. The animals are allowed to graze
to gather and record contextual data regarding on circumscribed distance as per the rope length.
traditional method of Mithun productions system In this system extra care and repeated changing of
from mithun rearing farmers, gaon buras of grazing area from time to time is required, which
different districts. These techniques included: 1) is a laborious and tedious job. Tethering system
unstructured informal conversations and taped is usually practiced during health problems or
in-depth interviews with farmers 2) observation, introduction of mithun to new area, from one
photography, and participation during monitoring village to other village or from other districts during
mithun in jungle with farmers and 3) a review of exchange in marriage ceremony or other traditional
literature, including printed material as a secondary gift exchange in the form of animal (Tayo et al,
source were collected. The data collected from 2014). This system is followed for a few days to
Ethnographic fieldwork techniques and secondary couple of months until the health of animal is stable
source were analyzed, interpreted and synthesis into or adapted to newly introduced area (Fig. 2).
complete package of traditional method of mithun
Free range system
production system in Arunachal Pradesh.
The prevailing rearing system followed by
mithun farmers is a “free range system” (Fig. 3),
where, the mithuns are let-loose freely in the jungle
Distribution and allow them to travel in length and breadth of
Mithun has a limited geographical distribution forest in search of favorable place for feeding,
in world; it is mainly concentrated in South- East breeding, and resting. Mithuns reared in free range
Asia like Myanmar, Bhutan, China, and Bangladesh. system are healthier as compared to tethering
In India, it is found in the tropical rainforest of the system of rearing. However, wild beast– viz. wild
four North-East hilly states of Arunachal Pradesh, dogs, tigers and leopards are main menace in free
Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram. Changlang range system.
district is only district of Arunachal Pradesh, where
Mithun population is absent.

Lura system are usually used as aids in identification of own

In this system, mithuns are confined in certain Mithun.
community forest area and agriculture plots are
kept open without fence. First the community Feed and Fodder Management
earmarks the best area suitable for rearing mithun Salt feeding is the only extra supplementary
under natural habitat, with the main objective fed to mithun by its owner (Fig. 6) because under
of harbouring mithun population of the village free range system of rearing, mithun are let-loose
together, irrespective of individual ownership. freely in the jungle to feed themselves on natural
Such an area is chosen, wherein majority of the fodders. Salt act as a binding force for mithun with
mithun population of the village are present. Once owner to keep in touch, while for owner it acts as
the area is earmarked, the forest is barricaded with an instrument to tame and remain close contact
fence and finally closing the area from rest of the with mithun. Similar, observation was made by
forests, with entry points or gates at many locations Prakash et al (2007). Otherwise, if the role of salt
(Fig. 4). The fencing activities are start as soon as is nullified between Mithun and owner, the Mithun
winter season ends, and it takes about 1-2 months will remain nothing difference with wild animal.
to completely fence the area. Every household of So, salt act as a corner stone in mithun production
the village contribute its share in terms of labour, system, under prevalent rearing system of tribal
manpower and finance throughout the fencing society of Arunachal Pradesh. It is note that, Mithun
operation. The fencing materials are made up of prepare coarse salt than fine salt.
commonly available bamboos and wooden poles of Fallow Jhum is one of the good sources of
available tree species. After completion of fencing,14 different types of fodder, which grows in high
the Mithun population of the village, irrespective density in subsequent year, once the jhum is left
of individual ownership is made mandatory to put (Tayo et al, 2014). Some mithun farmers of lower
or kept in the captivity for certain length of time Subansiri district, they use to put fire on dried grass
during a particular season of a year in an enclosed in hill in the month of November – December, the
area, particularly, for 4-5 months during June to hill which is entirely devoid of any big tree and
October (Taba Heli, 2009). usually earmark for fodder grazing area of mithun
This captivity is synchronized with the with precaution to prevent forest fire.
cultivation season of the slash and burn practice Tenant System of Management
(Jhum Cultivation) of the land use system prevalent It is like a thumb rule, mithun are look after by
in the area. This serves as an effective measure to co-owner on ‘tenant system’, especially for those
control and curb the incidence of damage of crops of the Mithun owners who do not have time to take
by the Mithuns. care of their Mithuns. Reliable persons are chosen
Identification Method as the ‘Tenants of Mithun’. In this system tenant will
Ear notching system is the usual practice for take care of Mithuns from the day of handling over
identification of own Mithun. It is done just after from the owner and in return for his services, owner
birth or within weeks of birth by restraining the provides the tenant one calf after every second or
calf and with sharp knife either in left, right or in two calving as an incentive, i.e., 3rd, 6th, 9th calving
both side of ear, a part of tissue along with skin of and so on will be given to tenants. The tenants have
ear is removed or split into two, three flaps as per to inform their owner immediately, if mithun has
owner practices (Fig. 5). Salt is applied on the cut calved and within one week the calf ear have to be
mark for early healing and prevent from visiting fly. notched as an identification mark similar to mother,
However, body coat colour pattern and horn size before calf is too strong to restrain.

Table 1. Reproductive Parameters of Mithun

Reproductive parameters Range
Estrus cycle 19-24 d
Duration of standing estrus 4-16 hr
Age at puberty 600-720 d
Gestation period 280-320 d
Inter calving period 350-400 d
Source: NRC on Mithun, resource booklet (2006)
In any case, if the Mithun dies, the tenants must are not manifested. As a precautionary measure
inform the owner immediately and produce the body like deworming and vaccination were never done,
before owner indicating the death of animal. In case by most of the mithun farmers, except for few
of abortion or death of calf just after parturition is farmers in per-urban area. The prevalent diseases
not produced by tenant before owner, the number of are FMD (Fig. 8), Thelazia infestation, Diarrhea
calving is not counted and it is big blow for tenant and Ectoparasite infestation like ticks (Fig. 9),
because he has to wait for another one year to get mites, leaches, biting flies (Tayo et al, 2013). Foot
his share. and mouth disease (Fig. 8), outbreak is epidemic
in Arunachal, every year in one or other district
Breeding Management outbreak occur, which is the major source of loss
Mithun is a polyestrous animal and estrus in mithun population. Despite knowing the fact that
cycles repeat every after interval of 19-24 days FMD is endemic in Arunachal, it cannot be ruled
with silent estrous showing mild bellowing and out till toady because of many factors.
mounting activity of estrus female in herds. The
general reproductive parameter of Mithun is given Free range rearing system.
in Table No. 1. • Mithun owner doesn’t cooperate much unless
Breeding is done by natural mating only FMD outbreaks.
(Fig. 7), without any human manipulations. • Hilly terrain topography of rearing area.
Artificial insemination (AI) on mithun have not • Due to sharing of grazing area with other wild
yet introduced, many attempts have been tried by animal like deer, and wild boar.
extensional personal to popular the A.I. method, but
due to free rang system of rearing, it is very difficult • Lack of road and telecommunication facilities
to find the mithun during the time of heat periods. for veterinarian access.
As a result, A.I. method is remained untapped till• Eye worm infection (Fig. 10) is the second most
date. economic important of mithun disease because
parasite present in the eye cause constant
Housing irritation that leads to lacrimation, opacity and
There is not any provision of extra shed for ultimately blindness and in number of occasion
mithun. They remain in the jungle without any man result in death due to starvation or fall from cliff.
made shed. However, Mithun use shed of big trees
for shelter under nature’s care. Distribution Of Mithun Population
Mithuns are distributed in different parts of 16
Health Management districts in Arunachal as shown in Fig. 11. Mithun
Health management on mithun is not given population density account for the highest in Papum
due importance unless clinical signs or symptoms Pare with 14.24% amongst the districts, followed

Fig. 1. Mithle (Mithun cross cattle) Fig. 2. Tethering system
Fig. 3. Free range system Fig. 4. Lura system
Fig. 5. Ear Notching Fig. 6. Feeding salt
Fig. 7. Natural Mating (Male ready for Mounting) Fig. 8. Foot and mouth disease

Fig. 9. Tick infestations Fig. 10. Eye worm (Thelazia)
by Kurung Kumey with 14.01%, Lower Subansisri tenants’ system of caring mithun and three rearing
13.91%, Kra Dadi 12.05%, Upper Subansiri 9.89%, system based on purposed and utility. However,
East Kameng 9.35%, Upper Siang 9.10%, West existing traditional method of mithun production
Siang 3.95%, East Siang 3.93%, Siang 3.07%, can be improved without much manipulation of
Anjaw 2.78%, Dibang Valley 1.59%, West Kameng their current farming system through the following
0.94%, Lower Dibang Valley 6.03%, Lohit 0.52%, means.
and least recorded in Tawang 0.015%. As per 20th 1. Construction of mithun shed in strategic
livestock census 2019, the presence of mithun, are locations in forest areas on community model
not recorded in Tirap and Changlang district of basis to provide shelter during night and extreme
Arunachal Pradesh. weather conditions.
2.
Regular vaccination against FMD and
deworming practices should be ensured. Every
year or alternate year mithun suffer from FMD,
where many of them succumb to disease.
3. Micro-chip implantation as alternative or digital
supportive to ear notching as identification
mark. Since, lots of owner dispute arise due to
confusion of similar ear notching design.
4. Construction of “Salt and mineral licking block”
(SMLB) to mitigate mithun tracking time in
jungle as drudger reduction strategies. Mithun
Source: 20th livestock census 2019. will come to lick the salt and mineral block
Fig. 11. District wise Mithun population of Arunachal constructed at strategic locations and owners
have to visit the SMLB spots to look for their
CONCLUSION mithun (Tayo et al, 2019), instead of tracking
Mithun plays a pivotal role in livelihood of
their mithun in jungle and feed hand full of salt.
tribal people in rural area of Arunachal Pradesh,
where access to bank, medical facilities and other 5. A research Centre or sub-Centre must be
source of alternative economic activities are established in the Mithun populated region in
limited. Traditional methods of mithun production Arunachal Pradesh either by Central or State
and management system are very systematically Government for scientific upliftment of tribal
managed based on trial and error methods, especially people through coordinated research on mithun.

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Use of Bypass Fat for Augmentation of Production during

Transition Period in Cross Bred Cattle
Aparna and Satbir Singh
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Ropar (Punjab)
ABSTRACT
Bypass fat improves the energy balance of cattle during advance pregnancy and early lactation and aids
in improvement of milk production and reproduction. The present study was conducted at farmers’ dairy
farm by KVK Ropar. Twelve cross bred cattle in their late pregnancy (lactation number 2 to 4) and having
an average 10-20 l/day peak milk yield were selected for the study. The animals were divided into two
treatments groups with six animals in each group. T1 group was fed without bypass fat according to farmer’s
feeding schedule and T2 was fed bypass fat @ 150g/d along with farmer’s feeding schedule. Feeding of
bypass fat was started 30 d prepartum (expected date of parturition) and continued till 30 d postpartum.
Weight of neonates, dam milk production, fat and SNF content were the parameters under study. The
results indicated that initial (7-18 d postpartum) and final milk yield (19-30d postpartum) in group T2 were
significantly higher by 11.48% and 17.75% in comparison to T1 group. The milk fat percent in T2 was
also significantly higher by 8.7% as compared to that in T1 group. SNF percentage in T2 group was non
significantly higher by 0.4%. Average birth weights of the calves were 25.17±1.94 Kg and 28.67±1.75 kg
in T1 and T2, respectively. At the end of 30 d trial period body weight of calves improved to 35.67±3.56 and
42.33±2.34 in T1 and T2 groups, respectively making it significantly higher by 18.69% in T2 group (P<0.05).
Key Words: Milk yield, bypass fat, transition period, fat, SNF, neonatal weight
INTRODUCTION supplement their animals with some fat source which

The energy requirement of an animal varies is rumen degradable fat. But this is not economical
with its physiological state. It tends to increase and also hampers fibre digestion in the rumen.
during late pregnancy, parturition and early Bypass fat/ rumen nondegradable fat gets easily
lactation. Generally, ration of high yielding dairy digested in lower digestive tract (abomasum, the
animals during late pregnancy is energy deficient. last/fourth part of stomach) and helps in minimizing
The deficiency is further increased by decreased the energy deficiency. This in turn supplements the
feed intake after calving and higher quantity of high yielders during advance pregnancy and early
milk production. Under field conditions, animals lactation and helps in improving milk production
often shed body weight after calving. This leads to and reproduction. Bypass fat should be in the
delayed conception in animals after calving resulting ration of dairy animals during the transition phase
into longer inter-calving intervals. Therefore, (period three weeks before and three to four weeks
maintenance of energy level during transition phase after parturition) of animal. It can be supplemented
is of utmost important in dairy farming as lactation in the ration of dairy animals @ 15-20 g/kg milk
length and reproductive efficiency depends on health production or 100 -150 g/animal/day. Keeping in
status during this phase. Such animals produce less view the importance of bypass fat feeding under
milk during this period, thus, decreased lactation field conditions the present study was conducted to
yield. At this stage of lactation, farmers usually demonstrate the effect to farmers.

Use of Bypass Fat for Augmentation of Production
Table 1. Composition of ration fed by the farmers.

Ingredient Composition (%)
DM CP CF EE Ash NFE
Maize fodder 23.00 7.71 28.30 3.11 9.11 51.77
Concentrate mixture 92.54 18.78 19.02 3.40 8.10 50.88
Wheat straw 95 .00 2.85 35.61 1.01 12.97 47.55
MATERIAL AND METHODS and 19-30 d post partum was termed as final milk
The frontline demonstration was carried out yield. Comparison of mean initial and final milk
at farmers’ dairy farms of village Shampura in production data among T1 and T2 groups was used
district Ropar. Twelve cross bred cows in their late to assess the effect of bypass fat feeding on milk
pregnancy (lactation number 2 to 4) and having an yield. Comparison of mean live weight attained by
average 10-20 l/day peak milk yield were selected neonates at three different time intervals, among
for the study. The animals were divided into two T1 and T2 groups was used to assess the effect of
treatments groups with six animals in each group. bypass fat feeding on live weight of neonate and
T1 group was fed without bypass fat according to live weight attained by them by the age of one
farmer’s feeding schedule (Adlib maize fodder, month.
wheat straw and 2 Kg concentrate mixture with The data was subjected to statistical analysis by
mineral mixture) and T2 was fed bypass fat @ tools of mean, standard deviation and T-test.
150g/day along with farmer’s feeding schedule.
Composition of ration fed by the farmers is given RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
in Table 1. The effect of feeding bypass fat on milk yield
The cows were dried off and were fed 2.0 Kg and fat and SNF is depicted in Table 2. The results
concentrate mixture twice a day. The bypass fat was indicated that initial and final milk yield in group
procured from GADVASU, Ludhiana. Feeding of T2 were higher by 11.48 per cent and 17.75 per
bypass fat was started 30 d prepartum (expected date cent in comparison to T1 group and both were
of parturition) and continued till 30 d postpartum. found significant at 5per cent level of significance.
Recording of observations: Weight of neonates These results were in agreement with Wadhwa et
was recorded at 3 intervals; day 1 of age, day 15 and al (2012) who reported that supplementation of
day 30. Milk production and quality data recording bypass fat in the diet of dairy animals increased
was commenced at day 7 post partum. Milk the milk yield by 5.5-24.0 per cent. Kumari et al
production of individual animals was recorded at (2018) reported significant increase in milk yield
farm itself. After thorough mixing of the milk from after supplementation of bypass fat in cross bred
all animals separately, samples of 100 ml were cattle under field conditions. Increased milk yield
taken and transferred to sample bottles. The sample observed in bypass fat fed group may be attributed
bottles were labelled properly. Milk samples were to improved energy density and energy balance of
sent to local milk cooperative society and tested for the ration (Shelke and Thakur, 2011) and higher
fat and SNF content. The estimation continued for digestibility coefficients of nutrients (Rumne et al,
30 d post partum. Mean values for days 7-18 (Initial 2022).
milk yield) and days 19-30 (final milk yield) were There was significant improvement in milk fat
used for interpretation of results. Milk yield from percent due to feeding of bypass fat. The milk fat
7-18 d post partum was referred as initial milk yield percent in T2 was significantly higher by 8.7per cent

Table 2. Effect of feeding bypass fat on milk yield and composition.

Parameter T1 T2 % Difference P value
Initial milk yield (L) (7-18 d postpartum) 9.79±1.14 10.92±0.74 + 11.48 0.035*
Final Milk yield (L) (19-30 d post partum) 11.50±0.45 13.54±0.46 +17.75 0.000*
Milk fat (%) 2.97±0.05 3.23±0.08 +8.70 0.000*
SNF (%) 8.18±0.08 8.22±0.10 +0.40 0.262
*Significant at 5% level of significance
as compared to that in T1 group (P<0.05). Rohila et 35.67±3.56 and 42.33±2.34 making it significantly
al (2016) reported similar findings of improvement higher by 18.69per cent in T2 group (P<0.05).
in milk fat percentage. Soni and Patel (2015) and Drackley (2000) reported that elevated NEFA
Sivadasan and Subramannian (2021) recorded levels in lactating cattle indicate that dietary energy
significant improvement in milk yield and milk intake is insufficient for the milk production or fetal
fat content, both, in milk of bypass fed cross bred growth and that body fat is being broken down to
cattle. supply the energy deficit which was supported by
Though non-significant but SNF percentage Kumar et al (2018) who reported that NEFA level
in T2 group was also higher by 0.4per cent which of the cows those did not receive bypass-fat had
was in line with the findings of Rohila et al (2016) exceeded the upper critical limit (0.52 mmol/L).
who reported non-significant improvement in SNF Better performance of animals may also be assumed
content of milk after feeding of bypass fat. due to optimization of NEFA levels in animals of
The carry over effect of supplementation of treatment group.
bypass fat on birth weight of calves is given in
Table 3. Average birth weights of the calves were CONCLUSION
25.17±1.94 Kg and 28.67±1.75 kg in T1 and T2, It may be concluded from this study that feeding
respectively making it significantly higher by of bypass fat improved milk production, fat percent
13.9per cent T2 group (P<0.05). These findings SNF, birthweight and live weight gain of neonatal
were in accordance with findings of Tyagi et al calf in lactating cross bred cattle. Improvement in
(2010) who recorded the average birth weights of energy balance of pregnant and lactating animals
the calves as 24.94 and 27.95 kg in control and through transition period could be the reason behind
treatment groups, respectively. This carryover this improvement. Further field trials on effect of
effect was more pronounced at the end of 30 d trial bypass fat feeding on BCS and length of service
period where body weight of calves improved to period may further strengthen the technology
dissemination process.
Table 3. Effect of feeding bypass fat on body weight of neonatal calf.

Age of calf Live body weight (Kg) (N=6) P value
T1 T2
Day 1 25.17±1.94 28.67±1.75 0.004*
Day 15 29.17±3.54 35.00±2.10 0.003*
Day 30 35.67±3.56 42.33±2.34 0.002*
*significant at 5% level of significance

REFERENCES Shelke S K and Thakur S S (2011). Effect of the quality of

Drackley J K (2000). Use of NEFA as a Tool to Monitor Energy milk and milk products in Murrah buffaloes (Bubalus
Balance in Transition Dairy Cows. Http://livestocktrail. bubalis) fed rumen protected fat and protein. Int J Dairy
illinois.edu/ Sci 6: 124-133
Kumara M MBP, Weerasinghe WMPB, Nanayakkara Sivadasan, K S and Subramannian S (2021). Supplementation
KADBM, Chathurika WVAH, Ranaweera KKTN. of bypass fat in early lactation in high yielding animals
(2018). The effect of ruminal bypass fat on milk yield and ensures good returns. J Krishi Vigyan 10(1): 283-286.
energy balance in early lactating dairy cows Proceedings Soni S M and Patel M V (2015). Supplementation of bypass
of the Wayamba University International Conference, Sri fat on production performance of lactating cross bred
Lanka, 24-25 August 2018. cows. J Krishi Vigyan 4(1) 88-90.
Kumari S, Kumar D, Mandal S K and Sahu R (2018). Effect Tyagi N, Thakur S S , Shelke S K (2010). Effect of bypass
of Feeding Bypass Fat on Milk yield, Composition, fat supplementation on productive and reproductive
Efficiency of Nutrients and Economics in Cross Bred performance in crossbred cows. Trop Anim Health Prod
Cow: A Field Trial. Int J Curr Microbiol Appl Sci (Sp 42(8):1749-55.
Issue) 7 :3095-3102.
Wadhwa M, Grewal, R S, Bakshi, M P S and Brar P S (2012).
Rohila H, Chhikara S K, Sihag S, Dhiman D, Kumar R, Effect of supplementing bypass fat on the performance
Kumar R and Nagar V (2016). Effect of bypass fat of high yielding crossbred cows. Indian J Anim Sci 82:
supplementation on milk yield, milk fat, milk protein, 200-203.
solid not fat and total solid in lactating murrah buffaloes.
Haryana Vet 55 (2): 192-194. Received on 7/2/2023 Accepted on 20/4/2023
Rumne A A, Ramteke B N, Gadegaonkar G M (2022). Effect
of supplementation of bypass fat during pre and post
parturient period on lactation in cross bred cattle. J Krishi
Vigyan 10(2): 101-106.

Use of Pheromone Lures for the Management of Red hairy

Caterpillar Amsacta Albistriga in Rainfed Groundnut
Prasanna Lakshmi Ravuri*1, Sahaja Deva2, P Murali Krishna3, M K Jyosthna4 and K Devaki5
Regional Agricultural Research Station, Tirupati 517502
Acharya N G Ranga Agricultural University, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh
ABSTRACT
Red hairy caterpillar (Amsacta albistriga) is a major pest in kharif groundnut causing 25-100 per cent
damage in endemic villages in Chittoor and YSR Kadapa districts of Andhra Pradesh. Pheromone
lures, which is a novel pest control method, were not available for this pest till 2016. The Department
of Entomology, Regional Agricultural Research Station, Tirupati under Acharya N G Ranga Agricultural
University, Guntur in collaboration with CSIR-IICT, Hyderabad developed pheromone lures and these
lures were tested by Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kalikiri in endemic villages of the pest during kharif, 2018 and
kharif, 2019. Field evaluation during kharif, 2018 revealed that silica septa lure was effective over plastic
septa lure in attracting male moths of Red hairy caterpillar. Silica septa lures were evaluated against solar
light traps during kharif, 2019. Pheromone traps were superior over solar light trap which attracted more
number of male moths. During kharif, 2018 adult catches were high during 1st week of August and 1st
week of September whereas during kharif, 2019 catches were high during the last week of July, 2019 and
thereafter, catches gradually declined. Larval population reached economic threshold level during kharif,
2019 and poison bait was applied to manage the pest.
Key Words: Groundnut, Light, Management, Pheromone lures, Red hairy caterpillar, Trap.
INTRODUCTION Spraying of insecticides is not that much effective
Red hairy caterpillar (Amsacta albistriga) is as the larvae have long hair all over its body and also
a polyphagous pest feeding on variety of field move from one field to another in swarms. Hence,
crops causing yield losses up to 25-100 per cent integrated pest management practices like growing
(Reddy et al, 2003). The pest comes out from its of trap crops, egg mass collection, bonfires, trench
winter hibernation during the months of May and formation around field and spraying of insecticides
June soon after receiving summer showers. The etc. are being recommended to control Amsacta
female adults lay eggs in mass of 800-1000 and albistriga in Groundnut. Pheromone lures based
their caterpillars feed voraciously on a variety of strategy is the emerging pest control method which
field crops especially on groundnut and enter pupal was not available for this pest till 2016.
diapause during September/October months. They Sex pheromones are one of the major
move in swarms from one field to another field by components of pest management strategies
damaging the groundnut crop leaving only stems. against a broad category of insects worldwide.

1Assistant Professor (Entomology), S.V.Agricultural College, Tirupati 517502
2Scientist (Agronomy), Agricultural Research Station, Anantapur 515001
3Coordinator, District Agricultural Advisory and Transfer of Technology Centre, Utukur, Kadapa 516126
4Associate Professor (Pathology), S.V. Agricultural College, Tirupati 517502
5Senior Scientist (Entomology), Regional Agricultural Research Station, Tirupati 517502
Acharya N G Ranga Agricultural University, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh

Use of Pheromone Lures for the Management of Red hairy Caterpillar
Table 1. Comparison of adult male moth catches in silica and plastic septa during Kharif, 2018.
Time of visit Total Adult catches Rainfall (mm)
Silica septa Plastic septa
26th standard week 6 2 5.6
31st standard week 11 2 39.4
32nd standard week 0 0 21.3
33rd standard week 0 0 22.9
Total 46 8 178.9
Mean 5.11 0.88 18.15
SD 5.62 0.92 10.76
A better understanding of the chemical ecology seasons in Red hairy caterpillar endemic villages
of many insects has led to the incorporation of to assess the performance of various types of
behaviour-modifying compounds into existing IPM pheromone lures in the management of the pest.
programmes (Pickett et al, 1997). Sex pheromone
was first discovered by Butenandt in the silk worm MATERIALS AND METHODS
(Bombyx mori) (David et al, 1985). Sex pheromones The experiment was conducted during kharif
can be utilized as monitoring, mass trapping and 2018 and kharif 2019in endemic locations of
mating disruption agents. Pheromone lure for the Redhairy caterpillar. During kharif 2018, the
management of red hairy caterpillar was developed pheromone lures with two types of septa i.e.
for the first time by the Department of Entomology silica septa and plastic septa were tested for their
of Regional Agricultural Research Station, Tirupati, efficiency. During kharif 2019, silica septa lures
Acharya N G Ranga Agricultural University in which performed better during 2018 were compared
collaboration with CSIR-IICT, Hyderabad during for their efficacy against solar light traps. Endemic
the year 2016. Field evaluation of efficacy of villages of Redhairy caterpillar were selected i.e.
pheromone lure against Amsacta albistriga was Talapula of Piler mandal and Nayakulavaripalli of
done by Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kalikiri during two Kalikiri mandal and pheromone traps were installed
Table 2. Correlation between pheromone trap catches of A. albistriga adults and rainfall
Silica septa Plastic septa Rainfall
Silica septa r =1 - r=0.745
p=0.021
Plastic septa - r =1 r=0.198
p=0.034
Rainfall r=0.745* r=0.198* r =1
p=0.021 p=0.034
*significant at 5% level

Table 3. Comparison of Larval population in demonstration plot and farmers’ practice.

Time of visit Number of larvae/sq.m
Demonstration plot Farmers’ practice
27th standard week 0.0 1.5
31st standard week 0.0 0.0
32nd standard week 0.0 0.0
33rd standard week 0.0 0.0
Mean 1.7 2.38
SD 2.921 3.626
‘t’ value 3.9NS
‘p’ value 0.704
at 6 farmers’ fields with rainfed groundnut crop pheromone trap catches and larval population on
during first week of June, 2018. groundnut crop were recorded at weekly intervals.
T1: Pheromone traps @20 per ha Lures were changed at monthly interval in both
places till crop harvest.
T2: Farmers practice (Spraying of insecticides)
Two types of lures i.e. silica septa and plastic Kharif, 2019
septa were used in all the locations. Data on Two endemic villages of Redhairy caterpillar
on groundnut were selected i.e. Kottapeta of Piler
Table 4. Adult catches in pheromone traps and solar light trap
Standard week Total Adult catches in traps Weekly rainfall (mm)
Pheromone Solar light trap
traps
31st standard week 0 0 12.5
32nd standard week 0 0 15.5
33rd standard week 0 0 0.0
Total 39 26 121.7
Mean 3.25 2.1 10.14
SD 5.43 3.326 12.06

Table 5: Correlation between adult catches in traps and rainfall

Pheromone traps Solar light trap Rainfall
Pheromone traps r =1 r=0.885** r= 0.698*
p=0.00013 p = 0.12
Solar light trap r=0.885** r =1 r = 0.632*
p=0.00013 p = 0.002
Rainfall r= 0.698* r = 0.632* r =1
p = 0.012 p = 0.002
*Significant at 5% level
**significant at 1% level
mandal and Kuchamvaripalli of Kalikiri mandal September, 2018 the catches were not observed at
in Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh to evaluate any of the locations. In plastic septa very low adult
performance of pheromone traps. Pheromone traps catches were recorded during 1st week of August
and solar light trap were installed in 3 locations at and 1st week of September only.
each village during1st week of June, 2019. Data on
The data (Table 2) showed that there is
pheromone trap catches of male moths and larval
significant correlation between weekly rainfall and
population on groundnut crop were recorded at
adult catches in pheromone traps in both the silica
weekly interval. Lures were changed at monthly
septa and plastic septa. Further regression analysis
interval in all the locations.
was also carried out to assess the impact of rainfall.
T1: Pheromone traps @20 per hectare
The data (Table 3) showed that in demonstration
T2: Solar light trap @ one per hectare plot, larval incidence started from 3rdweek of July
T3: Farmers practice (Spraying of insecticides/ @ 5.4 larvae per sq. m but damage was below ETL
poison baiting) whereas in control, larval incidence was observed
from 1st week of July, 2018 and continued up to
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION July ending. After that, larval population was not
The data (Table1) revealed that silica septa observed in either demo or check plots. This may
recorded more number of adult male moth catches be attributed to unfavorable climatic conditions
than plastic septa. Adult catches were high during like temperature and relative humidity. Farrukh
1st week of August (29th standard week) and then Baig et al (2015) reported that due to unfavorable
population declined and again trap catches increased conditions Red hairy caterpillar damage has not
during 1st week of September, 2018 (31st standard reached to EIL even though larvae are present.
week) and after that adult catches drastically The data (Table 4) revealed that adult catches
reduced and by the end of second fortnight of started from 2nd week of June, 2019 (24th standard
Table 6. Regression analysis

Kharif 2018 Kharif 2019
Silica septa Plastic septa Pheromone trap catches Solar light trap catches
R2 0.504 0.098 0.536 0.439
F value 1.132* 0.287 9.49* 6.645*
*Significant at 5% level

Table 7. Comparison of Larval population on groundnut crop in all the treatments

Time of visit Number of larvae/sq.m
Pheromone traps Solar light trap Check
27th standard week - - -
28th standard week 1.3 1.1 8.9
31st standard week 1.1 1.5 6.8
32nd standard week 0.0 0.0 1.9
33rd standard week 1.61 2.65 6.57
Mean 1.70 2.05 7.35
SD 2.07 5.27 5.79
‘t’ value 2.13** 2.08
‘p’ value 0.000 0.93
** Significant at 1% level
week). Adult catches in pheromone traps were Regression analysis was carried out by taking
higher than solar light trap catches. Maximum rainfall as independent variable and trap catches
number of catches were recorded during 1st week of as dependent variable. It was revealed that during
July, 2019 (27th standard week) in both pheromone kharif, 2018, influence of rainfall on silica septa
traps (17) and in solar light traps (10) coinciding catches was observed to be 50 per cent and during
with high rainfall i.e. 36.4mm during that week. kharif,2019 also it was found to be 53.6 and 43.9
Population gradually declined from 3rdweek of July per cent with respect to pheromone trap and solar
and it was not recorded from 1st week of August (31st trap catches, respectively.
standard week) till the crop was harvested. Farrukh Larval population were observed from 2nd week
Baig et al (2015) reported that Red hairy caterpillar of July, 2019 in both demonstration and check plots.
population was increased with increasing rainfall Minimum of 1.3 larvae/sq.m was recorded in solar
and temperature. Pheromones are species specific light trap catches whereas in check maximum of 8.9
and are effective over larger area and hence more larvae/sq.m were recorded. The larval population
number of insects gets attracted to pheromone traps increased to 5.3, 4.9 and 14.4 per sq.m during 4th
than light traps. Muhammad Arshad et al (2020) week of July, 2019 in pheromone traps installed
reported that pheromone traps recorded more plot, solar trap installed plot and check plot,
number of adult catches of pink bollworm than respectively. Statistical analysis revealed that there
light traps in cotton. is significant difference between use of pheromone
During Kharif, 2019 also significant correlation traps and check with respect to larval population.
was observed between pheromone trap catches and Pheromone traps were found superior over solar trap
rainfall. Solar light trap catches of adult moths were in attracting male moths of Red hairy caterpillar.
also significantly correlated with rainfall. There
As the larval population reached economic
was a significant correlation between pheromone
threshold level, farmers adopted poison baiting with
traps and light trap.

monocrotophos 36%SL during 1st week of August in REFERENCES

demo and check plot and number of larvae per sq.m David H, Nesbitt BF, Easwaramoorthy S and Nandagopal V
reduced to 1.1 and 6.8 in demonstration and check, (1985). Application of sex pheromone in sugarcane
management. Indian Acad Sci (Anim Sci)
respectively. In check plot, poison baiting was done 94:333-339.
twice to control the pest whereas in demonstration
Farrukh Baig, Mahmood Ayyaz and Humayun Javed (2015).
plots poison baiting was done only once. Screening of different Groundnut, Aarachis hypogaea L.
The performance of pheromone lures is (Arctiidae: Lepidoptera) population in relation to leaf
affected by various biotic and abiotic factors. infestation, physico-morphic characters, abiotic factors
and yield. Pakistan J Zool 47(6): 1691-1698.
Latheef et al (1991) reported that catches of corn
earworm moths, Helicoverpa zea were affected by Heuskin S, Verheggen F J, Haubruge E, Wathelet J and
Lognay G (2011). The use of semiochemical slow-release
crop phenology, crop cover, moon light, pheromone devices in integrated pest management strategies.
release rate and moth behaviour. Heuskin et al (2011) Biotech, Agron and Soc and Environ 15; 459–470.
reported that the effectiveness of pheromones in Karlson P and Luscher M (1959). Pheromones: A new term for
insect communication is affected by multiple factors a class of biologically active substances. Nature 183:55.
including chemical nature, volatility, solubility and Latheef M A, Witz J A and Lopez J D (1991). Relationships
persistence in the environment. among pheromone trap catches of male corn earworm
moths (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), egg numbers and
CONCLUSION phenology in corn. The Canadian Entomol 123, 271–281.
Community adoption of pheromone lures in Muhammad Arshad, Muhammad Irfan Ullah,
Red hairy caterpillar endemic areas soon after onset Muhammad Wasim Abbas, Asad Abdullah and
Usama Hassan (2020). Mass trapping of Pectinophora
of monsoons reduces larval population along with
gossypiella (Saunders) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) using
other integrated pest management practices like light and sex-pheromone traps in cotton. Enfoque UTE.
growing of trap crops, poison baiting which is not 11(4): 27-36.
only safe to environment but also reduces cost of Pickett J, Wadhams L and Woodcock C (1997). Developing
cultivation and protect the crop. sustainable pest control from chemical ecology. Agric,
Ecosyst and Environ 64: 149–156.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Reddy T Y, Reddy V R and Anbumozhi V (2003). Physiological
The authors are thankful to the Department responses of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) to drought
of Entomology, RARS, Tirupati for providing stress and its amelioration: a critical review. Kluwer
Academic Publishers. 41: 75-88.
pheromone lures of Red hairy caterpillar Amsacta
albistriga and ICAR–ATARI, Zone – X for financial Received on 16/3/2023 Accepted on 2/5/2023
support and providing facilities.

Value Chain Mapping of Standardized Milk in Cooperative and

Private Dairy Plants in Andhra Pradesh
Naresha N and Anil K. Dixit
ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal-132001, Haryana
ABSTRACT
A study on value chain mapping of standardized milk has been carried out in Chittoor and Vishakhapatnam
districts of Andhra Pradesh. A predetermined sample of 80 dairy farmers were drawn randomly from selected
four villages of Chittoor and Vishakhapatnam districts of Andhra Pradesh. Two collection centres each from
Vishakhapatnam cooperative and Chittoor private processing plants were selected for mapping of formal
value chain. Study revealed that the procurement cost of milk for Chittoor private dairy processing plant
(Rs. 1.40/l) was found to be higher than Vishakhapatnam cooperative dairy processing plant (Rs. 1.37/l).
This was mainly due to handling of less quantity of milk by the private dairy plant. However, 14.60 per
cent higher processing cost of standardized milk was witnessed in case of cooperative dairy pant. Higher
marketing efficiency of private dairy plant (2.02) than cooperative dairy plant (1.78) was mainly due to
lower marketing cost, which reveals better management of private diary plant.
Key Words: Value chain, milk, marketing efficiency
INTRODUCTION Traditional food production methods are

Dairy sector plays an important role in India’s being replaced by practices that are closer to
agricultural economy, because it has a capacity manufacturing processes, with greater coordination
to generate income and employment for rural among farmers, processors, retailers, and other
livelihood. India has now attained a status of largest value chain stakeholders (Kumar et al, 2011).
milk producer in the world with 221.1 Mt of milk Furthermore, as income rises, so does the pattern
production and per capita availability of 441 g/ of food consumption. Mapping of milk value chain
day (GOI 2022). This is because of extensive dairy provides better understanding of key capabilities
development programs and increased consumer of various actors involved in the chain and helps
demand for value-added products. Dairy sector in improving overall efficiency of processing and
slowly shifting from traditional to advanced due to marketing. Andhra Pradesh is predominately an
the technological advancements. This coupled with agricultural state with an excellent potential for
changing consumers taste and preferences have milk production. Andhra Pradesh has renowned
increased the demand of different value added dairy breeds of cattle like Ongole and Punganur and
products such as condensed milk, flavoured milk, Buffaloe (Godavari). Over last decade ending
health drinks, ice cream, milk powder, homogenized 2017-18, milk production in Andhra Pradesh has
milk, pasteurized milk, etc. (Singh and Datta, 2010). increased to 137.25 lakh tonnes (LT) with an annual
Around 70 million farmers are engaged in dairy growth rate of above 7 per cent (NDDB, 2018).
farming; their income depends on prevailing milk The per capita availability of milk was 623 g/day
procurement, processing and marketing system– during 2018-19 (NDDB Annual Report, 2018-19).
dominated by informal system. In Andhra Pradesh, dairy is an important secondary

Value Chain Mapping of Standardized Milk in Cooperative
Table 1. Total cost of milk procurement (₹/litre)

Components Cooperative dairy plant Private dairy plant
Cost per litre Cost per litre
Cost of collection (1) 0.48 0.56
Cost of transportation (2) 0.80 0.73
Cost of reception (3) 0.09 0.11
Procurement cost (1+2+3) 1.37 1.40
source of income for rural families. The supply of Analytical Framework

milk and milk products to the increasing population Procurement cost of liquid milk
is growing continuously. Cost of milk procurement = Cost of collection +
In Andhra Pradesh, 30% of the total market Cost of transportation + Cost of reception.
share is in the organized sector, and nearly 50 % of Cost of collection per litre of milk = ......(1)
the total market is regulated by private companies,
while the remaining 20% of the demand is met by Transportation cost per litre of milk = TC / MT
local milk vendors (Sujatha et al., 2015). Where,
TC is the total transportation cost
MATERIALS AND METHODS
MT is the total quantity of milk transported … (2)
Andhra Pradesh was selected for the study,
as the state ranked among top five milk producer Cost of reception per litre of milk = …… (3)
states in the country and per capita milk availability Chilling cost per litre of milk = … (4)
is more than double the national average. Krishna,
Procurement cost of milk for both cooperative
Prakasam, Guntur, Chittoor and East Godavari
and private dairy plants was calculated by using
districts of Andhra Pradesh, together produced
tabular analysis.
about half of the total milk production in the state.
Two districts Chittoor and Vishakhapatnam of Processing and manufacture cost of milk
Andhra Pradesh were selected purposively for the contains depreciation on buildings and machinery,
study. Milk production in Chittoor, has increased cost of raw materials, electricity charges, water
dramatically, but the potential role of dairy farming and steam charges, refrigeration charges, repair
as a tool for economic development remains and maintenance, Store and stationary charges,
unexplored. Household incomes, rural employment, packing material, quality control, milk loses and
and regional competitiveness in milk production miscellaneous cost. Mapping of milk value chain
are still to be realized (Murthy et al,2012). was done with the help of system dynamics software
Chittoor private dairy plant and Vishakhapatnam Vensim.
cooperative dairy plant were selected in order to Marketing efficiency
compare procurement, processing and marketing Marketing efficiency of milk estimated by the
aspects of cooperative vs private dairy plants. Two ratio of raw material cost to the marketing cost and
milk collection centres, each from cooperative margin. (Acharya and Agarwal, 2009)
and private dairy plant were selected. Further, 20
milk producers from each society was selected ME=RC/MC+MM
purposively. Primary data were collected from where
milk producers and secondary data pertains to milk RC= Raw material cost
processing plants were also collected.

MC= Marketing cost plant. Lower cost of milk procurement in case of

MM= Marketing margin cooperative was mainly due to economies of scale
Processing cost of standardized milk
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Processing cost of standardized milk for
Procurement cost of milk cooperative dairy plant and private dairy plant was
The cost of milk procurement contains cost estimated at Rs. 2.04 per litre and Rs.1.78 per litre
of milk collection, cost of milk transportation and respectively.
cost of reception of milk. Table 1 indicates the The main actors involved in the selected value
procurement cost of milk for both cooperative and chains are: milk producers, milk collection centres,
private milk plant. In case of cooperative dairy plant processing plant and consumers (Fig.1 & 2).
the per litre cost of milk procurement was estimated
at Rs.1.37. Collection cost, transportation cost and A comparative analysis of value chains of
reception cost of milk was estimated at Rs.0.48, standardized milk
Rs.0.80 and Rs.0.09 per litre respectively. The comparative analysis of standardized milk
Where as in case of private dairy plant, the value chain for cooperative and private dairy plant
procurement cost of milk was estimated at Rs.1.40 was carried out. Various indicators considered for
per litre. Cost of milk collection, transportation and comparison such as: processing cost, manufacturing
reception cost was estimated at Rs.0.56, Rs.0.73 cost, marketing cost, marketing margin and
and Rs.0.11 per litre. It is evident from Table 1 that marketing efficiency are shown in Table 2. The
procurement cost of milk for private dairy plant marketing cost of standardized milk was estimated
was higher than cooperative dairy plant due to to the tune of Rs. 3.88 per litre and Rs. 3.61 per
less handling capacity of milk by the private dairy litre for cooperative and private dairy plant,
Fig. 1: Value chain mapping of cooperative milk plant
Fig.2 : Value chain mapping of private dairy plant

Table 2: A comparative analysis of value chains of standardized milk

Particulars Cooperative dairy plant Private dairy plant
1. Cost of raw material (₹/lit) 28.55 28.79
2. Procurement cost (₹/lit) 1.37 1.40
3. Chilling cost (₹/lit) 0.47 0.43
4. Processing cost (₹/lit) 2.04 1.78
5. Total cost (₹/lit) (1+2+3+4) 32.43 32.40
6. Selling price (₹/lit) 44 43
7. Marketing margin (₹/lit) (6-5) 11.57 10.60
8. Total marketing cost (₹/lit) (2+3+4) 3.88 3.61
9. Marketing cost and margin (₹/lit) (7+8) 15.45 14.21
10. Marketing efficiency (1/9) 1.84 2.02
respectively (Table 2). The marketing cost of milk was found highest than cooperative dairy plant
for cooperative dairy plant consists of procurement because of lower marketing cost and margin in case
cost (i.e., Rs. 1.37/l) chilling cost (Rs.0.47/l) and of private dairy plant. This may be due to better
processing cost (Rs. 2.04/l), whereas, in case of management of private plants.
private dairy plant, procurement cost (Rs. 1.40/l),
chilling cost (Rs.0.43/l), and processing cost REFERENCES
(Rs.1.78/l). The marketing cost and marketing Acharya S S and Agarwal N L (2009). Agricultural marketing
margins were lower for private dairy plant (Rs. in India (Fourth edition). Oxford and IBH Publishing Co.
Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi
14.21/l) than cooperative dairy plant. (Rs.15.45/l).
Higher marketing efficiency of private dairy plant Annual Report (2018-19). Ministry of Finance, government
of Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad
(2.02) than cooperative dairy plant (1.78) was due
Babu D and N K Verma (2010). Value Chains of Milk and
to lower marketing cost, which reveals about better
Milk Products in Organised Sector of Tamil Nadu-A
management of private diary plant. The result Comparative Analysis. Agricultural Economics Research
obtained with regards to the value chain analysis Review 23 (Conference Number) pp 479-486.
of standardized milk was found to be in conformity GOI (2022). Basic Animal Husbandry Statistics. Ministry of
with the earlier study conducted by Babu and Verma Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying, Department
(2010) and Vanishree et al (2018). of Animal Husbandry and Dairying. Krishi Bhawan, New
Delhi.
CONCLUSION Kumar A, Singh H, Kumar S and Mittal S (2011). Value
The procurement cost of milk was found higher chains of agricultural commodities and their role in food
security and poverty alleviation – A synthesis. Agric Econ
for private dairy plant than cooperative milk plant Res Rev 24:169-181.
because of handling of lower quantity of milk.
Murthy M R K, Rao K H and Reddy G P (2012). Evaluating
Transportation cost of milk accounts highest share value chain and retailing of milk in Chittoor, Andhra
in the procurement cost of milk followed by cost of Pradesh. Int J Eng Res Technol 1:1-6.
milk collection and cost of milk reception. Hence, NDDB (National Dairy Development Board) (2017) Annual
there is a need to design efficient transport system report 2018-19.
for milk so as to reduce the procurement cost. Singh S R and Datta K K (2010). Understanding value
Processing cost of standardized milk was found addition in Indian dairy sector: some perspectives. J
higher for cooperative dairy plant than private dairy Agric Econ Res Rev 23 (Conference Number) : 487-493
plant. Marketing efficiency for private dairy plant
Sujatha R V, Suseela T and Suseela K (2015). Milk marketing
in co-operative sector and private sector in Andhra
Pradesh, India: A Comparative study. Int J Sci Res
(5):2250-3153
Vanishree M, Sendhil R, Sirohi S, Chauhan A K, Rashmi H M
and Ponnusamy K (2018). Value chain analysis of input
delivery system for liquid milk in Bengaluru milk union
of Karnataka. Indian J Dairy Sci 71:502-508.

Water Activity in Treated and Untreated Traditional

Grain Storage
Dinesh Rajak1, Genitha Immanuel2 and Rajkumar Jat3
Department of Processing and Food Engineering,
College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology,
Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar,
ABSTRACT
The present study was conducted to know the water activity in the behaviour of treated and untreated
traditional grain storage. The freshly harvested maize grains (DKC 9082; 12.0% w. b.) were stored under
five different types of storage i.e., in Hermetic bags (super bags), Polyethylene bags, Plastic bags and Jute
bags, Metal bin and Mud bin with and without treatment at ambient condition (30± 5oc) for study. Out of
fifteen, three treatments viz.,T1: Jute bag with Hermetic bag; T2- Plastic with Hermetic Bag; T3- Metal bin
with Hermetic bags grouped under untreated whereas, twelve treatment viz., T4- Jute bag with polythene
treatment of neem; T5- Jute bag with treatment of neem, T6- Plastic bag with Polythene treatment of neem;
T7- Plastic with treatment of neem, T8- Metal Bin with polythene Bag treatment of neem; T9- Metal Bin
with treatment of neem; T10- Jute bag with polythene treatment of chemical; T11- Jute bag with treatment of
chemical; T12- Plastic with polythene treatment of chemical; T13- Plastic bag with treatment of chemical; T14-
Metal bin with polythene Bag treatment of chemical and T15 Metal Bin with treatment of chemical storage
modes were placed under treatment. The variation in temperature and relative humidity were recorded on a
daily basis and the physical properties such as grain moisture content, water activity was recorded monthly.
The result revealed that the water activity was found as 0.55 during the initial storage days. In untreated
group, the values of water activity were observed slightly increased 0.58 in T1 while T2 and T3 showed
similar increased values 0.61 and 0.62 as compared to initial values. In neem leave treated storage water
activity was T4 in 0.63, while T5 and T7 similar values were 0. 67, T6 in 0.64, and T8 in 0.66, the highest
value increased were T9 in 0.69. In chemical treatment, the highest value was 0.70 in T15, while the lowest
value was 0.63 in T10 at the 6th month of storage period in the different storage mode bag. It was concluded
that the untreated group exhibited slightly increased values of the water activity in comparison to values
recorded at initial stage but less than treated group.
Key Words: Hermetic, Moisture, Metal bin, Mud bin, Storage, Water activity.
INTRODUCTION narrated that the post-harvest processing activity

The post-harvest processing technology included all operations from the beginning of
deals about the processes and treatments run on harvest till the material reaches the end-users
agricultural produce after harvest for its protection, as per desired form, place, packaging, quantity,
conservation, processing, packaging, distribution, quality, as well as price. It has to be developed in
marketing, and utilization to full fill the food and congruity as per need of society in view of enhance
nutritional need of the people. Therefore, it can be agricultural yield, prevention of post-harvest
Correspondence E. Mail: [email protected]
1
Assistant Professor-cum-Scientist ,Department of Processing & Food Engineering and Technology, CAET, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central
Agricultural University Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar
2
Associate Professor ,Department of Processing and Food Engineering, APFE, V IA E & T, SHUATS, Prayagraj, U. P.
3
Scientist, Borlaug Institute of South Asia (BISA), New Area Farm, Pusa, Bihar.

losses, improvement of nutrition and add value to and Alam (2019).

the products. However, more attention is required
during primary processing aspects, in relation with MATERIALS AND METHODS
cleaning, grading, drying, storage, and packaging. Sample preparation
The water activity (aw) of a food is the ratio Fresh and healthy maize and wheat grains were
between the vapour pressure of the food itself, arranged from Borlaug Institute of South Asia
when in a completely undisturbed balance with the BISA, Pusa whereas fumigant like Celphos was
surrounding air media, and the vapour pressure of procured from the market. Cleaning and grading of
distilled water under identical conditions. A water grain were done in seed cleaner cum grader machine
activity of 0.80 means the vapour pressure is 80 (gravity separator), Model 2TPS and manufactured
percent of that of pure water Berg and Bruin (1991). by M/s Padsons Pvt. Ltd. Grains coming from the
The water activity increases with temperature. The bottom screen were discarded and only top and
moisture condition of a product can be measured as main grain outlet was used for storage study. The
the equilibrium relative humidity (ERH) expressed grain is weighted 40 kg on weighing machine and
in percentage or as the water activity expressed as stored in different storage bags.
a decimal. Most foods have a water activity above
0.95 and that will provide sufficient moisture to Moisture Content
support the growth of bacteria, yeasts, and molds. The moisture content of sample was determined
The amount of available moisture can be reduced by standard hot air oven method. The samples were
o o
to a point which will inhibit the growth of the dried in the hot air oven at 102 C ± 2 C for 24hr. The
organisms. If the water activity of food is controlled total dry materials or the initial moisture content of
to 0.85 or less in the finished product, it is not sample was determined in accordance with AOAC
subject to the regulations of 21 CFR Parts 108, 113, method (Anonymous, 1990).
and 114. Monitoring aw is a critical control point Treatments
for many foods industry operations Fontana (2000). The experiment consisted of fifteen treatments,
The importance of water activity (aw) in food using six different types of storage modes with and
systems cannot be overemphasized. Throughout without fumigants. The treatments were:T : Jute
1
history water activity in food has been controlled bag + Hermetic bag; T :Plastic + Hermetic Bag;T :
2 3
by drying, addition of sugar or salt and freezing. Metal bin + hermetic bags; T : Jute bag + polythene
4
These methods prevent spoilage and maintain food + neem treatment; T : Jute bag + neem treatment,
5
quality. Water activity is the ratio of the partial T :Plastic bag + Polythene + neem; T7:Plastic
6
vapour pressure of water in equilibrium with a food + neem T :Metal Bin + polythene Bag + neem;
8
to the partial saturation vapour pressure of water T : Metal Bin + neem; T : Jute bag + polythene
9 10
vapour in air at the same temperature. This is equal + chemical treatment; T : Jute bag + chemical
11
to the relative humidity of air in equilibrium with treatment; T :Plastic + polythene + chemical
12
the food. The water activity of a food describes treatment; T :Plastic bag + chemical treatment;
13
the energy state of water in the food, and hence T :Metal bin + polythene Bag +Chemical; T :Metal
14 15
it’s potential to act as a solvent and participate in Bin + chemical. The containers were placed in a
chemical/biochemical reactions and growth of room made of concrete roof and wall with suitable
microorganisms. It is an important property that is ventilation. All the treatments were kept under
used to predict the stability and safety of food with ambient conditions. The different treatments were
respect to microbial growth, rates of deteriorative arranged in two rows on a dunnage so as to protect
reactions and chemical/physical properties Akbar the grains bags from the direct contact with ground.

Table 1. Variation in water activity in different bag storage with untreated and treated conditions.
Storage Treatment Water Activity
Month
May-21 June-21 July-21 Aug-21 Sept-21 Oct-21
T1- Jute bag + Hermetic bag 0.55 0.56 0.56 0.57 0.58 0.58
T2- Plastic bag + Hermetic Bag 0.55 0.57 0.57 0.58 0.59 0.60
T3-Metal bin + hermetic bags 0.55 0.57 0.57 0.59 0.60 0.61
T4- Jute bag + polythene + Neem treat. 0.55 0.57 0.58 0.60 0.61 0.63
T5- Jute bag + Neem treatment 0.55 0.59 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.67
T6- Plastic bag + Polythene + neem 0.55 0.58 0.59 0.62 0.63 0.64
T7- Plastic bag+ Neem 0.55 0.6 0.63 0.65 0.67 0.67
T8- Metal bin + polythene Bag + Neem 0.55 0.58 0.61 0.63 0.64 0.66
T9- Metal bin + Neem 0.55 0.61 0.65 0.67 0.68 0.69
T10-Jute bag +Polythene +Chemical treat 0.55 0.57 0.59 0.61 0.62 0.63
T11-Jute bag + Chemical treatment 0.55 0.6 0.63 0.66 0.67 0.68
T12-Plastic + Polythene + Chemical treat 0.55 0.58 0.6 0.62 0.64 0.65
T13-Plastic bag + Chemical treatment 0.55 0.59 0.62 0.64 0.65 0.67
T14-Metal bin +Polythene Bag +Chem 0.55 0.61 0.64 0.67 0.67 0.69
T15- Metal bin + Chemical 0.55 0.62 0.66 0.68 0.69 0.70
The temperature and relative humidity were activities below 0.91. Water activity was measured
recorded on a daily basis while the other dependent during experimentation using water activity meter
parameters were recorded on Monthly basis. at ambient temperature
Observations RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
From each bag, grain samples were obtained
with a compartmentalized grain sampling spear Water activity
(Seed buro Equipment Company, Chicago, USA), The water activity of the grain was initially at
10 times at one monthly intervals. The sampling 0.55 for all untreated maize samples under study.
spear was 1 m long, with fives lots, 15 cm long, It was recorded highest (0.60) in case of T2- Plastic
evenly-spaced, and separated from each other by a bag + Hermetic Bag and T3-Metal bin + hermetic
2.5 cm-long wooden plug. bags while lowest (0.61) for untreated maize
contained in jute bag with super grain bag stored
Water Activity period at room temperature in 0 to 6 m. The water
Water activity is defined as the ratio of the activity increased to 0.61 in the jute bag with super
vapour pressure of water in a material (p) to the grain bag, 0.62 for untreated maize jute bag with
vapour pressure of pure water (po) at the same polythene bag storage and same metal bin with
temperature. Water activity (Aw) is one of the most hermetic bags untreated when stored at room
critical factors in determining quality and safety of temperature.
the goods. It affects the shelf life, safety, texture, In case of treated (Neem) samples stored in T4-
flavour, and smell of foods. Water activity may be Jute bag + polythene + Neem treatment, T - Jute
the most important factor in controlling spoilage. bag + Neem treatment, T - Plastic bag + Polythene
5
Most bacteria, for example, do not grow at water 6

Fig 1. Variation of water activity of untreated maize samples during storage.
Fig 2. Variation of water activity of treated (Neem) maize samples during storage.
+ neem, T7- Plastic bag+ Neem, T8- Metal bin + The lowering of water activity with storage period
polythene Bag + Neem, T9- Metal bin + Neem, the may due to increase in moisture content owe due
highest water activity value was seen to be 0.69 for to increased respiration rate and due to variation in
T9 while the lowest water activity was 0.63 in T4 relative humidity during storage period. The present
when stored period at room temperature in 0 to 6 findings were in accordance with findings of Akbar
months. and Alam (2019) and Torresa et al (2003).
In case of treated (Chemical) samples stored The water activity of maize grain storage for
in T10-Jute bag +Polythene +Chemical treatment, treatments T1, T2, T3, T4, T10, T6, T12, T8, T13, T5, T7,
T11-Jute bag + Chemical treatment, T12-Plastic + T11, T14, T9, and T15 were found to be in increasing
Polythene + Chemical treatment, T13-Plastic bag order of untreated and treated (chemicals and Neem
+ Chemical treatment, T14-Metal bin +Polythene leaves). Water activity in Maize storage for all 15
Bag +Chemical, T15- Metal bin + Chemical, the treatments, untreated and treated, was found to be
highest water activity value was seen to be 0.70 for Significant for all data from the time of storage to
T15, while the lowest water activity was 0.63 in T10 last 12 months.
when stored at room temperature in 0 to 6 months.

Fig 3. Variation of water activity of treated (Chemical) maize samples during storage.
The lowering of water activity with storage et al (2006), Zinedine et al (2007) on broiler feed
period may be due to increase in moisture content having maize grains as vital ingredient reported
owing due to increased respiration rate and due to that fungal colonization and ultimately mycotoxins
variation in relative humidity during storage period. accumulation was a serious issue that was affected
It was found similar result that super grain bags had by various factors including water availability
the lowest variance in maize water activity (0.132), and length of storage time. Reasonably warm and
while chemically untreated jute bags had the highest humid climatic environment, poor post-harvest
variation (0.166). The metabolism of insects and management and insufficient storage practices
microorganisms in the oxygen-depleted and carbon facilitate the fungal growth and mycotoxins
dioxide-rich inter-granular habitats of the storage production (Hell et al, 2000; Klich, 2007). There
ecosystem accounts for the lowest change in the are several methods which can be used for the
moisture content in tightly sealed storage bags as control of fungal growth in cereals e.g., thermal
stated, Kumari et al (2017). However, due to the inactivation, irradiation, enzymatic and microbial
permeability of polypropylene bags, grains lost degradation, use of chemical preservatives and
moisture in response to the relative humidity of the reducing the water activity of the substrate (Byun
surrounding air. Water, temperature, and air are a and Yoon, 2003; Haque et al, 2009; Alam et al,
few elements that affect insect infestation in the 2009).
ecosystem of grain storage (Marin 1998), and as a
result, insect damage rises during storage. CONCLUSION
The present results are fairly in line with findings The result revealed that the water activity was
of Marin et al (1999) and Suhr and Nielsen (2004). found very well as 0.55 during the initial storage
They demonstrated that sufficient availability of days. In untreated group, the values of water
water enhanced the total fungal population of stored activity were observed slightly increased to 0.58 in
maize grains. In other studies, conducted by Beg T1 while T2 and T3 showed similar increased values

0.60 and 0.61 as compared to initial values. In Hell K, Cardwell K F, Setamou M and Poehling H M
neem leave treated storage water activity was T4 in (2000). The influence of storage practices on aflatoxin
contamination in maize in four agroecological zones
0.63, while T5 and T7 similar values were 0. 67, T6 of Benin, West Africa J Stored Prod Res 36:365-
in 0.64, and T8 in 0.66, the highest value increased 382. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-474X(99)00056-9
were T9 in 0.69. In chemical treatment, the highest Klich M A (2007). Environmental and developmental
value was 0.70 in T15, while the lowest value was factors influencing aflatoxin production by Aspergillus
0.63 in T10 at the 6th month of storage period in flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Mycosci 48:71-
the different storage mode bag. It was concluded 80. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10267-006-0336-2
that the untreated group exhibit slightly increased Kumari A, Kumar V, Amitabh A, Kumar A, Kumar M and
values of the water activity in comparison to values Kashyap V (2017). Qualitative Loss of Maize under
recorded at initial stage but less than treated group. Different Bag Storage Modes. Int J Curr Microbiol App
Sci 6 (12): 177-183,
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Alam S, Shah H U and Magan N (2009). Water availability V (1999). Two-dimensional profiles of fumonisin B1
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Kuwait. Arch Environ Contam Toxic 50: 594-602. https:// preservatives on growth of bakery product spoilage
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org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2006.10.013

Weed Management Strategy for Enhancing Productivity and

Profitability of Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L. Millspaugh)
Somendra Nath1, Sandeep Kumar2 and Abhishek Yadav3
Krishi Vigyan Kendra Sohaon, Ballia
Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture & Technology Kumarganj, Ayodhya -222 229
(Uttar Pradesh)
ABSTRACT
The on farm trial (OFT) was conducted to find out the cost-effective weed management practices for
pigeonpea during Kharif season of 2021-22 with four replication one at in crop cafeteria (Technical
Park) of Krishi Vigyan Kendra and remaining three conducted at farmers’ field of village Bharauli block
Sohaon, district Ballia Uttar Pradesh. Seven treatments were viz., T1-weedy check, T2-Hand weeding, T3-
Pendimethalin @ 750g a.i. ha-1 as PE, T4 -Imazethapyr @ 100g a.i. ha-1 at 30 DAS, T5 - quizalofop-ethyl
@ 50g. a.i. ha-1 at 30 DAS , T6 - Pendimethalin @ 750g a.i. ha-1 as PE fb Imazethapyr @ 100 g a.i.ha-1
at 30 DAS [POE], T7 - Pendimethalin @ 750g a.i. ha-1 as PE fb quizalofop-ethyl @ 50g. a.i. ha-1 at 30
DAS [POE]. The pre-emergent herbicide i.e., Pendimethalin was sprayed within 24 hr of sowing and post
emergence herbicides i.e., Imazethapyr and Quizalofop-ethyl were sprayed 30 DAS between the crop rows
(directed sprays).
Among all the treatments, pre-emergence application of Pendimethalin followed by Imazethapyr at 30 days
after sowing (DAS) was significantly recorded lowest weed growth and weed dry weight with WCE of
82.64 per cent at 60 DAS and 76.80 percent at 90 DAS, respectively.
Key Words: Control, Efficiency, Hand weeding, Pigeonpea, Weed.
INTRODUCTION spacing and continuous rains in monsoon season,

Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L.) is the second pigeonpea is highly infested with narrow and broad
important pulse crop in India after chickpea. It leaved weeds cause maximum damage up to 32-
is cultivated over an area of 4.56m.ha with a 65 percent (Meena et al, 2010). The critical period
total production of 3.78 m.t and productivity of of crop weed competition is during the first eight
829 kg/ ha (Anonymous, 2019). Pigeonpea is an weeks after sowing (Sharma et al, 2014). Timely
important pulse crop of Uttar Pradesh state, having weed control is very essential for realization of
2.84 lakh ha area, 2.85 lakh tones production and yield potential of pigeonpea. At present weeds
1005 kg/ ha productivity. The low productivity are controlled by one hand weeding during 30 to
is due to an array of biotic and abiotic factors 45 days after sowing. However, due to continuous
especially weed infestation. Weeds compete with rains during monsoon season it becomes difficult
crop for light, moisture and nutrients, with early for manual and mechanical weeding at right time.
season competition being the most critical. In Furthermore, non-availability of labour, increasing
Uttar Pradesh, pigeonpea is mainly grown during labour cost and being time consuming it was felt to
Kharif season. Due to its slow initial growth, wider find out suitable weed control methods involving
herbicides.
1
Subject matter specialist (Agronomy) Krishi Vigyan Kendra Sohaon, Ballia
2
Subject matter specialist (Plant Protection) Krishi Vigyan Kendra Jaunpur-II
3
Subject matter specialist (Entomology/Nematology) Krishi Vigyan Kendra Sohaon, Ballia

Weed Management Strategy for Enhancing Productivity
MATERIAL AND METHODS in per square meter. The total number of weeds
The on farm trial (OFT) was conducted to find were counted species wise in each plot separately
out the cost-effective weed management practices and analyzed. Weed control efficiency (WCE)
for pigeonpea during Kharif season of 2021-22 with was calculated by the following method as per the
four replication one at in crop cafeteria of Krishi procedure given by Meena et al (2010). Economics
Vigyan Kendra and remaining three conducted on of treatments was computed on the basis of
farmers’ field of village Bharauli block Sohaon, prevailing market price of inputs and outputs under
district Ballia Uttar Pradesh. The pigeonpea variety each treatment. The total cost of cultivation of crop
Narendra Arhar-2 (280-285 d) was sown on ridge was calculated on the basis of different operations
bad method having plant geometry (ridge x plant) performed and materials used for raising the crop
at 75 cm x 30 cm during second week of July and including the cost of fertilizers and seeds. The
harvested manually during second week of April. cost of labour incurred in performing different
The recommended fertilizer dose (20:50:20 kg/ha operations was also included. Statistical analysis
as N: P2O5 and K2O) was applied at the time of of the data was done as per the standard analysis
sowing through urea and single super phosphate. of variance technique for the experimental designs
The crop was raised under rained conditions with following SPSS software based programme, and the
recommended package of practices. The OFT was treatment means were compared at P<0.05 level of
laid out in randomized block design with comprised probability using t-test and calculating CD values.
of seven treatments viz; T1-weedy check, T2-Hand
weeding, T3- Pendimethalin @ 750g a.i. ha-1 as RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
PE, T4 -Imazethapyr @ 100g a.i. ha-1 at 30 DAS, The major weed flora were observed in
T5 - quizalofop-ethyl @ 50g. a.i. ha-1 at 30 DAS all experimental field of pigeonpea and also
, T6 - Pendimethalin @ 750g a.i. ha-1 as PE fb included grassy weeds like, Cynodon dactylon,
Imazethapyr @ 100 g a.i.ha-1 at 30 DAS [POE], T7 - Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Echinochloa
Pendimethalin @ 750g a.i. ha-1 as PE fb quizalofop- colona, Echinochloa crussgulli, Eleusine
ethyl @ 50g. a.i. ha-1 at 30 DAS [POE]. The pre- indica, Parthenium hysterophorus and Digitaria
emergent herbicide i.e., Pendimethalin was sprayed sanguinalis. Sedges like Cyperus rotundus, Cyperus
within 24 hours of sowing and post emergence iria, Cyperus difformis and broad leaved weeds like
herbicides i. e., Imazethapyr and Quizalofop- Ageratum conyzoides, Digera arvensis, Physallis
ethyl were sprayed 30 DAS between the crop minima, Trianthema portulacastrum, Boerrhivia
rows (directed sprays). The soluble herbicide was diffusa, Euphorbia hirta, Phyllanthus niruri and
applied after duly mixing with water 500 l/water Bidens biternata. Total weed density (No. m-2)
per hectare. was recorded at 30, 60, 90 DAS and at harvesting.
Dry weight of weed was recorded at 60 and 90
Dry matter of weeds in weedy
DAS. All the weed control treatments significantly
check – Dry matter of weeds
recorded lower weed density and weed dry weight
WCE% = in treated plot x 100
over weedy check at all stages of observations
Dry matter of weeds in weedy (Table 1). The integrated treatments were found to
check be superior to mono application of herbicides in
An iron square of size 0.25 m2 (side 0.5 m) was reducing weed growth. Among the treatments, pre-
used to take observations on weed population and emergence application of Pendimethalin followed
weed dry weight through random sampling in each by Imazethapyr at 30 DAS was significantly
plot at (just before application of Imazethapyr), 30, recorded lowest weed growth and weed dry weight
60 90 DAS and at harvest. The value is converted with WCE of 82.64 per cent at 60 DAS and 76.80

Table 1. Effect of different weed management treatments on density and dry weight of weeds in pigeonpea.
401
Treatment Dose gm a.i. Time of Total weed density No m-2 at Total weed dry weight Weed Control
ha-1 application gm-1 Efficiency (%)
(DAS) 30 DAS 60 DAS 90 DAS At 60 DAS 90 DAS 60 90
harvest DAS DAS
Weedy check- T1 - 13.64 21.92 16.39 11.46 25.12 21.73 - -
(216.52) (452.68) (380.75) (108.66) (583.42) (436.60)

Hand weeding- T2 - 30 & 60 2.65 7.45 6.51 4.92 4.72 3.23 81.21 73.64
(5.98) (66.34) (48.20) (15.06) (16.35) (11.20)

Pendimethalin- T3 750 gm Within- 2 8.22 9.22 8.07 6.85 19.31 18.33 23.12 15.64
(67.06) (84.56) (65.03) (46.35) (440.22) (85.52)

Imazethapyr -T4 100 gm 30 10.16 6.93 5.94 5.36 5.23 5.61 79.17 74.18
(102.66) (47.23) (30.82) (27.83) (26.9) (27.90)

Quizalofop-ethyl- 50 gm 30 10.41 6.96 6.04 5.73 6.86 7.23 72.69 66.72
T5
(109.85) (47.33) (31.34) (29.35) (27.80) (29.20)
Pendimethalin+ 750 + 100 gm Within- 2 8.15 8.98 7.62 7.35 4.36 5.04 82.64 76.80
Imazethapyr -T6 + 30

(65.94) (80.15) (57.40) (51.56) (28.32) (41.03)
Pendimethalin+ 750 + 50 gm Within- 2 8.35 9.36 7.97 7.62 6.33 6.95 74.80 68.01
Quizalofop-ethyl- + 30
T7 (69.58) (87.57) (63.74) (60.15) (28..26) (34.97)
SEM ± 0.563 0.480 0.422 0.362 0.794 0.381 0.69 1.21
CD at 5% - - 1.45 1.52 1.37 1.25 2.38 1.24 1.73 3.14

BCR percent at 90 DAS, respectively which was at a
(Rs-/ par with hand weeding (T2) at 30 and 60 DAS. No
2.17
2.80
3.66
3.02
1.19
2.02
3.15
ha)
-
-
crop injury was recorded with the herbicides, which
were studied under this project.
returns
71225
49396
78494
59660
28199
59105
(Rs-/
5014
Net
ha)
The results indicated that all the weed control
-
-
treatments were significantly reduced the weed
growth over the weedy check (T1) at different stages
Grass
32800
27400
29400
29400
25500
27500
27400
(Rs-/
cast
ha)
of observation. Plant height, number of primary and
-
-
secondary branches per plant, number of pods per
Table 2. Effect of different weed management treatments on yield and yield parameters in pigeonpea
plant, number of seeds per pod, 100 seed weight
62.30 206.45
186.27 586.74
Stalk
yield
5164
4129
5986
5864
1482
3652
4368
(kg/
ha)
and pod yields were significantly influenced

by the weed management treatments. Among
the treatments, pre-emergence application of
Yield
1425
1052
1478
1220
Seed
1185
(kg/
418
763
ha)
Pendimethalin followed by Imazethapyr at 30 DAS

was significantly recorded the highest grain yield
weight
(1478 kg/ha) and 70.66 per cent of yield reduction

(gm)
seed
12.0
12.1
12.1
12.3
12.1
0.42
11.1
11.9
100
1.3
was recorded over unweeded check (Table 2).

Unweeded check recorded the lowest seed yield
No of
(418 kg/ha) with a yield loss of 71.71% compared

seed/
0.21
0.58
pod
3.3
4.3
3.7
4.0
4.0
4.5
4.4
to pre emergence application of pendimethaline

@ 750 a.i. kg ha-1 followed by Imazethapyr at 30
172.72
424.05
210.23
227.35
214.86
450.74
442.32
No of
pods/
20.42
58.36
DAS. The similar results were reported by Rao et al

pod
(2015) and Sharma et al ,(2014).

The economics was worked out based on the
branches/
total cost of cultivation of pigeonpea in the eastern

15..62
No of
17.52
14.46
15.20
18.32
17.86
plant
9.27
0.91
2.46
plain zone, Ballia districts of Uttar Pradesh. The

cost of cultivation differed due to different weed
management practices. Higher cost of cultivation
136.72
181.46
166.54
175.06
169.47
187.90
182.25
height
Plant
12.36
34.58
(cm)
was involved in Hand weeding plot (Rs. 32800 /

ha) followed by Pendimethalin+ Imazethapyr and
Pendimethalin+ Quizalofop-ethyl Rs. 29400/ha,
application
Within- 2 + 30
Within- 2 + 30
Time of
Within- 2
respectively whereas weedy check recorded the

(DAS)
30 & 60
30
30
minimum cost (Rs. 25500/ ha) of cultivation. The

next best treatments with respect to lower cost
of cultivation were noticed with imazethapyr @
750 + 100
gm a.i.
750 + 50
750 gm
100 gm
Dose
100 g a.i. ha-1 at 30 DAS (Rs. 27400/ha). Higher

50 gm
ha-1
gm
gm
-
-
-
net returns (Rs. 78494 and Rs. 71225/ha) with

higher benefit cost ratio (2.74 and 2.64) were
Quizalofop-ethyl-
Pendimethalin+
Pendimethalin+
Quizalofop-ethyl-T7
recorded with treatment T6 Pendimethalin (PE)

Hand weeding- T2
Pendimethalin- T3
Weedy check -T1
Imazethapyr -T4
Imazethapyr -T6
fb Imazethapyr (post-emergence) application

Treatment
with in 2 day of sowing fb 30 DAS and treatment

CD at 5%
hand weeded, respectively similar results are

SEM ±
reported by Singh et al (2020). On the basis of

T5

benefit cost ratio the treatment Pendimethalin (PE) REFERENCES

fb Imazethapyr (POE) give highest BCR 3.66 Anonymous (2019). Ministry of Agri. & Farmers welfare
followed by treatment Imazethapyr (POE) 3.15. New Delhi, 2019
Above described treatments of Pendimethalin (PE) Meena Babulal, Sagarka BK and Pisal RR (2010). Efficacy of
fb Imazethapyr (post-emergence) application with new herbicides in kharif pigeonpea under south Saurashtra
condition. Indian J Weed Sci 42(1&2): 98-100.
in 2 day of sowing fb 30 DAS was statistically at
par with T2 as net return and T4 and T7 (3.15 & Sharma J C, Chandra Prakash, Shivran R K and Narolia R
S (2014). Integrated weed management in pigeonpea
3.02) in terms of B:C ratio. (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.). IJAAS 2 (1-2): 69-74.
P.Venkata Rao, A.Subbarami Reddy and Y.Koteswara Rao
CONCLUSION 2015. Effect of integrated weed management practices
It can be concluded that pre emergence on growth and yield of pigeonpea(Cajanus cajan (L.)
application of Pendimethalin @ 750 ml ai. (2 Millsp.) Int J Pl, Anim and Eviron Sci 5(3):124-127
DAS) followed by Imazethapyr 10 SL @100 gm ai. Singh M, Mishra J S and Bhatt BP (2020). Effect of sowing
(30DAS) was found effective and economical for methods and weed management practiced on growth,
weed management in kharif redgram. yield, weed flora and nutrient uptake on late sown
chickpea. J Krishi Vigyan 8 (2) : 87-91.

Short Communication
Effect of Plant Growth Promoting Microbes in Plant Health

Management for Black Pepper
Veerendra Kumar K V and Saju George
ICAR-Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Gonikoppal, Kodagu, Karnataka
ABSTRACT
Yellowing, foot rot disease and reduced spike length are the major limiting factors in production and
productivity of Black Pepper. An assessment experiment to evaluate the performance of various plant growth
promoting microbes for management of yellowing and foot rot disease in black pepper was carried out in
Kodagu district of Karnataka. Four different microbial consortia were assessed during the year 2020-21
and 2021-22 in a randomized block design, replicated five times comprising of four treatments. The results
revealed that drenching of Arka Microbial Consortium (20 g/l) applied at the rate of 4 l/ vine during June
and September was found to be the best among treatment. It resulted reduced yellowing (6.25%), higher
spike length (14.25 cm) and also resulted in early initiation of spikes as compared to other treatments.
Hence, the technological package comprising of drenching with AMC was found to be highly effective for
harnessing higher dry pepper yields (8.75 q/ha) and for maintaining good plant health in black pepper.
Key Words: Black pepper, Yellowing, Plant health management, foot rot disease.
INTRODUCTION of local varieties, lack in adoption of appropriate

Black Pepper (Piper nigrum L.) the king of agronomic practice, poor uptake of nutrients due
spices is one of the important spice commodities to soil acidity and losses due to incidences of
of commerce and trade in India since pre-historic biotic and abiotic stress (Hussain et al, 2017). The
period. It originated in the tropical evergreen forests nutritional need of Black Pepper is unique for its
of the Western Ghats of India. Pepper is used in food spike setting, uniform berry formation etc. High
and drinks for imparting agreeable flavor and aroma rainfall in the black pepper growing areas made
and also used as a preservative (Veerendra et al, the soil less productive due to leaching and erosion
2018). Pepper is rich in aroma and pungency, which loses of nutrient and has effect on growth of the
are attributed to the presence of an alkaloid called crop (Sadananadan, 2000). The major problems
piperine (Damanhouri and Ahmad, 2014). India is in Black Pepper cultivation is nutrient imbalance
the largest producer of black pepper, growing in between the soil and plant, which often predispose
about 1.34 lakh hectares with annual production of the pepper plants to diseases including spike
48,000 MT and productivity of 761 kg/ha. shedding and yellowing of leaves (Srinivasan et al,
Black pepper is cultivated to a large extent 2012). Spike shedding occurs at various stages of
in the states of Karnataka and Kerala. Karnataka flower and fruit development leading to yield loss
and Kerala account for 92 per cent of production of 40 % or even more (Kandiannan et al, 1994).
of black pepper in the country (Anonymous, 2019). Apart from nutrition imbalances, pathological
Low productivity in pepper is attributed to use attacks of fungi Phytophthora capsici caused foot

Table1. Treatment details.

Treatment Detail
T1 Soil application of FYM enriched with Trichoderma during June and September - Control
T2 Drenching of PGPR-II consortium (20 g/l). Drenching 4 l/plant during June and September
T3 Drenching of IISR Bio mix consortium (20 g/l). Drenching 4 l/plant during June and September
T4 Drenching of Arka Microbial Consortium (20 g/l). Drenching 4 l/plant during June and September
rot disease and nematodes either singly or in their yellowing was computed using the formula given
combinations have been associated with yellowing below:
and spike shedding (Thomas et al, 2017). Use of
No. of leaves showing
bio fertilizers and plant growth promoting microbes
yellowing symptoms in
is now getting momentum as a part of nutrient Per cent
= 0.5 m2 area x 100
management. Azospirillium, phosphate solubilizing Yellowing
bacteria (PSB), Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Total no. of leaves pres-
(AMF) Bacillus subtilis, Micrococcus lutes ent in 0.5 m2 area
and Enterobacter aerogens and Pseudomonas The data on the per cent disease index of foot
fluorescens are some of the popularly used bio rot disease was determined using descriptive type
fertilizers and plant growth promoting microbes assessment key with a 0-4 score scale 0= 0%, 1=
gaining popularity among plantation farmers. Use 1-30%, 2=31-50%, 3=50- 75%: 4=76-100% (Kim
of bio agents and plant growth promoting microbes et al, 1992) and spike length was measured in cm.
enhances the soil productivity through an uptake
of available nutrients in the soil and air and also
improving the soil fertility (Parthasarathy et al,
Different technologies assessed had a
2008).
considerable influence on yellowing per cent of
black pepper (Table 2). During each of the 2-year
MATERIALS AND METHODS trial, yellowing per cent was significantly lower
On farm Technology assessment on effect of under T4, which was followed by T3, T2 and T1 in
different plant growth promoting microbes for plant order. However, T1 resulted in higher yellowing per
health management in black pepper was carried out cent as compared to all other treatments. The pooled
at Cherandetti village of Madikeri Taluk, Kodagu data showed the following trend for yellowing per
District during the year 2020-21 and 2021-22. The cent T4<T3<T2<T1 (8.37<10.37<13.0<14.87 %),
treatments were imposed before onset of monsoon respectively. Spike length in black pepper showed an
(June) and post monsoon (September) and the increasing trend each of the 2 years (T1>T2>T3>T4)
experiment was laid out in randomized block design respectively (Table 2). Pooled data of spike length
with four treatments replicated five times (Table1). also followed the same trend as mentioned above.
For each treatment 50 Black pepper vines were The highest spike length of 14.0 cm was recorded
taken in five farmer’s fields. The observations on in the treatment T4 which was followed by T3 and
per cent yellowing, spike length, per cent disease T2. The lowest spike length of 9.0 cm was recorded
index on foot rot disease and dry pepper yield (q/ in the treatment T1 which was significantly lower
ha) were recorded. The per cent yellowing was as compared to all other treatments (Table 2). Foot
calculated at three levels of plant canopy of 0.5 m2 rot disease incidence per cent was significantly
area, randomly selected, preferably each at lower, lower under T4, which was followed by T3, T2
middle and upper level of the canopy. The per cent and T1 in order. T1 resulted in highest Foot rot

Table 2. Effect of plant growth promoting microbes in plant health management for Black Pepper
Treatment Yellowing Spike length Foot rot disease Dry Pepper Yield
(%) (cm) Incidence (%) (q ha-1)
Year Year Year Year
2020- 2021- Pooled 2020- 2021- Pooled 2020-21 2021- Pooled 2020-21 2021- Pooled
21 22 21 22 22 22
T-1 18.50 11.25 14.87 8.50 9.0 8.75 20.0 16.0 18.0 4.25 5.0 4.62
T-2 16.50 9.5 13.0 11.0 11.50 11.25 17.0 13.0 15.0 5.50 6.80 6.15
T-3 13.0 7.75 10.37 12.0 13.75 12.87 16.5 11.0 13.75 7.75 8.25 8.0
T-4 10.5 6.25 8.37 13.75 14.25 14.0 12.0 8.5 10.25 8.0 8.75 8.37
SEM± 0.28 0.23 0.26 0.25 0.27 0.34 0.39 0.67 0.59 0.18 0.16 0.19
CD (P=0.05) 0.96 0.71 0.74 0.79 0.84 1.02 1.14 2.01 1.58 0.58 0.51 0.60
disease incidence per cent as compared to all of Arka Microbial Consortium (20 g/l) applied at
other treatments. The pooled data showed the the rate of 4 l/vine during June and September has
following trend for Foot rot disease incidence per proved to be highly effective for harnessing higher
cent T4<T3<T2<T1 (10.27<13.75<15.0<18.0%) yield and maintaining good plant health in black
respectively. Significantly highest dry pepper yield pepper vines.
of 8.0 and 8.75 q ha-1 was recorded respectively
during 2020-21 and 2021-22 also in treatment T4. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The significantly highest and lowest pooled dry The authors are grateful to farmers of
pepper yield of 8.37 and 4.62 q ha-1 was recorded Cherandetti village of Madikeri Taluk, Kodagu
under T4 and T1. The results are in conformity District, Karnataka who facilitated this work. The
with the earlier finding that the soil application authors thank the ICAR-Agriculture Technology
of Arka Microbial Consortium helps in fixation Application Research Institute (ATARI), Zone
of atmospheric nitrogen, solubaliztion of native XI, Bengaluru and ICAR-Indian Institute of
phosphorous and reduction of phytophthora disease Horticultural Research, Bengaluru for providing
incidence (Veerendra et al, 2018). This eventually technical and financial support to undertake this
resulted in early initiation of spike, reduced study through technology assessment conducted by
yellowing and thereby resulting in higher yield in KVK.
Black pepper.
REFERENCES
CONCLUSION Anonymous (2019). Area, production and productivity of
It was found that drenching of Arka Microbial Black Pepper. In http://www.ipcnet.org.
Consortium (20 g/l) applied at the rate of 4 l/vine Damanhouri Z and Ahmad A (2014). A review on therapeutic
during June and September performed better in potential of black pepper (Piper nigrum L.): the king of
spices. J Medicinal and Arom Pl 3(3): 161.
terms of reduction in yellowing per cent, highest
spike length and also resulted in higher yield. Hussain M D S, Hegde L and Sharatbabu A G (2017).
Evaluation of local black pepper (Piper nigrum L.)
The adoption of this technology also resulted in genotypes for yield and quality under arecanut based
considerably less mortality of the vines. The health cropping system. Int J Pure and Appl Biosci 5(5): 1396–
of the vines was also found to be better with less 1400.
spike drop, reduced yellowing per cent and it also Kandiannan K, Sivaraman K, and Thankamani C K (1994).
resulted in early initiation of spikes. Hence, T4 Growth regulators in black pepper production. Indian
treatment comprising of the technology of drenching Cocoa, Arecanut and Spices J 18(4): 119–123.

Kim E, BK Hwang (1992). Virulence to Korean pepper Thomas L M and Naik B G (2017). Survey for the incidence
cultivars of isolates of Phytophthora capsici from different of foot rot of black pepper caused by Phytophthora
geographic areas. Pl Dis 76:486–489. capsici leonian in shivamogga and chickmagaluru
Parthasarathy V A, Kandiannan K, Srinivasan V (2008). districts of Karnataka state. Int J Pure and Appl Bioscience
Organic Spices. New India Publishing Agency, New 1: 293–298.
Delhi: 694-695. Veerendra Kumar K V and Saju G (2018). Evaluation of Arka
Sadanandan A K (2000). Agronomy and Nutrition of Black Microbial consortium technology in Black Pepper. J
Pepper. In: Black Pepper Piper nigrum, (Ed.) Ravindran Krishi Vigyan 7(1): 233-235.
P N. Harwood Academic Publishers, Amsterdam: 163- Received on 19/1/2023 Accepted on 20/4/2023
223.
Srinivasan V, Dinesh R, Krishnamurthy K S, and Hamza S
(2012). Nutrition and physiology, In Piperaceae Crops-
Production and Utilization. Westville Publishing House,
Delhi, India:101–121,

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LIST OF SCIENTISTS WHO JOINED AS LIFE MEMBERS

409 J Krishi Vigyan 2023, 11 (2)

416 J Krishi Vigyan 2023, 11 (2)

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418 J Krishi Vigyan 2023, 11 (2)

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I HOME SCIENCE/COMMUNITY SCIENCE

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415 J Krishi Vigyan 2023, 11 (2)

Adoption Behaviour of Donkey Rearers on

INTRODUCTION but more lactose, with a concentration close to that

Corresponding Author’s Email:[email protected]

1 J Krishi Vigyan 2023, 11 (2)

Table 1. Housing management and feeding management adopted. N=160

Table 2. Health management practices adopted. N=160

A. General Health management Frequency Percent Frequency Percent

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Table 3. Utility of donkeys N=160

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Bio-efficacy of different New Insecticidal Molecules

5 J Krishi Vigyan 2023, 11 (2)

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9 Garlic cloves Extract 5.0 33.74 41.83 35.41 11.45 30.60

8 J Krishi Vigyan 2023, 11 (2)

1 Indoxacarb 14.5 SC 0.001 77.07 84.93 78.75 53.99 73.68 303

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10 J Krishi Vigyan 2023, 11 (2)

Bioefficacy of Diclosulam in soybean

INTRODUCTION reported 90 to 100% yield losses in soybean due

Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected]

11 J Krishi Vigyan 2023, 11 (2)

Table1. Weed species associated with soybean in On Farm Trials

Table 2. Effect of weed management treatments on weeds in soybean.

12 J Krishi Vigyan 2023, 11 (2)

meteorological observatory of R.A.K. College of emergence treatment found significantly superior

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Table 5. Effect of weed management treatments on Grain yield q ha-1in soybean.

superior over rest of the weed control treatments as Economics

Table 6. Effect of weed management treatments on Economics.

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Prepration of stock solution of Diclosulam Spray of Diclosulam (PE)

Weed count with Qudrate method Pod filling stage of Soybean

REFERENCES Malik R S, Yadav A and Malik R K (2006). Integrated weed

15 J Krishi Vigyan 2023, 11 (2)

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Constraints Faced by the Farmers and Researchers about Crisis

INTRODUCTION production of crop. It is therefore, expected that

Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected]

17 J Krishi Vigyan 2023, 11 (2)

Table 1. Distribution of the farmers and researchers according to constraints experienced by

18 J Krishi Vigyan 2023, 11 (2)

commodities, yellowing of seedlings in rice at be provided by the Government at the proper

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