EARTH SCIENCE occurring solid aggregate of minerals, organic material or natural glass

Characteristics of the Earth that are Necessary to Support Life called rocks. It is also composed of loose particles of rocks that
Earth science is the name for all the sciences that collectively seek to enveloped the surface of Earth called regolith. It contains all the soil,
understand Earth and its neighbors in space. It includes geology, oceanography, rocks, and minerals present in the crust to the core of the Earth. It
meteorology, and astronomy comprises the
Earth is the only planet known to cater life forms. This planet undergone massive geologic landforms such as mountains and hills.
change in the environment million years ago to enable living organisms to thrive  Hydro is a Greek word which means water. Hydrosphere is
and survive in it. From single simple microorganisms, Earth’s environment had composed of all the water on Earth in any form. This can either be in a
allowed these organisms to evolve into more complex and diverse organisms. form of water vapor and liquid water. Another part of this subsystem is
the permanently frozen parts called cryosphere. Earth is the only
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EARTH NECESSARY TO SUPPORT LIFE planet in the solar system that are known to contains water in all three
Earth exists for 4.543 billion years. In its early formation life is not possible phases. Water on Earth is constant and consistently moving because
because the environment does not permit it. However, as time goes by life of temperature and salinity. It also plays an important role in
flourish from minute microorganism into a more complex organism. The presence absorption
of life on Earth was made possible due to the following factors: and redistribution of solar radiation.
1. Temperature. It influences how quickly atoms, molecules or organisms move.  Biosphere come from the Greek word bios meaning life. It composed
Low temperature slows down chemical reaction and produces ice that makes of all living things and the areas where they are found. It includes all
liquid animals, microbes, and plants. It extends to the upper areas of the
water unavailable. High temperature can cause break down of important atmosphere where insects and birds can be found. It also extents to
biological the deep parts of the oceans where marine organisms can still
molecules. In Earth’s condition, temperature is just right to support life. survive. It is also in this zone that the interaction between the different
2. Water. It is one of the important ingredients on the different biological subsystems is most dynamic. In biosphere, each organism plays an
processes. important role the food web. If one is lost the others will be affected.
Absence of this will interfere reactions necessary for life. However, solid form of  Matter and energy flows and cycle between the four subsystems to
this will also hinder living organisms to use it. Water in earth has different forms. sustain and make life on Earth possible. Both of it can flow across the
It is solid (ice) in the 2 poles and liquid along the equator which allows living boundaries between each subsystem. The geosphere, is where the
organisms to consume it. rocky part of the earth is in contact with water, air, and life. It is also
3. Atmosphere. It provides significant insulation or shielding from the sun and generally where the spheres intersect and affect each other. The
impact of small to medium size meteorites. Greenhouse gases like carbon processes that move matter and energy from one sphere to another is
dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) traps heat and avoid our planet from freezing. called as sphere interactions. Changes in any sphere greatly affect the
Moreover, ozone (O3) layer shields the Earth’s surface from harmful UV other spheres as well since all the spheres are interconnected system.
radiation. Atmosphere also provides chemicals needed for life, such as nitrogen
and carbon dioxide. Size of the planet and its distance from the sun affects its Cycles in the Earth System
ability to hold 1. hydrologic cycle
significant amount of atmosphere. Earth has a right size and distance from the It represents the unending circulation of Earth’s water
sun
that permits it to have a right amount of atmosphere. The presence of gravity also among the hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere, and
helps in sustaining its atmosphere. geosphere. Water enters the atmosphere by evaporation
4. Energy. Earth has available energy- rich sunlight to support life. Living from Earth’s surface and by transpiration from plants.
organisms like plants and photosynthetic bacteria use light as the source of their Water vapor condenses in the atmosphere to form
energy. Some chemosynthetic organisms rely on chemical energy to support clouds, which in turn produce precipitation that falls back
various biological processes. Earth is at right position from the sun that enables it
to harness enough amount of sunlight. to Earth’s surface. Some of the rain that falls onto the
5. Nutrients. It is an essential factor used to build and maintain organism’s body land sinks in to be taken up by plants or become
structure. Insufficient or absence of nutrients can impede synthesis of the groundwater, and some flows across the surface toward
different the ocean.
biological molecules. In Earth, there are processes that recycle nutrients. Water,
carbon and oxygen, phosphate and nitrogen cycles are some of the examples. 2. Rock cycle
Volcanism also helps in cycling the nutrients. The loop that involves the processes by which one rock
changes to another. Viewed over long time spans, the
Green House Gases ( GHG)- are gases in the earth’s atmosphere that trap rocks of the geosphere are constantly forming, changing,
heat. and reforming.
During the day, the sun shines through the atmosphere, warning the earth’s 3. Hydrologic Cycle
surface. at night the earth’s surface cools, releasing heat back into the air. But
some heat is trapped by the green houses in the atmosphere. Example of
is a biogeochemical cycle that describes the continuous
greenhouse gases: carbon Dioxide, methane, nitrous oxides, and water vapor. movement of water on, above and below the surface of
the earth.
Ozone layer- is a thin part of earth’s atmosphere that absorbs almost all of the Energy for the Earth System
sun’s harmful ultraviolet light. The Earth system is powered by energy from two sources.
The ozone layer’s depletion is a reason for concern because it will be unable to
filter out ultra-violet radiation effectively, resulting in a variety of skin issues such  The Sun drives external processes that occur in the
as skin discoloration and skin cancer. atmosphere, hydrosphere, and at Earth’s surface.
Weather and climate, ocean circulation, and erosional
Subsystems of the Earth processes such as rivers, glaciers, wind, and waves are
Earth is the third planet from the sun and considered as haven for many life
driven by energy from the Sun.
forms. As a closed system, it serves as harbor of life for billions of years and still  Earth’s interior is the second source of energy. Heat
continue to comfort innumerable life forms. Thus, Earth itself has different remaining from when our planet formed, and heat that is
systems that interact with other to provide all the necessities in order for life to continuously generated by decay of radioactive elements,
continue to prosper. powers the internal processes that produce volcanoes,
Earth is a complex system of interrelating physical, chemical and biological
processes. It is a system in which there are sets of interconnected components earthquakes, and mountains.
that are interacting to form a unified whole. Earth is comprised of four major
smaller Matter and energy move back and forth between the different
systems known as subsystems. These are also called as spheres of the Earth. Earth spheres, and the different spheres interact every day,
These are the atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.
 .Atmosphere serves as the Earth’s blanket. Its name rooted from the
all around you.
Greek word atmos which means gas and sphaira which means globe
or ball. It is composed of gases in varying amount and its relative
abundance is also crucial in different parts of the earth. The air in the
atmosphere is generally composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen,
0.9% argon and the remaining 0.10% is made up of different trace
gases and vapor. It serves as the Earth’s protection form harmful UV
rays and keeps the planet warm through greenhouse gasses.
Atmosphere is affected by the Earth’s gravity so this is the reason why
as the altitude increases the amount of gases in the atmosphere
decreases. It is composed of layers namely: troposphere,
stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere.
 Geosphere comes from the Greek word geos meaning ground. It
pertains to the solid part of the earth. It is divided in to three layers
such as the crust, mantle and the core. It is composed of naturally
 Physical and Chemical Properties of Mineral B. Chemical Properties
Geologists define mineral as any naturally occurring inorganic solid that Chemical properties of minerals show the presence and arrangement of atoms
possesses an orderly crystalline structure and can be represented by a chemical in minerals. Using their chemical properties, minerals are identified by how they
formula. react to certain substances.
Minerals are the building blocks of rocks. Minerals are important component of The Dana system divides minerals into eight basic classes. The classes are:
the Earth’s lithosphere. It is a naturally occurring material that plays a significant native elements, silicates, oxides, sulfides, sulfates, halides, carbonates,
role in human civilization. Minerals are present everywhere and some examples phosphates, and mineraloids. This classification shows the chemical composition
can be found at home. of minerals.
These are: Hematite (hinges, handles, make-up color), Chromite (chrome plating,
dyes), Copper (electric wiring), Quartz (clocks, mirrors), Gold (jewelries),
Feldspar (porcelain, ceramics), Fluorite (toothpaste). Because of its importance,
we need to determine its physical and chemical properties

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

Minerals can be distinguished using their physical and chemical properties.

A. Physical properties include habit, luster, cleavage and fracture,

hardness, color
and streak.
1. Crystal Habit – refers to the overall shape or growth pattern of the mineral. It
can be described as equant, elongate and platy.
Equant – three dimensions of the mineral have about the same length, like that
of a cube or sphere. (ei. garnet)
Elongate – forms prismatic or prism-like crystals that are thicker than the needle
as in a pencil. (ei. Indicolite)
Platy – looks like a flattened and thin crystal (like plate). (ei. Wulfenite)
2. Luster - describes the appearance of a mineral when light is reflected from its
surface. It can be described as opaque, transparent, dull, or shiny.
Metallic luster is opaque and very reflective like gold and silver.
Nonmetallic luster is dull, silky, greasy and pearly like silicates.
3. Cleavage and Fracture – refers to the tendency of minerals to break along
very
smooth, flat and shiny surfaces. A mineral fracture, if it breaks along random,
irregular surfaces. Some minerals break only by fracturing, while others both
cleave and fracture.
4. Hardness – is a measure of the mineral’s resistance to scratching. Harder
minerals will scratch softer minerals. Friedrich Mohs in 1812 ranked minerals
according to hardness as shown in Table 1.

5. Color - is one of the most obvious properties of a mineral but not reliable
alone.
Some minerals come in just one color, while others come in many colors and
varieties.Quartz varies widely in color, due to minor (parts per billion) impurities
and even defects in its crystalline structure.
6. Streak - refers to the color of the mineral in its powdered form, which may or
may not be the same color as the mineral. Streak is obtained by scratching the
mineral on an unpolished piece of white porcelain called a streak plate. When the
excess powder is blown away, what remains is the color of the streak. Streak is
more reliable property than color as streak shows the true color of minerals. It
does not vary even if color does.

Additional Properties
Magnetism - Some minerals are attracted to a hand magnet. To test a mineral
for magnetism, just put the magnet and mineral together and see if they are
attracted. Magnetite is the only common mineral that is always strongly magnetic.
Reaction with Acid - Some minerals, especially carbonate minerals, reactvisibly
with acid. (Usually, a dilute hydrochloric acid [HCl] is used.) When a drop of dilute
hydrochloric acid is placed on calcite, it readily bubbles or effervesces, releasing
carbon dioxide.
Striations -presence of very thin, parallel grooves. The grooves are present in
only one of the two sets of cleavages and are best seen with a hand lens. They
may
not be visible on all parts of a cleavage surface. Before you decide there are no
striations, look at all parts of all visible cleavage surfaces, moving the sample
around as you look so that light is reflected from these surfaces at different
angles.
Specific Gravity - is the weight of that mineral divided by the weight of an equal
volume of water. The specific gravity of water equals 1.0, by definition. Most
silicate, or rock-forming, minerals have specific gravities of 2.6 to 3.4; the ore
minerals are usually heavier, with specific gravities of 5 to 8. For most minerals,
specific gravity is not a particularly noteworthy feature, but for some, high specific
gravity is distinctive (examples are barite and galena).
Taste, Odor, Feel - Some minerals have a distinctive taste (halite is salt, and
tastes like it). Some a distinctive odor (the powder of some sulfide minerals, such
as sphalerite, a zinc sulfide, smells like rotten eggs), and some have a distinctive
feel
(talc feels slippery). The Classification of Rocks
Rock is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of minerals Organic sedimentary rock. Formed from the build-up of plant or
sometime with nonmineral solid particles. animal debris.
 Igneous rocks or magmatic rocks are formed through  Metamorphic rock forms from existing rock types called
the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. “parent rock” in the process called metamorphism, which
Magma is molten rock generated by partial melting of rocks means change in form. The original rock which can be an
inEarth’s mantle and in the lower crust in smaller amounts. This igneous, sedimentary or another metamorphic rock is
molten material consists mainly of the elements found in silicate subjected to heat and pressure, causing a profound
minerals. Silicon and oxygen are the main constituents in magma, chemical or physical change.
with lesser amounts of aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium,
potassium, magnesium, and others. Metamorphic
Igneous rock can be classified into: rocks can be further classified into:
Intrusive igneous rocks. This type of igneous rock is formed from Foliated metamorphic rocks. Formed through pressure due to
solidification of magma below the surface They have large crystals compression of rocks that create bands called foliation. Examples
of minerals that formed overtime through slow process of are gneiss, phyllite, schist, and slate.
crystallization in a magma. Granite, diorite, gabbro, pegmatite, and
peridotite are example of this type of rock. Nonfoliated metamorphic rocks. It has no foliation or bands.
Examples of this type are hornfels, marble, quartzite, and
novaculite.

Minerals Important to Society

Minerals are important to society. In small scale, let’s think of

some ways that will help you to realize that you are actually
using them every day.

In households, we use toothpaste that contains fluoride from

fluorite mineral. Face powder contains talc – the softest
mineral. In the kitchen, salts are commonly used to enhance
the flavor of our food. Kitchen utensils like casserole are made
of aluminum – a light and durable metal, and stainless wares
Extrusive igneous rocks. This type of igneous rock is formed that contains mostly of iron, chromium and carbon. Moreover,
through faster rate of solidification of lava on the surface of Earth. minerals such as silicon, silver and gold are used as
They can become glassy in appearance due to less crystallization components of gadgets like cellphones and computers.
or vesicular like Scoria, due to the air that was trapped inside Copper is the mostly used electrical wiring because it is less
when they solidified and formed on the surface of the earth. Other expensive.
examples of this type of rock are andesite, basalt, dacite, obsidian,
pumice, rhyolite and tuff. In construction, skyscrapers that tower up to 50 stories high,
use durable minerals like iron steel – a combination of iron
Igneous rocks that form rapidly at the surface or as small masses and carbon and concrete that contains limestone, lime and
within the upper crust have a fine-grained texture, with the chalk that make them strong and stand still against strong
individual crystals too small to be seen with the unaided eye. wind and earthquake. They also use glass made mainly of
quartz and silica. Floors are made up of granite and marbles.
When large masses of magma solidify far below the surface, they Aluminum are used in window and door panels.
form igneous rocks that exhibit a coarse-grained texture. These
coarse-grained rocks have the appearance of a mass of In taking care of our dental health, Dentists use many tools
intergrown crystals, roughly equal in size and large enough appropriate for a purpose. Titanium is a strong but very light
metal that is used for teeth transplant. There are also lots of
other minerals that they use for cleaning and surgery.
Examples are gypsum in plaster cast, and alloys like stainless
steel that primarily composed of iron, chromium and carbon in
their tools.

Power plants use minerals to provide us electricity and

energy.In nuclear power plant, radioactive minerals like
Uranium is used as source of heat energy to run a nuclear
reactor. Likewise, coal power plants also use mineral coal to
generate electricity. On the hand batteries for electric cars
need minerals like nickel, copper, and lithium.

In agriculture, NPK Fertilizers contain vital minerals for the

plant to grow healthy. These minerals include Nitrogen,
phosphorous and potassium. Moreover, minerals like lime are
also used to lower the acidity of the soil.For our health, the
pharmaceutical industry manufactures supplements that
contain many essential minerals that keep us strong and
 Sedimentary rock is formed by the deposition and healthy like Calcium, Magnesium and Zinc.
cementation of mineral or organic particles on the floor of
oceans and other bodies of water at the Earth surface. On the other hand, minerals can also cause harm among
humans. Talc might contain asbestos that can cause certain
Sedimentary rocks can be classified into clastic, chemical and
cancer which is why some cosmetic companies discontinue
organic. using it. Nuclear power plant that uses radioactive minerals
produces radioactive waste. Burning of coals releases high
Clastic sedimentary rock. It is formed from the mechanical
amount of carbon dioxide and other gases that contributes to
weathering debris of rocks. Examples are breccia, conglomerate,
the global warming. Over using of synthetic fertilizer causes
sandstone, siltstone, and shale.
eutrophication of bodies of water.
Chemical sedimentary rock. It is formed when dissolved
materials precipitate from solution. Examples of these are rock
salt, iron ore, chert, flint, some dolomites.
 5. Dewatering – uses the concentration to convert it to usable
minerals. This involve filtration and sedimentation of the
Ore Minerals: How They Are Found, Mined, and Processed for suspension and drying of the solid materials harvested from this
Human Use suspension.
Mining is the process of mineral extraction from a rock seam or
ore –a natural rock or sediment containing one or more valuable
mineral. The minerals can range from precious metals and iron to
How fossil fuels are formed?
gemstones and quartz. Modern mining technology uses
geophysical techniques that involve measuring the magnetic, Fossil fuels are basically remains of plants and animals that died
gravity and sonic responses of rocks above and around a millions of years ago. They are the world’s primary energy source
prospective mineral ore body. that provide most of the energy support in transportation,
electricity, and industries. They are natural and finite resources
There are two methods of mining:
that are very abundant and has a cheaper cost production
a. Surface Mining – is used to extract ore minerals near the compare to other resources present on Earth. They are considered
surface of the earth. The soil and rocks that covered the ores are as non-renewable energy source as they take millions of years to
removed through blasting. Blasting is a controlled use of form.
explosives and gas exposure to break rocks. Some examples of
There are three types of fossil fuels formation: coal, oil, and natural
surface mining are:
gas
1. Open-pit mining - This is the most common type of surface
1. Coal- It is an important and primary fossil fuel present on Earth.
mining. Open pit means a big hole (or pit) in the ground. The pit in
Coal resources are found predominantly where forest trees, plants
mine is created by blasting with explosives and drilling. It is used
and marshes existed before being buried and compressed millions
to mine gravel and sand and even rock.
of years ago. Philippines uses approximately 50% coal resource to
produce energy and electricity. There are four major ranks of coal.
First is anthracite, which is the highest rank of coal. It is a hard,
brittle, and black lustrous coal, often referred to as hard coal,
containing a high percentage of fixed carbon and a low percentage
of volatile matter. Second is the bituminous coal. It usually has a
high heating value and is the most common type of coal used in
electricity generation. It appears shiny and smooth at first glance,
2. Strip mining – This mining type involves the removal of a thin but when you look closely, you will see that it has layers. The third
strip of overburden (earth or soil) above a desired deposit, one is subbituminous coal, which is black in color and dull, and
dumping the removed overburden behind the deposit, extracting has a higher heating value than lignite. The last in rank is lignite,
the desired deposit, creating a second, parallel strip in the same which is also known as brown coal. It is the lowest grade coal with
manner, and depositing the waste materials from that second the least concentration of carbon.
(new) strip onto the first strip. This mining method is used for coal,
phosphates, clays, and tar mining. 2. Oil- Most of the oil that we are using today started forming
millions of years ago. Oil is an organic material, mostly algae,
which was buried in mud at the bottom of the sea and lakes. It is
used mainly for the production of transportation fuels and
petroleum-based products. Philippines imports crude oil and
petroleum from Saudi Arabia and Russia. The majority of the
market are Petron Corporation, Pilipinas Shell, and Chevron
Philippines.

3. Dredging – This is the process of mining materials from the 3. Natural gas- It is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon gas with the
bottom of a body of water, including rivers, lakes, and oceans. mixture of methane. It is the Earth’s cleanest fossil fuel and is
odorless and colorless in its natural state. Natural gas is produced
from sedimentary rock formation by forcing chemicals, water, and
b. Underground mining – is used to extract the rocks, minerals sand down a well under high pressure. The Philippines’ main
and other precious stories that can be found beneath the earth’s domestic source of energy is the Malampaya natural gas field
surface. In underground mining, miners need to create a tunnel so which is located at Palawan Island.
they can reach the ore minerals. This kind of mining is more
expensive and dangerous as compared to surface mining because
miners need to use explosive devices to remove the minerals from How are fossil fuels formed?
the rocks that cover them.
Millions of years ago the remains of prehistoric plants and animals
are buried beneath the Earth’s surface. These remains were
covered by mud. The mud sediment was buried by more
sediments and It started to change into rock as the temperature
and pressure increase. In that case fossil fuels are formed in a low
oxygen environment. The plant and animal remain were altered
chemically by this process, and slowly changed into crude oil and
natural gas. Through the spaces of permeable rock, the oils move
Mineral processing is the process of extracting minerals from the upwards and will be trapped if it reached impermeable rock. Oil
ore, refining them, and preparing these minerals for use. The companies can drill down through the impermeable rocks to get it
primary steps involved in processing minerals include: out. They are then able to turn it into products we can use, such as
1. Sampling – is the removal of a portion which represents a whole petrol and diesel. On the other hand, coal can be extracted from
needed for the analysis of this material. the Earth through underground mining. Once it has been
extracted, it can be used to fuel power plants for electricity.
2. Analysis – is important to evaluate the valuable component in
an ore. This includes chemical, mineral and particle size analysis.

3. Comminution – is the process where the valuable components

of the ore are separated through crushing and grinding. This
process begins by crushing the ores to a particular size and
finishes it by grinding the ores into a powder form. 4.
Concentration – involves the separation of the valuable minerals
from the

raw materials
 Energy Beneath the Earth

The Earth through its endogenic and exogenic processes exhibits

different forms of energy that when harnessed can be transformed
into sustainable energy resources. As the population rises year by
year, the demand for energy supply is expected. Thus, scientists
and technologists collaborate to find new ways on how existing
energy on Earth can be converted into usable form applying the
basic laws of nature.

Hot and Cold

Heat is one of the types of energy that is dynamic, transferable

and can be converted into useful forms. It is the product of random
motion of particles that are continuously colliding and vibrating.
Heat results to certain level of temperature (hotness or coldness)
of a given body. Observing the earth, as you go down ,
tremendous heat will be experienced. This is a result of
radioactivity at its interior. The heat generated beneath the ground
is called geothermal energy, that when harnessed can generate
electrical energy for community use. This is possible when a
geothermal power plant is established equipped with technology
that runs the process of energy conversion.

Harnessing Geothermal Energy

Getting down beneath the ground, you will experience increase in

both temperatures and pressure. Thus, in putting up a geothermal
power plant, it is required to drill 1 to 2 miles deep to pump steam
or hot water into the surface. At this depth, the power plant that
uses hydrothermal resources (having both water and heat) can
attain the required temperature that is about 300 oF to 700 Thousand years ago, ancient people like Romans, Chinese and
oF.Figure 1.6 shows how a type of geothermal power plant works. Native Americans have used geothermal energy for daily activities
such as cooking and bathing. At present, among the different
countries around the world, geothermal energy is commonly used
by people who are living in Iceland in heating water and building

Energy from Water Current.

The quest for sustainable energy is at top priority of most country.

As the demand for energy continues to increase, different
alternatives that focus on renewable energy resources are best
options around the globe. Natural resources such as solar, wind
and water are some of the alternatives that most scientists and
technology developers are eying for. Based on researches, these
means not only secure the supply of energy of a country, but also
preserve the environment for future generations.

Geothermal energy is not only used by a power plant for electricity Water is life. Different life processes within and outside the body
generation. Another way of using the energy is through heat requires water to perform biological and ecological tasks. Aside
pumps that can be installed at home. Heat pump works depending from these essentialities, its nature and mechanism in the
on the season using water or a refrigerant and obtaining the environment can be harnessed to add up to the supply of energy
Earth’s constant temperature (50 – 60 oF) below the ground. For needed by the community. The key to this energy conversion is
instance, it makes the house warm during winter and cold during water cycle. Through the unending process of evaporation,
summer as shown in the Figure 1.7. condensation and precipitation, the water in streams, lakes, rivers,
and falls are replenished. Due to its ability to flow, current is
occurred based on the slope (gravitational) and other external
forces (wind). Energy in Current

One requirement for water to become energy resource is the

presence of current. Current in streams and rivers is largely
affected by gravity based on the steepness of slope of the runways
and the obstacles that may hinder the flow. Since the water is
flowing down the sea level, it possesses certain amount of
potential energy which is directly proportional to the density and
height where the source is located. To convert this energy into 8. The environmental effects of geothermal energy depend on how
usable form (electrical energy), a hydroelectric power plant must geothermal energy is consumed or how it is transformed into
be established. useful energy. Direct use applications and geothermal heat pumps
have almost no negative effects on the environment. In fact, they
Take note of the following: reduce the use of energy sources that may have harmful effects
the environment due to emission of greenhouse gases.
1. The country’s potentiality to harness non-renewable energy
Geothermal power plants do not burn fuel to generate electricity,
resources is dependent on its geologic processes and features.
so the levels of air pollutants they exhaust are low. Geothermal
For instance, the presence of geologic features such as volcanoes
power plants emit 97% less acid rain-causing sulfur compounds
and fumaroles, hot springs, and geysers are indicators that there
and about 99% less carbon dioxide than fossil fuel power plants of
are available passages for geothermal energy to reach the surface
similar size. Geothermal power plants use scrubbers to remove
of the earth. For hydropower, the process of hydrologic cycle is
the hydrogen sulfide naturally found in geothermal reservoirs.
important for the replenishment of water in rivers and dams. The
Most geothermal power plants inject the geothermal steam and
volume (density) and the steepness of the slope (gravity) affects
water that they use back into the earth. This recycling helps to
the efficiency of the power plant to generate electricity.
renew the geothermal resource.
2. Geothermal energy is the heat from the earth’s core due to the
9. Hydropower or hydroelectricity is the conversion of flowing
slow decay of radioactive substances. Different layers of the earth
water (mechanical energy) into electrical energy. Using this
possess different temperatures as the core found to be the hottest.
renewable (can be replaced within human life span) energy
This energy comes out to the surface through the tectonic plate
resource, water (hydrologic) cycle that requires solar energy
boundaries and edges where most formation of volcanoes occurs.
dictates precipitation that can be collected by streams and rivers
When molten materials (magma) come out through the spaces in
when falls in the form of rain or snow. The amount of water in the
between the plates, they heat up the ground water suspended in
area determines the efficiency in generating electrical energy.
the porous rocks. The process produces steam (hydrothermal)
Thus, irregularities in seasons and climate change that may result
that builds pressure needed to be emitted to the surface through
to droughts directly affects the hydropower production. In terms of
volcanoes. In this case, Philippines, being one of the countries
actual production, the volume of water and the height of the
within the Ring of Fire that encircles the Pacific Ocean, is rich in
source determines the rate of power generation.
renewable geothermal energy and has high potential to harness it
into electricity.

3. To test the capability of the area, geologists apply several 10. There are three main types of hydro plants.
methods to determine whether an area has potentiality for
geothermal reservoir. For instance, drilling a well and measuring 1) Impoundment facilities are the most common technology which
the temperature (300 – 700 oF) is the most reliable method before uses a dam to create a large reservoir of water. Electricity is made
putting up a power plant. If the obtained temperature is 50 – 60 oF, when water passes through turbines in the dam.
then, it can be used for household purposes only like warming a
house and building during winter. 2) Pumped storage facilities are similar but have a second
reservoir below the dam. Water can be pumped from the lower
4. Applications of geothermal energy can be attained through reservoir to the upper reservoir, storing energy for use later.
either getting the surface heat for heating purposes or drilling
miles beneath the ground for electricity generation. There are 3) Run-of-river facilities rely more on natural water flow rates,
three main types of geothermal energy systems: diverting just a portion of river water through turbines, sometimes
without the use of a dam or reservoirs. Since run-of-river hydro is
1) direct use and district heating, subject to natural water variability, it is more intermittent than
dammed hydro.
2) geothermal power plants and 3) geothermal heat pumps.
11. However, there are many concerns with hydropower,
5. Direct use and district heating systems use hot water from particularly large dam facilities. Damming a river has a significant
springs or reservoirs located near the surface of the earth. Ancient impact on the regional ecosystem, by flooding upstream
Roman, Chinese, and Native American cultures used hot mineral landscapes, disrupting habitats for wildlife, blocking fish
springs for bathing, cooking, and heating. Today, many hot passages, and often displacing local communities. In addition,
springs are still used for bathing, and many people believe the hot, dam failures can be catastrophic, further disrupting landscapes
mineral-rich waters have health benefits. Geothermal energy is and claiming the lives of those living downstream. Finally, hydro
also used to directly heat individual buildings and to heat multiple plants are not completely free of greenhouse gas emissions. As
buildings with district heating systems. Hot water near the earth's with most forms of energy, carbon dioxide emissions occur during
surface is piped into buildings for heat. A district heating system construction, particularly because of the large quantities of cement
provides heat for most of the buildings in Reykjavik, Iceland. used, and loss of vegetation in flooded areas creates methane,
Industrial applications of geothermal energy include food another greenhouse gas, as its matter decays underwater.
dehydration (drying), gold mining, and milk pasteurizing.

6. Geothermal power plants are generally constructed where

geothermal reservoirs are located, within a mile or two from the Various Water Resources on Earth
earth's surface. Geothermal power plants apply hydrothermal Water Resources
resources that have both water (hydro) and heat (thermal). People
utilize these resources by drilling wells into the earth and then Nearly three-fourths of the earth's surface is covered with water.
piping steam or hot water to the surface. The hot water or steam Most of which is found in the ocean. Great amount of the
powers a turbine that generates electricity. Some geothermal wells freshwater is found below the earth's surface called ground water
are as much as two miles deep depending on the availability of and the rest of the freshwater is found in lakes, rivers, streams.
sufficient geothermal source. There are three basic types of Water is also present in air in the form of water vapour. Water
geothermal power plants: resources are natural resources of water that are potentially
useful. Uses of water include agricultural, households, recreational
1) dry steam plants, and environmental activities. Moreover, about 70 percent of the
2 flash steam plants human body is water and bodies of all plants and animals also
contain water. All living things require water to grow and
3) binary cycle power plants. reproduce. Sources of Water. Rainwater, oceans, rivers, lakes,
streams, ponds and springs are natural sources of water. Dams,
7. Geothermal heat pumps apply the constant temperatures near wells, tube wells, hand-pumps, canals, etc, are man-made sources
the surface of the earth to increase and decrease the temperature of water.
of buildings or houses. Geothermal heat pumps transfer heat from
the ground (or water) into buildings during the winter and reverse
the process in the summer with the use of refrigerant.
 Water is very important in each of our lives. Not only is it essential
to our health, but also we use it for numerous household tasks.
Every day we use water for cooking, bathing, cleaning, and
drinking. The World Health Organization and UNICEF Joint
Monitoring Report (2017) define improved drinking water sources
as those that have potential to deliver safe water by nature of their
design and construction. These include piped water tube wells or
boreholes; protected dug wells, protected springs; rainwater.
Families that use bottled water or refilling stations for drinking are
classified as using an improved source only if the water they use
for cooking and hand washing comes from an improved source.

According to the results of the 2017 APIS, 94 percent of the 24

million Filipino families have improved source of drinking water. In
the urban and rural areas, 97 and 91 percent, respectively, have
Rain Water. Rain water is collected on Earth in the form of surface improved source of drinking water. Residents in rural areas are
water and underground water. more likely to have an unimproved source of drinking water than
those in urban areas (9.1% vs. 2.6%). Almost four in every five
Two Main Sources of Water
families (77%) do not practice any method or treatment in ensuring
Surface Water. Water present on the surface of the earth in the that their drinking water is safe to drink.
form of oceans, rivers, lakes, reservoir, ponds and streams is
called surface water. The water in rivers and lakes comes from
rain and melting of snow on mountains. Rivers flow into the sea.

Underground Water. Some of the rainwater seeps through the

soil on to the non-porous rocks below. This is underground water.
Sometimes due to high pressure, this water sprouts out in the form
of springs. It can be obtained by digging wells or sinking tube
wells, etc. Groundwater lies under the surface of the land, where it
travels through and fills openings in the rocks. The rocks that store
and transmit groundwater are called aquifers.

Water Distribution on Earth

Figure 4 is a pie chart showing where all water on, in, and above
the Earth exists.

The first pie chart shows how almost all of Earth's water is saline Activities that Affect the Quality and Availability of Water for
and is found in the oceans. Of the small amount that is actually Human Use
freshwater, only a relatively small portion is available to sustain Water quality describes the condition of the water, including
human, plant, and animal life.It is observed that only 3% of Earth's chemical, physical, and biological characteristics, usually with
water is freshwater which is the water needed for life to survive. respect to its suitability for a particular purpose such as drinking or
The middle pie chart shows the breakdown of freshwater. Almost swimming.
all of it is confined in ice and in the ground. Only 0.3% of all Water has physical and chemical characteristics. Some of the
freshwater is surface water, which serves most of life's needs. physical attributes include temperature, colour, taste, odour and
The last pie chart shows the breakdown of surface water. Most of turbidity. The temperature of water affects some of the important
this water is found in lakes. Rivers make up 2% of surface physical properties and characteristics of water: thermal capacity,
freshwater and 11% swamps. Although rivers account for only a density, specific weight, viscosity, surface tension, specific
small amount of freshwater, this is where humans get a large conductivity, salinity and solubility of dissolved gases and etc.
portion of their water.
Colour on the other hand, is primarily a concern of water quality for
aesthetic reason. Coloured water give the appearance of being
unfit to drink, even though the water may be perfectly safe for
public use. It can indicate the presence of organic substances,
such as algae or humic compounds. More recently, colour has
been used as a quantitative assessment of the presence of
potentially hazardous or toxic organic materials in water.

Taste and odour are human perceptions of water quality. Human

perception of taste includes sour (hydrochloric acid), salty (sodium
chloride), sweet (sucrose) and bitter (caffeine). Relatively simple
compounds produce sour and salty tastes. However sweet and
bitter tastes are produced by more complex organic compounds.
Human detect many more tips of odour than tastes. Organic
materials discharged directly to water, such as falling leaves,
runoff, etc., are sources of tastes and odour-producing compounds
released during biodegradation

Furthermore, turbidity is a measure of the light-transmitting

properties of water and is comprised of suspended and colloidal
material. It is important for health and aesthetic reasons.

The chemical characteristics of natural water are a reflection of the

soils and rocks with which the water has been in contact. In
addition, agricultural and urban runoff and municipal and industrial
treated wastewater impact the water quality. Microbial and
chemical transformations also affect the chemical characteristics
of water.
Sources of Drinking Water (https://echo2.epfl.ch/VICAIRE/mod_2/chapt_2/main.htm).
Water with good qualities mentioned above are fit for human Negative Effect of Farming
consumption. Water availability is defined as the quantity of water
Tillage in farming is the preparation of soil for planting and the cultivation of soil
that can be used for human purposes without significant harm to
after planting. It can cause direct damage to soil microorganisms and potentially
ecosystems or other users.
expose those to new predators. Though pesticides are found beneficial to soil, it
However, our water resources face a host of serious threats. was found to have long term harmful effects on the overall activity or population
Currently about 40% of the world's population live in water of soil organisms. Some applied veterinary medicines are found to affect the
normal degradation rate of some insects and animals, thus altering the soil’s
stressed areas (https://freshwaterwatch.thewaterhub.org/.2020).
health.
Water scarcity occurs when the amount of water withdrawn from
lakes, rivers or groundwater is so great that water supplies are no Construction of Structure
longer adequate to satisfy all human or ecosystem requirements,
resulting in increased competition between water users and other Construction activities, such as grading and filling, reduce soil quality on
demands. Water scarcity can be caused primarily by human construction sites. Land use conversion usually done to support urbanization
activities which promote sedimentation, pollution, climate change, activities can cause rapid soil degradation and sedimentation. Soil nutrients are
washed away making it unsuitable for farming.
deforestation, landscape changes, and urban growth. Human
waste disposal contributes pollution of the air, the land, and water Waste Disposals
resources. Such pollution can affect the quality of rainwater and of
water resources both above and below ground, thus damaging our Soil quality is adversely affected by improper waste disposal. Soil pollution
natural systems. happens when hazardous chemicals from human and industrial sewage are
carelessly disposed of, altering soil’s natural health and quality.
Although it is difficult to instantly put an end to such problems, it is
man’s duty to manage, develop, and protect water and related At this point, you have learned about the effects of human activities on quality of
soil. It is therefore imperative that we protect and preserve soil. There are
resources in an environmentally and economically sound manner.
methods of soil conservation and protection that can be observed in order to
protect and conserve our soil at the same time. The goal here is to reduce
erosion and to ensure the soil’s fertility.

Forest Protection

Trees as well as other plants and vegetation in the forest are important in the
creation of new soil as leaves and other vegetation rot and decompose. Hence,
soil qualities are ensured when forest are protected and conserved.

Buffer Strips

Buffers are strips or corridors of permanent vegetation used to reduce water and
Human Activities that Affect the Quality and Quantity of Soil wind erosion. They provide protection where stream banks exist. They can be
Philippines is an agricultural country with a land area of 30 million hectares, 47% created with grass, trees and shrubs.
of which is agricultural land (https://pinas.dlsu.edu.ph/ 2020). However, urban
development activities contribute to conversion of agricultural land to other No-Till Farming
purposes in order to support the rapid growing population of 108.8 M (PSA,
2020). Urbanization also affects the quality and quantity of available soil for No-till farming is an approach that allows crops to remain in place for a season.
planting crops. This keeps the soil from being left bare and unprotected.

Soil can be defined as the organic and inorganic materials on the surface of the Fewer Concrete Surfaces
earth that provide the medium for plant growth. Soil develops slowly over time Soil requires an adequate amount of water in order to function properly. Lots of
and is composed of many different materials through the process of weathering. concrete surfaces, especially in residential areas make it difficult for water to get
Soil is a necessary resource because it helps sustain life on Earth including to the soil. Using paving stones for patios and gardens work to protect the soil.
humans, animals and plants. Aside from life sustaining roles, soil helps purify, or They are also a tool to prevent soil erosion in specific areas.
clean, water as it drains through the ground and into rivers, lakes, and oceans. In Plant Windbreak Areas
addition, decomposers in soil also help recycle nutrients by breaking down the
remains of plants and animals, releasing nutrients that living plants use to grow. Windbreaks are composed of shrubs, plants and trees. They work in combination
and serve a conservation purpose. These will work together to slow the force of
Soil also provides a home for a variety of living things, from tiny one-celled wind over ground areas. This is a method that can also work to prevent erosion of
organisms to small mammals. Despite the mentioned importance in sustaining the soil.
life on earth, there are serious issues concerning the soil’s good qualities and
availability. In fact, a review of soil degradation in the Philippines (Asio, V. 2009) Terrace Planting
revealed that soil degradation, the physical, chemical and biological decline in This type of planting is done by maximizing the topography of the land. It benefits
soil quality is a major agricultural and environmental problem in the Philippines from the way the rain water flows naturally. This is a way to protect the soil from
due to erosion. Loss of nutrients and organic nutrients, salinization, acidification, erosion. It is also a proven method to encourage growth from moist soil areas.
pollution, compaction and subsidence are other soil degradation processes
cause by erosion. Plant Trees

Aside from natural causes of soil erosion, there are some other human activities Simply planting trees is a good conservation method. As the tree grows, its roots
that contribute to the loss of good quality soil. We are going to limit our discussion become even more secure in the soil. This soil is protected in numerous ways
on the three major human activities that cause soil degradation. because of the trees existence. Erosion is prevented from this planting process.

FARMING Crop Rotation

Farming is one of the traditional sources of income in our country done by Crop rotation is a process that works to conserve soil. It is accomplished by
planting crops or raising livestock. Listed below are some positive and negative planting and growing a serious of different crops in the same soil. This process
effects of farming. prevents overgrowth of pathogens and a lack of fertility in the soil, overall.

Positive Effect of Farming Water the Soil

Application of herbicide, a pesticide used to kill unwanted plants used in farming. This is a simple process that provides a lot of benefits to the soil. Watering your
has a positive benefit on soil health. Lime and mineral fertilizers added to soil soil along with plants and vegetables is important. This helps to not only nourish
provide stable optimum growing conditions for plants. Organic manures and other the soil but to protect it. Moist soil is not in danger of erosion due to wind activity.
organic fertilizers provide a source of food/energy for many soil organisms thus
making the soil healthy and good for planting. Even the growing plants help in Maintain pH
stabilizing the soil structure. Soil pH or soil reaction is an indication of the acidity or alkalinity of soil and is
Another important effect of farming on soil health is the provision of water through measured in pH units. A pH range of approximately 6 to 7 promotes the most
irrigation and drainage. Irrigation/drainage water stabilizes the soil moisture thus ready availability of plant nutrients. The pH levels in the soil can be affected by a
making it healthier and suitable for planting. number pollutants and acid.
Indigenous Crops for sowing. Unfortunately, tilling activity can lead to compaction of soil, loss of
organic matter in the soil and the death of soil organisms. No-till farming is a way
Indigenous crops are native crop options that enhance the soil. Planting these is to prevent the soil from this harm.
a way to ensure conservation efforts. They should be planted even when diverse 4. Contour Plowing: This practice of farming on slopes considers the slope
crops are being planted, as well. gradient and the elevation of soil along the slope. It is the method of plowing
across the contour lines of a slope. This method helps in slowing the water runoff
Afforestation and prevents soil from being washed away along the slope. Contour plowing also
helps in percolation of water in the soil.
Planting trees is a method of conserving the soil. Afforestation is another of tree 5. Crop Rotation: Some pathogens tend to build up in soil if the same crops are
planting method wherein the areas under trees are protected. This is usually cultivated again and again. Continuous cultivation of the same crop also leads to
done by planting foliage in forest undergrowth areas. It encourages healthy soil imbalance in the fertility demands of the soil. To save the soil from these adverse
and water absorption. effects, crop rotation is practiced. It is a method of growing a series of dissimilar
crops in an area. Crop rotation also helps in the improvement of soil structure and
Monitor Grazing fertility.
6. Maintaining Soil pH: The contamination of soil by addition of acidic or basic
Animal grazing plays a critical role in conserving soil. Monitoring the areas where pollutants and due to acid rains has an adverse effect on the soil pH. Soil pH is
cows and other animals graze is important. This helps to prevent depletion of the an indicator of the level of nutrients in soil. The uptake of nutrients by plants also
soil. It also addresses the issue of hoof damage, which can occur to the soil. depends on the pH of soil. Maintaining the correct value of soil pH, is thus
essential for soil conservation.
Dams 7. Water the Soil: We water plants, we water the crops, but do we water the soil?
We seldom do. Watering soil is a good measure of soil conservation. Watering
Dams are important resources when it comes to soil conservation. These the soil along with plants growing in it is a way to prevent soil erosion caused by
structures work to prevent soil erosion. This is especially important in areas wind.
where rivers exist. Flooding of rivers has been the cause for many instances of 8. Salinity Management: The salinity of soil increases due to excessive
soil erosion. Dams offer additional protection. accumulation of salts in the soil. This has a negative effect on the metabolism of
crops. The salinity of soil is detrimental to the vegetative life in it. The death of
Fertilizers vegetation leads to soil erosion. Hence, salinity management is an indirect way of
conserving soil.
Not all fertilizer products are effective for conservation efforts. The composition of 9. Promote Helpful Soil Organisms: Nitrogen-fixing and denitrifying bacteria
these fertilizers can be the problem. The use of organic fertilizer improves the are important constituents of the nitrogen cycle. They live in soil. Bacteria and
quality of soil because it is composed of readily biodegradable materials make fungi help keep the soil healthy. Organisms like earthworms help decompose
organic material in the soil. They aid soil aeration and help it maintain porosity.
better nutrient sources. Rodents too, help soil the same way. This increases the absorbing capacity of
soil. Earthworms, through aeration of soil, enhance the availability of
No Soil Compacting macronutrients. These helpful organisms boost soil fertility and help in soil
conservation.
A simple conservation method that some gardeners and farmers apply is not to 10. Grow Indigenous Crops: Planting native crops is beneficial for soil
compact the soil. This is a protection method that is helpful. You can do this by conservation. If non-native plants are grown, fields should be bordered by
creating dedicated paths in your garden. This helps you to not walk on wet soil indigenous crops to prevent soil erosion, thus achieving soil conservation
causing it to be compacted. How People Generate
Different Types of Waste
Control Storm Water Waste Defined
The United Nations Environment described wastes as unwanted or unusable
Instead of allowing water to puddle in yards or gardens, it is important to control materials which are disposed of or are intended to be disposed of or are required
it. Storm water can easily cause flooding or problems in these areas. Setting up to be disposed of by the provisions of national law.
large container to hold excess water in problem locations is helpful. This water Kinds of Waste
can be re-used for watering gardens and yards.
There are different kinds of wastes generated by the people around the world.
Monitor Growth
A. Solid Waste. This type of wastes is in solid form like domestic, commercial and
When crops or plants grow normally, they have a healthy appearance. It there is industrial wastes such as plastics, styrofoam, papers, scrap iron and sludge from
a problem with the growth, often the soil is the issue. Checking the salient a wastewater treatment plant or air control facility.
composition and fertility is important. This is done through regular monitoring of
the soil and overall plant growth. B. Liquid Waste. This type of wastes is in liquid form such as chemicals, oils, and
waste water from ponds and manufacturing industries. It includes sewage as well
Soil Conservation Methods and Practices as wastewater from industrial processes and agricultural processing.

Soil as one of the most important natural resources needs personal and societal C. Gaseous Waste. This type of waste is in gaseous form which usually
actions devising and implementing ways of how to conserve and protect it. originates from chopping and dissolution operations. As an example, volatile
Analyzing the food pyramid, plants (plant foods) are at the base signifying that radionuclides are discharged to the stack after scrubbing with sodium hydroxide
they are fundamental to the existence of life. Most organisms are dependent to and filtration through charcoal filter.
the food produced by plants as being autotrophic (self-feeder). Plants require soil
for survival as their roots get the necessary nutrients to grow and to bear fruits.
Soil is one of the three primary factors for plant growth, together with sunlight and
water. Saying such, it is an important element of the ecological system and,
therefore, its conservation is essential for the upcoming generations.

Soil is threatened due to progressing degradation processes caused by climate

change and other factors. Thus, soil conservation and protection are in the
limelight emphasizing the informational, educational, and motivational impact of
all the measures. The success of any program cannot be attained without the
active participation of every member of the community. It targets to elevate public
awareness and the farmers’ traditional and professional knowledge about
protecting the landscapes by having real efforts to comply with mandated The main objective of waste management is to reduce the quantity and
practices and technologies.
type of hazardous substances used to avoid adverse impact on human
Soil is one of the most important natural resources that require conservation
health and environment. Transformation of waste into usable secondary
practices. Most of the methods that are utilized to promote sustainable use of the
product can be done through recycling, reusing, repurposing, reducing and
soil are:
recovering. Thus, the waste generated from different industries and
1. Tree Planting: Roots of trees firmly hold on the soil making it stagnant and
societies must be classified in order to apply the correct form of
prevent soil erosion. As they grow, their roots go deeper and spread wider into
the soil. In addition, soil under a vegetative cover is saved from erosion due to management.
wind as this cover acts as a wind barrier.
2. Terraces Building: A terrace is a leveled section of a hilly cultivated area.
Having its unique topography, it prevents rapid surface runoff of water. Terracing
gives the landmass a stepped appearance like the famous Philippine Rice
Terraces, thus slowing the washing down of soil. Dry stonewalling is a method
used to create terraces in which stone structures are made without using mortar
for binding.
3. No-till Farming: Tilling is the process of preparing soil for plowing. In
conserving the soil, no-till farming which is a way of growing crops without
disturbing it through tillage is highly recommended. The process of tilling is
beneficial in mixing fertilizers in the soil, making rows and preparing the surface
 formation of cracks which follow the land surface. They are
relatively flat on plateaus but can be steep on the flanks of
mountains which are called exfoliation domes → once the crack is
developed; water enters and causes chemical weathering leading
to the formation of new low- density minerals. This enhances the
cracks and encourages slabs of rock to detach from the surface.

B. Chemical weathering

Chemical weathering is caused by rainwater reacting with the

mineral grains in rocks to form new minerals (clays) and soluble
salts. These reactions occur particularly when the water is slightly
acidic. These chemical processes need water, and occur more
rapidly at higher temperature, so warm, damp climates are best.
Chemical weathering (especially hydrolysis and oxidation) is the
first stage in the production of soils.

There are different types of chemical weathering, the most

important are:

1. Carbonation – Carbon dioxide in the air dissolves in rainwater

and becomes weakly acidic. This weak “carbonic acid” can
dissolve limestone as it seeps into cracks and cavities. Over many
years, solution of the rock can form spectacular cave systems.

2. Acidification - Polluting gases, like sulfur dioxide and nitrogen

oxide dissolve in rainwater to make stronger acids. When this
rainwater falls, we get acid rain. This acid attacks many rock types,
both by solution and hydrolysis, seriously damaging buildings and
monuments.

3. Hydrolysis - the breakdown of rock by acidic water to produce

clay and soluble salts. Hydrolysis takes place when acid rain
reacts with rock-forming minerals such as feldspar to produce clay
and salts that are removed in solution.

QUARTER 2 The only common rock-forming mineral that is not affected is

quartz, which is a chemically resistant mineral. Therefore, quartz
WEATHERING and clay are the two of the most common minerals in sedimentary
rocks.
Weathering is the process of breakdown of rocks at the Earth’s
surface, by the action of water, ice, acids, salts, plants, animals, 4. Hydration – A type of chemical weathering where water reacts
gravity and changing temperatures. There are three types of chemically with the rocks, modifying its chemical structure.
weathering: physical weathering, chemical weathering, and Example: H2O (water) is added to CaSO4 (calcium sulfate) to
biological weathering. create CaSO4 + 2H2O (calcium sulfate dihydrate). It changes from
anhydrite to gypsum.
A. Physical Weathering
5. Oxidation - the breakdown of rock by oxygen and water, often
Physical weathering is caused by the effects of changing
giving ironrich rocks a rusty-colored weathered surface.
temperatures on rocks, causing the rock to break apart. The
process is sometimes assisted by water. It happens especially in C. Biological weathering
places where there is little soil and few plants grow, such as in
mountain regions and hot deserts. It occurs either through Biological weathering of rocks occurs when rocks are weakened
repeated melting and freezing of water (mountains and tundra) or by different biological agents like plants and animals. When plant
through expansion and contraction of the surface layer of rocks roots grow through rocks, it creates fracture and cracks that result
that are baked by the sun (hot deserts). There are two main types eventually to rock breakage. It can be classified into:
of physical weathering:
1. Biological Weathering by Physical Means. Burrowing animals
1. Abrasion. It occurs when rocks surface is frequently exposed to like shrews, moles and earthworms create holes on the ground by
water, wind and gravity. excavation and move the rock fragments to the surface. These
fragments become more exposed to other environmental factors
2. Freeze-thaw. It occurs when water continually seeps into that can further enhance their weathering. Furthermore, humans
cracks, freezes and expands, eventually breaking the rock apart. It also indirectly contribute to biological weathering by different
occurs in mountainous regions like the Alps or Snowdonia. It activities that cause rocks to break.
occurs through the following process:
2. Biological Weathering by Chemical Compounds. Some plants
Rainwater or snow- melt collects in cracks in the rocks→ at night and animals also produced acidic substances that react with the
the temperature drops and the water freezes and expands→ the rock and cause its slow disintegration.
increases in volume of the ice exerts pressure on the cracks in the
rock, causing them to split further open→ during the day the ice Earth’s Internal Heat Sources
melts and the water seeps deeper into the cracks → at night, the
water freezes again.

3. Exfoliation. It can happen as cracks develop parallel to the land

surface as a consequence of the reduction in pressure during uplift
and erosion. It occurs typically in upland areas where there are
exposures of uniform coarsely crystalline igneous rocks. The
following are the process of exfoliation.

The rock mass at depth is under high pressure from underlying

rocks. It tends to be uniform and lack fractures. → As progressive
erosion occurs; the rock mass is subjected to progressively lower
pressure of overlying rocks which leads to tension in directions at
right angles to the land surface → this tension is relieved by
Core – composed of two parts. The core is very dense and
composed mostly of Iron and Nickel. The inner core is solid. This
is because there is so much pressure exerted that it can only exist
in the solid form. The outer core is liquid iron and nickel. Again, it Scientists use waves generated by earthquakes to determine the
is very dense but because it is in its liquid form it is less dense Earth’s interior. that the outer core of the earth is liquid.
than solid and forms the outer core.
Earthquakes generate P-waves and S-waves within the earth.
Mantle is composed of Iron and Magnesium silicates (Si + O). It is Shadows occur on the opposite side of the earth from the
mostly solid, but the uppermost part of the mantle is partially earthquake epicenter because the outer core reflects S-waves,
molten (slush – where you do have liquid and solid mixed). Now, and bends P-waves. S-waves are reflected because they cannot
this is very important in plate tectonics. travel through liquids, and they cast a larger shadow than the bent
P-waves. Geologists and seismologists determined the size of the
Crust –This is the outermost layer. It is very thin and rigid. Rigid
outer core by using the 154-degree arc of the S-wave shadow and
means that it is a solid. If you can imagine an apple. It would
measurements taken on the surface of the earth.
have the thickness of the skin of an apple. There is two types of
crust – continental crust and oceanic crust.

Important notes:

Thin crust + uppermost mantle is rigid. This forms the “lithospheric

plates”. partially molten mantle acts as a lubricant. This enables
the plates to move freely along the surface of the Earth.

Why do continents sit higher than ocean basins? It is their

composition and density. Continent = Quartz (SiO2) and
Feldspars (K, Ca, Na, Al, SiO2). These are light elements. Ocean
= Basalt (Fe and Mg). These are heavier elements.
Asthenosphere is partially molten. It forms a lubricant to allow
plates to move.

By calculation, the Earth’s density is 5.8 gm/cm3. In the Sierras, Earth’s Internal Heat Source
composed mostly of granite, represents the thin part of Earth’s
Earth was formed about 4.6 billion years ago and continue to
interior, i.e. skin of an apple. If you calculate the Earth’s surface
serve as habitat to diverse organisms. Its biotic components
using granite, it comes to 2.8 gm/cm3. What is this telling us?
remain alive due to proper regulation of internal heat. It has
There are heavier rocks in the Earth. We know the age of the
massive amount of heat that varies from its layer. The heat
earth is 4.6 Ga. People who study meteorites determined their
increases from the crust down to the inner core due to several
age to be about 4.5 Ga – same as Earth. Meteorites are
reasons. This internal heat comes from the following sources.
composed of Iron and Nickel. It is hypothesized the Earth’s interior
is composed of the same elements. P-waves travel 4x faster than 1. Primordial heat of the planet remains from its early stage.
S-waves and also travel through different material. These also
give us some clue on the properties of the Earth’s interior. The Earth was formed from the process of accretion wherein
gasses and dust of cloud was attracted by gravitational energy.
Scientists use waves generated by earthquakes to determine the When these masses compacted it formed planetesimals. In the
Earth’s interior. that the outer core of the earth is liquid. process, due to the collision of these masses, heat was generated.
Earthquakes generate P-waves and S-waves within the earth. This process formed the earliest stage of planet Earth which is
Shadows occur on the opposite side of the earth from the molten in state and heat is trapped in the core of the planet.
earthquake epicenter because the outer core reflects S-waves, Eventually, the accrued heat did not vanish. It took a long time for
and bends P-waves. S-waves are reflected because they cannot heat to move from the internal part of the planet going to its
travel through liquids, and they cast a larger shadow than the bent surface. There had been the convective transport of heat within
P-waves. Geologists and seismologists determined the size of the the core to the mantle of the earth. While conductive transport of
outer core by using the 154-degree arc of the S-wave shadow and
heat occurs through different plate boundary layers. This resulted
measurements taken on the surface of the earth.
in the preservation of some amount the primordial heat in the
interior earth.

2. Heat from the decay of radioactive elements.

Earth is considered as thermal engine since its main source of

internal heat come from the produced decay of some naturally
occurring isotopes from its interior. This process is known as
radioactive decay by which the spontaneous breakdown of an
atomic nucleus causes the release of energy and matter from the
nucleus. Some of the isotopes are potassium – 40, Uranium - 235,
Uranium - 238 and Thorium - 232. There are other radioactive
isotopes that are also present in the Earth. However, they play a
minor role in the production of heat due to its small abundance and
low heat capacity. This process of radioactive decay which emits
heat energy as one of the products prevents the Earth from
completely cooling off.

3. Gravitational pressure

The more a person descend into Earth’s interior, the amount of

pressure increases due to the force pressing on an area caused
by the weight of an overlying rocks. The pressure near the center
is considered to be 3 to 4 million times the pressure of atmosphere
at sea level. Again, because rocks are good insulators, the escape
of heat from Earth’s surface is less than the heat generated from
internal gravitational attraction or squeezing of rock, so heat builds
up within. At high temperature, the material beneath will melt
towards the central part of the earth. This molten material under
tremendous pressure conditions acquires the property of a solid
and is probably in a plastic state.

4. Dense core material in the center of the planet.

Due to increase in pressure and presence of heavier materials

towards the earth’s center, the density of earth’s layers also
increases. Obviously, the materials of the innermost part of the
earth are very dense. The inner core as the inner most layer is
composed primarily of iron and nickel which contributes to the
density in the core that ranges between 12,600-13,000 kg/m3.
This suggests that there must be other heavy elements such as
gold, platinum, palladium, silver and tungsten that are present in
the core. Like in the descent of the dense iron-rich material that
makes up the core of the planet to the center that produce heating
in about 2,000 kelvins. The inner core’s intense pressure prevents
the iron and other minimal amount of some elements from melting.
The pressure and density are simply too great for the iron atoms to
move into a liquid state. Thus, this contributes to the intense heat
in the interior of the planet.