AFRICA NAZARENE

UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND
SOCIAL
SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGES,
& LITERATURE
ENG 003: STUDY SKILLS
BY :SR. LUCY NABUKONDE :PhD
JAN – APRIL 2022

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 READING
Introduction
The success of any student depends to a great extent on his/her reading. This success can only
be achieved if the student improves his/her reading speed, remembers what he/she has read and
understands and reflects on what has been read.

There are certain obvious things that the student must remember (Donders 1981)
(i) have good light when reading, not too weak and not too strong.
(ii) have healthy eyes.

When reading, our eyes move from one word to the other or character to character. In most
cases we cannot read when our eyes are wandering. We only can read when our eyes are fixed
on a certain point, or when they come to a halt. The number of characters or words covered in
such a fixation is called our recognition span or eye span, or perception span.

This reading span differs from one individual to the other. Some people read slowly because
their eyes move back to the words they have read already.

READING
Reading is the process of communication through which most formal learning takes place. It
involves understanding written language. Through reading what an author has written, you (the
reader) set out to understand and respond to the author’s message. Reading involves the
processing of the written material before you against the background of your earlier experience
and concepts. This means that when you are reading you should be thinking, predicting,
questioning, evaluating, defining and redefining. The definition of reading given by G. Bond, M.
A. Tinker and B. Wasson (1979) in Reading Difficulties (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 4th ed., p. 5)
embodies this concept. They say that reading is the recognition of printed or written symbols
which serve as stimuli to the recall of meanings built up through the reader’s past experiences.
In short, the reading process involves both the acquisition of meanings intended by the writer and
the reader’s own contribution in the form of interpretation, evaluation, and reflection of these
meanings. Morris’ (cited in Southgate et. al 1981:23) says “Reading is thinking under the
situations of the printed world.”

Morris’ view is supported by Hewett (1960) who stresses the fact that reading is an activity that
we get involved in. This involvement goes beyond the mere interpretation of printed symbols.
Hewett (1960:17) succinctly puts it.
Reading is in fact an activity
in which the whole man is
involved – eye and ear
and imagination and memory
…whereas the other media
far too often require only passivity.

Active reading means that the reader is able to accept and reject or discriminate what he reads.
By engaging the writer in dialogue, the reader is able to argue and reflect on everything
presented to him by the writer. This kind of engagement with the writer may vary depending on

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the type of reading that the reader is doing. Again the level of reading may determine the extent
to which the reader is expected to reflect on what he reads. We will examine this when we look
at the levels and types of reading.
In the simplest sense, reading means recognizing letters and groups of letters as symbols that
stand for particular sounds. The sounds, in turn, form words that express ideas in written or
printed form. A broader definition of reading links it more closely with other uses of language
and with thinking. According to this definition, reading first depends on a reader’s memory and
experience to understand what is read. It then involves how well the reader remembers, uses, and
reacts to the material.This definition tries to emphasize the fact that effective reading is not just
the ability to interpret symbols on a page written in a familiar language, but more, the ability to
maximize one’s benefits from this activity by reflecting on the message as one interprets the
written symbols.In reading, one needs to reflect on what they read, have dialogue with the writer
through the printed medium, that is, be able to capture the writer’s thought. Reading is thus
something we are actively involved in. It is in fact an activity in which the whole person is
involved – eyes, ears, imagination and memory.

Importance/Purpose of Reading
People read for many reasons. Whatever the reasons are, they will definitely follow in the
following:

(i) Entertainment
For many people, reading is a good pastime activity. Indeed in Europe the rise of the novel was
partly as a result of the rise of the middle class which needed something long to read during their
leisure time. Today many people find popular writings and magazines quite handy during their
free time.

(ii) Acquiring knowledge and information

This could be said to be perhaps the foremost reason in reading. Reading is an important factor
in acquiring knowledge. A widely read person knows more than anyone can learn through direct
experience in one’s lifetime.

In the olden days there was the assumption that knowledge and age are related – that the older
one is the more knowledgeable he is. This is totally wrong for one can be older but limited to his
narrow experience and knowledge in life.

(iii) Success in life

The rate at which one progresses in his profession usually depends on how knowledgeable he is
in the field. Maybe one good example is that of a person who started as a nursery school teacher
then enrolled for a P1 course and later become a primary school teacher. The same person later
did a Diploma course in education and started teaching in High school. This progress could go
on depending on the person’s ‘reading’ and most likely he could find himself teaching at the
university.

(v) Quality of life

This point has indeed raised many arguments particularly in the developing countries with
scarcity of employment opportunities or avenues of social mobility. It is true, however, that the

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knowledge we gain from reading may not make us richer; but there is no doubt that this
knowledge will influence our life in another way. People seem to cope better with the everyday
frustrations of life if they understand their environment

Reading provides the key to several kinds of information. It enables us to learn how to build or
fix things, enjoy stories, discover what other people believe, and to develop ideas and beliefs of
our own and to excel at university.

Writers organize ideas and relate them to one another. If the reader can interpret and analyze the
relationship of ideas, they would understand more of what they read. Writers often cushion their
message in the stated main idea. The main idea of a text / passage is the most important point the
writer is making. Sometimes the main idea is stated explicitly i.e. the author may clearly state the
main idea in one or two sentences. Also to look for is the implied main idea. Sometimes the main
idea is not stated but merely implied. It is implicit. It is thus upon the reader to figure out the
central idea that ties all the other ideas together.
vi)Academic purposes
All students pursuing courses beyond high school have to grapple with new and unfamiliar
concepts, specialized vocabulary and tense or complex writing styles. What is more, the style
and vocabulary vary from one subject to another. This means that different mental processes are
called for as you move from one content area to another.

You will also discover that as a university or college student, you are expected to work
independently, to keep up with assignments and lecturers and pass your examinations without
any prodding from your lecturers. At this level lecturers direct you to the sources of information
and tell you what specific learning skills or types of knowledge you need to acquire. Your task
is to go ahead and acquire them. Your academic success, therefore, depends on your ability to
benefit from this new, independent way of learning.

Academic reading is for the most part, study-type reading. It involves problem-solving. You
must therefore learn to analyze what is said in books, explore, discover and make adequate use of
the reference material, and glean information from all types of printed and non-printed media.
This, in a nutshell, is what s involved in study-type reading. It is educating yourself.

Reading is an activity and process that involves the reader and the book being read. It should not
only be viewed as an interpretation of written or printed symbols. Indeed, reading should be
viewed as a communication process between the writer and the reader. Thus the book (or article)
being read becomes the channel through which the writer communicates to his reader or
recipient. The writer becomes the sender of the message.

SMCR

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Reading requires more than the ability to give meaning to printed material. A student needs to
reflect on what he reads. He must have dialogue with the writer through the printed medium.
Having dialogue with the writer means responding to what the writer has presented to you.

Active reading means that the reader is able to accept and reject or discriminate what he reads.
By engaging the writer in dialogue, the reader is able to argue and reflect on everything
presented to him by the writer. This kind of engagement with the writer may vary depending on
the type of reading that the reader is doing. Again the level of reading may determine the extent
to which the reader is expected to reflect on what he reads. We will examine this when we look
at the levels and types of reading.

Types of Reading
Reading can be looked at from its various dimensions or levels. Alder and Doren (1972) discuss
the four (4) main levels of reading in the following order:
1. Elementary reading
2. Inspectional reading
3. Analytical reading
4. Syntopical reading

1. Elementary Reading
This is the child’s first encounter with reading. It can also be referred to as ‘rudimentary
reading’ or ‘basic reading’. At this level the child is more concerned with the sentence.

Alder and Doren (1972) identify four stages through which the child undergoes in his reading
readiness. These stages of learning begin at birth and continues normally until the age of about
six (6) or seven (7).

(i) Physical readiness – which involves good vision and hearing.

(ii) Intellectual readiness – this involves a minimum level of visual perception such that the
child can take in and remember an entire word and the letters that combine to form it (p.
12).

(iii) Language readiness – involves the ability of the child to speak clearly and to use several
sentences in correct order.

(iv) Personal readiness – involves the ability of the child to work with other children, to
sustain attention, to follow directions among others.

2. Inspectoral Reading
This level of reading is characterized by its special emphasis on time. When reading at this
level, a student is allowed a set of time to complete an assigned amount of reading.

The aim of inspectional reading is to get the most of a book within a given time usually a
relatively short time, and always too short a time to get out of the book everything that can be
gotten. Because of its emphasis on time this level of reading can also be called skimming or pre-
reading.

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Reading at this level reassures that the reader examine the surface of the book to learn everything
that the surface alert can provide. At this level, the reader is more concerned with what the book
is about and also its structure. Inspectional reading can therefore be referred to as the art of
skimming a book systematically.
Elsewhere Okombo (1990) argues that the significance of skimming as a reading strategy is
based on the fact that quite often a reader does not want to read through a whole publication. He
looks for a particular point or piece of information.

Some authorities view skimming as the kind of reading once does where he wants to get a
general impression of the matter dealt with in a book.

- Inspectional reading falls in the fourth category of Afolayan and Newson’s (1983:34)
classification of types of reading.

3) Analytical Reading
This level of reading is both a more complex and a more systematic activity than either of the
first two levels.

This level of reading makes more or less heavy demands on the reader, depending on the
difficulty of the text to be read. Generally, analytical reading is slow for it is thoughtful and
evaluative. It falls under Afolayan and Newson’s first category of their classification of types of
reading.

Analytical reading is thorough reading, complete reading. Unlike inspectional reading in which
one has to get the best out of a book in a limited time, analytical reading is the most complete
reading that can be done in an unlimited time.

The analytical reader must be actively involved with the text at hand. He must formulate many
questions, to guide him in his reading. Analytical reading is intensively active.

Francis Bacon (quoted in Alder and Doren 1972) is reported to have once remarked:
Some books are to be tasted
others to be swallowed, and
some few to be chewed and
digested (on emphasis).

Reading a book analytically is chewing and digesting it – it is evaluative reading. The reader
reads critically to come to a full understanding of the book.

Rules of Reading a Book Analytically

Alder and Doren (1972) give some rules of reading a book analytically. These rules apply to
most texts.

a) Classify the book

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As a reader you must know what kind of book you are reading. This should be done as early as
possible in the process of reading. If it is a literary work, know whether it is fiction (prose),
drama or poetry. Check if the book is theoretical or practical.

b) State the unity of the whole book in one sentence

Every book has a skeleton hidden between its covers. As an analytical reader you must find out
what the book is all about. This should not be viewed as saying what kind of book it is. You
must find out its themes or main points.

c) Show the major parts of the book and how these parts are organized and related
This rule calls upon the analytical reader to discover the unity of the whole text. The reader
should bear in mind the fact that a good book like a good house is an orderly arrangement of
parts. You must state the plot.

d) Find out what the author’s problems were

Every author sets forth certain questions to be answered in his book. The book contains the
answer or answers. An analytical reader should try to find out if the author has been successful
in achieving his goal by answering the set questions.

Note that this rule may vary from subject to subject. For instance, some philosophy or literary
books may not necessarily answer questions raised in them. Some books do leave the reader to
find answers for himself.

e) Find the important words and through them come to terms with the author
It is crucial for any analytical reader to find the key terms used by the author. These key terms
normally guide the reader in finding out the author’s concerns. The reader must also determine
the meaning of these words as used with precision. The reader must interpret the book’s content
or message.

Unless the reader understands the author’s terms that make a difference the communication of
knowledge from the writer to the reader cannot be effective.

f) Grasp the author’s leading propositions by dealing with his most important
sentence
Look for the sentences that express the author’s judgement and his
argumentation. If it is a literary work look for the major images and symbols.

g) Know the author’s arguments, by finding them in, or constructing them out of
sentences
Sometimes authors do not present their arguments overtly. Try and find the arguments in the
construction of sentences or try to link whatever he says and come up with an argument.
Discover the leading sentences.

h) Determine which of his problems the author has solved, and which he has not
The reader should also be able to find out the questions that the author has deliberately evaded.

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 Syntopical Reading
This is obviously the highest level of reading and probably the most complex and systematic
type of reading.

Syntopical reading involves reading many books and placing them in relation to the others so as
to come up with a subject around which they revolve. Because of this nature of syntopical
reading, it can also be called comparative reading. A syntopical reader gets a number of books,
reads them in relation to one another, and constructs an analysis of a subject that may not be in
any of the books.

Most research papers written at university level require this type of reading. The syntopical
reader must look at all sides of the subject. He must also use the actual text as his point of
reference.

For syntopical reading to be successful the reader must do the following:

(i) Find the relevant passages in the different books you are reading. These must be
passages that deal with your subject.

(ii) Establish your terms as per the requirements of your topic and bring the authors to
these terms. Use your own language.

(iii) Get the questions clear. Establish a set of neutral propositions. Frame a set of
questions that shed light on your problem, and to which each of your authors gives
answers.

(iv) Define the issues. You must be clear about the conceptions of the questions and the
different views of the subject.

(v) Analyse the discussion. Syntopical reading needs thorough analysis. You must
identify and report the major issues or basic intellectual oppositions in the discussion.

Strategies of Reading Comprehension

Foundations of reading refer to the basis, underlying principles or the starting point in reading.
St. Martin’s Guide to Writer gives the following principles in reading.

(i) Get set to read

This involves the preparation done before starting to read. This preparation can be:
- physical self preparation
- mental
- emotional

- A student has to make up his mind to start reading.

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- Physical preparation involves getting the right place for reading – silence, having the
right light and avoiding physical disruption.
- Mentally, the student has to think about what he reads, he must prepare for this since
reading is an active process.

- Emotional preparation involves the feelings the reader attaches to what he reads. Here
again emotional preparation will depend on the type of book being read. One may develop
short and long term emotions depending on the type or the level of reading.

(ii) Reading Efficiently

The student should read silently and be able to cover more words in one recognition span (see
the section on Reading efficiently).

(iii) Adjust your speed to the material and your purpose

Reading speed depends on the type of material being read. The student should ensure that his
speed goes with the kind of material being read. (See the section on Reading efficiently).

(iv) Look for key words

In most texts there are key words in terms of nouns, pronouns and verbs that usually contain the
main ideas and suggest the content. Do not however overlook small words that make a
difference. See for instance the following sentences and find out their meaning:
- Lidia went out to lunch, but first she checked the refrigerator.
- Lidia went out to lunch and later checked the refrigerator.

(v) Become familiar with time and space words

- English has many time words that help the reader to determine when things happened.
These words include afterward, next, earlier, before sunrise, yesterday, later, among
others.

- There are also many space words that help the reader tell where things happened. These
include at, near the door, beyond the tree, above, below, around, among others.

- The reader should take note of the time and space words so that he understands what he is
reading.

(vi) Look for the main idea

Texts are written to convey certain idea or ideas. An article for instance usually has one main
idea and several supporting ones. A well written paragraph develops one main idea, usually
expressed in a topic sentence.

A good reader looks for the main idea in each paragraph and files it mentally. The section on
marking a book more intelligibly shreds more light on this point.

Reading More Efficiently

One’s achievement in reading can be evaluated in terms of:
a) how much he has covered; and

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 b) what percentage of that material has been learnt (or can be remembered).
Efficiency in reading can therefore be thought of in terms of an effort-achievement ratio.

Many writers notably Donders (1981), Okombo (1990) concur on the factors involved in fast
reading:
(i) Speed
(ii) Recognition span
(iii) Control of body movement
(iv) Length of fixation
(v) Reading material

The first aspect of reading efficiently is speed. The main idea in fast reading is to be able to see
and comprehend a lot in a short time. According to Donders (1981) the average number of
words a reader reads in a minute depends on what he is reading (Reading material). It differs
from easy to difficult reading material.

He gives the following numbers as accepted averages of students at college and university level:
Easy texts - 250 – 350 words a minute
Medium difficult texts- 200 – 225 words a minute
Difficult texts - 100 – 225 words a minute

Another factor in reading is the recognition span i.e. the number of words a reader is able to
cover in one eye fixation. When reading one makes stops and pauses or sweeping movements
between successive pauses. It is during these stops that the eye actually reads. The number of
words that your eyes cover in each of such stops is what is called ‘recognition span’, or ‘eye
span’ or ‘reading span.’ A word by word reader is a slow reader. Okombo (1990) gives the
example of the following three readers:

A: The/fresh/meat/is in/the kitchen.

B: The fresh/meat/is in/the kitchen.
C: The fresh meat/is in the kitchen.

In the above example, if the three readers, A, B and C were reading the same material, it is
obvious that C would finish first. This is because C is able to cover many words in one eye
fixation. Therefore the length of the pause or fixation becomes an important factor in reading.

Control of body movement is also an important factor in fast reading. We have to practice how
to control our bodies while reading. Indeed the time taken by our eyes to move from one eye
span unit to another will be determined by the speed of our head, and not that of our eyes.

As noted earlier the type of the reading material is another important factor in reading (or fast
reading).

Afoloyan and Newson (1983:34) list four types of reading based on the relationship between
speed and purpose. These are:

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1. Study or careful reading: this is very slow and thoughtful. It corresponds with Donders’
reading of difficult texts.

2. Normal reading: this is medium slow or average. This may correspond to Donder’s reading
of medium difficult texts.

3. Rapid: medium fast.

4. Skimming: extremely fast.

This classification of reading types depends on the type of text and the purpose of reading.
When reading a text in order to follow the argumentation and perhaps discover if there is some
fallacy in the logic or evidence used, you will find the first type of reading most appropriate.
This type of reading is a careful and critical reading. The reader has to ponder about what the
writer is saying and be able to accept and reject some of the writer’s ideas.

Effective Reading
From what we have said in the above section, we may summarise what is required in effective
reading as follows:

1. Concentration
- the reader must read actively. By active reading we mean that the reader’s mind must be
engaged .
- ensure that you are reading in a non-distractive physical environment.
- the reader must also overcome his emotions, fears and worries. You cannot read well if
you are worried about various issues, e.g. examination.

Sometime it is common for college students to assume the fact that concentration is very crucial
for any effective reading. We have seen lovers reading in the library while holding hands! This
is a clear show that they are not serious with what they are doing.

2) Make ideas on your own

As a reader you should be able to understand what you are reading and be able to express the
ideas in your own words. Try to evaluate and integrate new and old ideas. Again you need to
sharpen your wit in discussions.

3) Be discriminative
A good reader cannot swallow everything said by the writer. Accept and reject. Get only what
you need. This discrimination is the whole-mark of analytical or critical reading. Critical
reading requires that the reader evaluates what he is reading and responds to the writer’s message
actively and not passively.

4) Read for a purpose

No one just takes a book to read without a reason. As a reader you should know why you are
reading. Formulate questions and search for answers as you read.

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Some hints on how to read faster
From the discussion above, we can list various hints that can guide a reader to read faster.
However, we should not forget (the fact) that speed in reading is determined by the material
being read and also the purpose of reading that particular material. Donders (1981) lists eight (8)
hints that can assist readers in fast reading.

1. Avoid all unnecessary movements while reading.

2. Try to increase your recognition span. Read groups of words and avoid reading word by
word. Try to concentrate on the main words.
3. Train yourself in fast reading, practice everyday.
4. Increase your word power (vocabulary). If you do not understand the words you are reading
try to guess their meaning from the context. If necessary look them up in the dictionary but
do it later.
5. Do not let your eyes back-track. Avoid all going back, read on.
6. Regulate your speed according to the difficulty of the text.
7. Try to develop a skimming technique (especially for the orientation stage).
8. Look at the illustrations and the graphs. They may help.

Systematic Skimming or Pre-reading

Some suggestions about how to do it
Most authorities concur that skimming is looking for a general impression of a text. And for this
to be done effectively, they suggest some ways of doing it (Alder and Doren 1972, Donders
1981).

1. Look at the title page. It gives the general impression of the book.

2. Study the table of contents to obtain a general sense of the book’s structure. Use it as you
would a road map before taking a trip.

3. Read the preface. In it the author normally explains his intentions.

4. Check the index if the book has one. Most expository works do. Take note of the crucial
terms.

5. If the book is a new one, read the publisher’s blurb.

6. From your general knowledge of the book, read a line here and there, study the
illustrations, check the summaries, graphs and inspect the conclusions at the end of the
chapters. At this stage you are not yet really studying. You are ‘skimming’.

7. After this general survey you can start to study the different chapters of the book, reading
a paragraph or two, sometimes several pages in sequence.

8. Know the author. What about his qualification – is he an authority?

9. Year of publication. Is it a recent edition or an old one?

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These suggestions apply to most types of books. However, for literary works of art some may
not apply. One important suggestion for a reader of a literary work is to find out the author’s
background and also the year of publication of the text and the events that prevailed at that time.
This is because literary texts are mostly influenced by the author’s experience and also the socio-
economic, political and other events of the moment.

Essence of Active Reading

Both analytical and syntopical reading can be described as active reading. This type of reading
requires that the reader formulate questions as he reads, questions that he himself must try to
answer in the course of reading. There are four (main) questions that the reader must ask about
any book (Alder and Doreen 1972).

1. What is the book about as a whole?

The reader must find out the book’s main theme(s).

2. What is being said in detail, and how.

Find out the main ideas, assertions and arguments that constitute the author’s particular message.

3. Is the book true, in whole or part?

This question can only be considered after answering the first two questions.

4. What of it?
Ask yourself how you have benefited from the book. If the book has given you information you
must ask about its significance.

Why in the first place is the author telling you these things? Is it important for you to know
them?

i. SCANNING
This involves going through a text quickly to spot or locate specific information e.g. a date, word
or name. Focus is laid on the information being looked for and not the whole piece of writing.
We usually do this when looking for a specific word in a dictionary.

When you need specific information you should not always read the entire material. Scanning is
thus a very useful skill in answering comprehension or passage questions. After reading the
questions, run through the passage to locate where the relevant information is located. This
strategy entails glancing down the pages, looking or searching for key words. It is thus
recommended to scan when you need specific information such as the answer to a question.

WHAT TO DO WHEN SCANNING

When scanning it is useful to do the following:
i. Decide exactly the type of information you are looking for.
ii. Decide the form it may take e.g. it could be a date, the name of a person, the
causes of something, the effects, or information to help you write either your

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 introduction or your conclusion. If you want any of this information, scan for it
instead of reading the whole article or the whole book.
iii. Decide where you can find the information you need. Just as you know which
pages in the newspaper you can check various items like entertainment, Radio and
TV guide, you need to familiarize yourself with common reference sources for
your subject e.g. encyclopedias, journals, critical reviews and so on.

ii. SKIMMING
This is the reading method that involves rapid reading in order to get the general idea. It
involves moving eyes quickly over a text and paying attention to titles, headings, subheadings,
first and last paragraphs, or introductions and conclusions, or the topic sentences, or clincher
sentences, key words, key phrases and figures, captions, and illustrations that stand out .
Then, if you need more information, look for the main ideas of individual paragraphs. This
differs from scanning in that you are not looking just for specific points but you are interested in
gaining an overall idea, or the gist of the passage. This should help you to decide whether the
passage or material is worth studying in more detail.
In many ways skimming is more difficult than scanning because the reader has to follow the
writer’s train of thought. It is thus required that you skim when you want an overview or a
general idea or the important points in a piece of writing.

Steps for skimming

To effectively skim a piece of work;
i) Move your eyes quickly over the text
ii) Looking at any headings or titles. Read the title and any headings and captions
iii) Carefully read the 1st paragraph
iv) Pay particular attention to the first sentence in every paragraph. Look for key words
in the text. This is likely to give you a clue as to the paragraph’s content.
v) Carefully read the first and the last paragraphs of the text as writers tend to introduce
their topic in the first paragraph and summarize the points in the last.

iii. STUDY READING

For some people, study reading is what you do when you try to
fully understand and to remember as much as possible of what you have read. It is
the method you use to study your textbooks like for History, Science, Biology,
Psychology and so on. In short, you read, understand and try to remember without
criticizing the material.

iv. CRITICAL READING

Critical reading is used when, apart from reading and understanding the information in a text,
you critique it, evaluate it, compare it with your own experience and that of others and so on.
You have therefore to read between the lines and infer some information that may not be
explicitly stated in the passage but it is only implied.
Critical reading entails text analysis. It is the most involving type of reading since one has to do
all that is done in other readings, like scanning, skimming and study reading, and more. Critical
reading involves going beyond what the writer says in order to get the deeper meaning as
suggested by choice of words and the description and the arrangement of ideas. It goes beyond

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the literal meaning and visual presentations. It is the analytical and reflective reading of a text.
Critical reading involves making comments on stylistic devices, language and general
organization of the text, making judgments on literary techniques, the strengths and weaknesses
of the information. It abhors accepting everything that is read as plain truth or at face value. It
implies being able to distinguish facts from opinions in your reading.

Being a critical reader will help you generate meaning and enhance greater understanding.
Critical reading also helps you to reorganize the text, decide what information is important and to
take notes on the reading to assist you in your memory of what you have read.

Guidelines for Critical Reading

i) Use headings, subheadings, summaries and questions to create order and
organizations.
ii) Recognize Key vocabulary and key definitions
iii) Analyze reading goals
iv) Use different reading strategies for different reading tasks.
v) Preview chapters
vi) Look for connections between concepts, ideas, sentences and paragraphs
vii) Evaluate the attitude that you bring to reading

NB: Critical reading requires analytical reading skills accompanied with a positive attitude.
v. THE SQ3R READING MEHOD
The SQ3R reading method has helped many students improve their reading comprehension since
it was first developed by Prof. Francis Robinson in 1941. This method aims at understanding
every aspect of the text. It refers to what you do when you try to fully understand and remember
as much as possible of what you have read. This technique requires the reader to pay close
attention to the text and look for significant ideas and details.

The SQ3R is one of the most recommended strategies for study reading. It is also made up of
five steps.. The steps include:
a. Survey.
Survey the material before reading it. This is like skimming. It entails quickly perusing the
content, main headings, looking at illustrations and captions and becoming familiar with the
special features in each chapter. Surveying or looking over the material helps to give the reader
some general idea of the issues dealt with in the book.
b. Question.
Find the main points and ask questions. The reader here makes a list of questions that they
should be able to answer after the reading. One may use questions presented at the end of the
chapter, those provided by the lecturer or can generate their own by turning chapter titles and
headings into questions. Any illustrations, maps tables of graphs can also be used as a basis for
questions. This step enables the reader to have adequate motivation and the right focus for
careful reading.
c. Read
Read the material thoughtfully, picking out what is important for your purposes. Underline key
words, key concepts and key sentences. Read the different sections to find answers to your

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questions. Look for the main ideas and supporting details. The reader should pay particular
attention to definitions, topic sentences and chapter headings.

d. Recite or Recall:
After reading, recall the answers to your questions. Recite the main ideas and key points in your
own words. Make notes on other important points from the material.
e. Review
To review means to reread the parts that you have not understood or the ones that you cannot
recall clearly. Try to answer each of your original questions without consulting your notes. If
necessary review the sections to find the answers. Then look over your notes to impress the
material on your mind. This will help you to remember it later on as it fosters retention.
The SQ3R study method is one of the most recommended strategies for study reading. It is thus
advisable that you apply it for your reading assignments in the university and combine it with
critical reading. Alternatively, you can use the five part reading system.

vi. THE FIVE PART READING SYSTEM.

The five part reading system, just as the name suggests, consists of five main steps. These
include:
a. Prepare
Try to prepare yourself mentally and psychologically for reading by creating a positive and
interested attitude. Focus your attention on what you are about to read. Clarify your purpose and
how you will use the information you gain from your reading. It is also important to prepare
yourself physically by being rested and reading during high-energy times. Eliminate distractions
by choosing a study area that encourages concentration.
b. Preview
A quick survey of the material you are about to read will give you a general overview. This is a
major step in making the most of your reading. It warms up your brain for incoming information.
Thus the goal in previewing is to read quickly for overall understanding of main concepts and
ideas. It aims at getting the big picture and not memorizing facts or details. Identify the main
idea of each section to get a feel for the text. Pay attention to tittles, introductions, chapter
objectives, main ideas, and connections between concepts, terms and formulas. This information
will set the stage for your reading. Look at how it is organized; its level of difficulty; and the
illustrations, diagrams, pictures, summaries and graphs and look at the visuals and any
illustrations, as well as key and bolded words. These elements will help clarify the main ideas of
the subject. By gaining a general understanding of the assignment you will be better prepared to
read the material actively.

c. Predict questions
Next, change every section heading into a question; for instance, if the section heading is “The
Sensory Organs” ask yourself the question “what are the sensory organs?” As you read predict
test questions and search for answers. Ask yourself who, what, where, when, why and how? The
more questions you ask, the better prepared you will be to find answers to test the questions.
d. Pick out Key Words
Outline, underline and highlight key words, main ideas, and facts. Look for the main concepts,
supporting points, and answers to the questions you have raised. Develop an outline to help you
organize the information.

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 e. Paraphrase and Review
At this stage paraphrase, summarize and review the main ideas. Write a short summary and then
try to remember it. This summary is done right after the lecture or the workshop as part of your
immediate goals. Try this again after 24 hours of previewing the chapter. Review your summary
several times until you understand the material and can explain it to someone else. The next
review can be after three or four weeks, and then before the final exams.

Finally, during your study group meetings, take turns reviewing and listening to one another’s
summaries. It may be helpful to review questions, answers and summaries. In a nutshell, the five
part reading system entails preparation, previewing, predicting questions, picking out key words
and paraphrasing and reviewing.

6.11 Silent Reading

Silent reading is much faster than reading aloud. It also leads to better comprehension. Efficient
silent reading enables one to read faster and with higher comprehension.
Poor silent reading habits like verbalizing, moving lips and using the finger or a pen to point at
the words you are reading not only slows you down considerably but also affects your
comprehension of the material you are reading. Practice your silent reading skills to ensure that
you read fast enough and with sufficient comprehension.

Tips for Effective Silent Reading.

To achieve speed and better comprehension in silent reading the following guidelines may be
useful:

i) Read words as groups and not as single words, for instance,

“The President snubbed the critical Mau forest tree planting exercise.” And NOT
“The / President / snubbed / the / critical / Mau / forest / tree / planting / exercise.”
ii) Do not move your head or book as you read.
iii) Do not point at words with your fingers or pen as you read.
iv) Do not vocalize or sub – vocalize your words
v) Do not regress. This is looking back at words or ideas that have been read and were
not understood.
To overcome these bad reading habits it wise to read a lot and develop in oneself a culture of
reading. Practice reading faster and more intelligently in all your subjects.

TECHNICAL READING FOR NON – LINEAR TEXTS.

Technical reading deals with non linear texts, that is, it involves noting relationships and making
interpretation of non verbal information or data presentation in form of graphs, charts,
diagrams or tables for specific and technical information. It also involves reading technical
material such as the directions in subjects like Chemistry, or the statistical analysis of a financial
statement.
Such material can be complicated and difficult. Hence, many readers tend to skip over them or
become discouraged when they attempt to read them. However, there are some reading strategies
that can be implemented when one encounters technical material.

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In academic writing data is frequently presented by means of diagrams, charts and tables.
Remember that in writing your essays or term papers, the use of graphs and charts can make your
work more attractive, interesting and informative.

Strategies for Technical Reading:

1. The following guidelines adapted from Ferrett ( 2000,5) may help you in handling non-
verbal or non linear texts.
2. Do not skip over any graphics: charts, diagrams or tables
3. Read the title, any accompanying captions, and column titles, any labels or symbols and
make interpretations of any data such as percentages, totals, and figures.
4. Identify the type of graphic you are looking at. Are you looking at a table, chart or graph?
5. Decide the purpose of the graph, chart, or any diagram. Is it demonstrating to the reader
information of likeness or differences, increases or decreases; comparisons or changes?
6. See the connection or relationship between the topic of the graph and the chapter, the
section or the topic.
7. Explain in your own words the information depicted in the graph.
8. Finally, using the graphic information, share your interpretation of it with your study
group members or colleagues. Did they feel that your interpretation was clear?

NB: Graphics can enhance and help explain the written material that appears in a text.

Tabular presentation
1. The following is an example of one of the most straightforward ways of presenting
information, although not necessarily the easiest to interpret. The information is presented in
form of tables which are to be used for comparison. Use the data given to answer the questions
that follow.
READING FOR THE MAIN IDEA
People often write long texts just to argue one point. One may read just to get the author’s main
idea.
Approaches To Identify The Main Idea In Long Publications
To capture the main idea in texts, the following may be helpful.
1. The title may show what a book is all about. They sometimes summarize the theme of a
publication. However, titles are often vague and may not be relied on for the main idea of
what a publication is about.
2. Introductions to publications often give good summaries of the author’s main point. This
is useful information because one may then decide to start with that chapter and only
come to others if they consider this necessary.
3. Conclusion. This is usually a summary of a work. It is important to look at the summary
pages when looking for the main ideas in a publication or a text.
4. Chapters and sections. One may also check through chapter headings and various sub-
headings for the main ideas. The chapter and section titles may give ideas about what key
points the writer is dealing with.
5. Skimming and scanning (reading for particular points) are useful in trying to identify the main
idea of a text.

References

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I . Cottrell Stella. (2003). The Study Skills Handbook. 2nd ed. New York. Palgrave Macmillan.

TEXTS FOR FURTHER READING.

2. Abon’go Vitalis. (2010) Communication Skills.

3. Muchiri Mary. (1992). Communication Skills: A Self study Guide for university and colleges
Nairobi, Kenya: Longman.
4. Okombo Okoth. (1990). A Student’s Guide to Writing and Study Skills. Nairobi, Kenya:
Nairobi University Press.

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