CHAPTER - TWO

THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

2.1 Introduction
Communication is a process that involves steps or sequences of activities to be followed in the
exchange of messages between senders and receivers.
2.2 Elements of the Communication Process
A) People (Senders - Receivers)
Communicators or elements are the primary elements in the communication process in an
organization. They can be managers, non-managers, departments, or the organization itself.
Managers communicate with other managers, subordinates, supervisors, client’s customers, and
parties outside the organization. When we say communication involves people, it involves the
exchange of interpersonal characteristics such as perceptions, their speaking and listening skills,
their nonverbal behaviors, etc. Communication is thus an interpersonal process. People or
senders-receivers make communication two ways.

Feedback

Sender
Thought Encoding Message
Objective Channel Receiver
Informing (Medium to Receiving Decoding
Persuading transits Message
Reminding message) Understanding (or Action)

Noise

Communications within the organization are important means for coordinating the work of
separate departments. And more and more organizations communicate with employees, unions,
the public, and government. Each of these communicators has a message, an idea, or information
to transmit to someone or some group.
B) Encoding
Within the communicator, an encoding process must take place that translates the communicator’s
ideas into a systematic set of symbols expressing the communicator’s purpose. The major form
of encoding is language. For example, accounting information, sales reports, and computer data

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are translated into a message. The function of encoding is to provide a form in which ideas and
purposes can be expressed as a message.
C) Message
The result of the encoding process is the message-either verbal or nonverbal. Message is a
meaningful idea that people want to share with others. It is an encoded idea with some purpose.
Managers have numerous purposes for communicating, such as to have others understand their
ideas, to understand the ideas of others to gain acceptance of ideas, and to produce action.
The message, then, is what the individual hopes to communicate, and the exact form that the
message takes depends to a great extent on the medium used to carry it. Decisions relating to the
two are inseparable. An ideal message is that is understood by the receiver as intended by the
sender.
D) Channel
The channel is a path, route or medium through which a message is transmitted. Organizations
provide information for their members by a variety of channels, including face-to-face
communication, telephone, group meetings, computers, memos, policy statements, reward
systems, production schedules, sales forecasts, and videotapes.

Less obvious, however, are unintended messages that can be sent by silence or inaction of a
particular issue, as well as decisions about which goals and objectives are not to be pursued and
which methods are not to be utilized.
The choice between oral and written communication channels may be determined by:
 Background of the audience such as education, sex, age, experience, etc.
 Availability and cost of the channel
 Nature of the message such as confidentiality, length, etc.
Nonverbal communication, communication that doesn’t use words, is a part of everyday life. A
friendly smile, a worried expression, the seating arrangements at a committee meeting, the size
and location of an office, the reception area, furniture all are nonverbal communicators. They
indicate a person’s power, status, position or friendliness. The interpretation of nonverbal cues is
important however; nonverbal cues are as easily misinterpreted as verb al messages (words).
Body language is fascinating nonverbal communication open body positions include leaning
forward with uncrossed arms and legs. Closed, or defensive, body positions include leaning back
with arms and legs crossed. Open positions are assumed to suggest acceptance and openness to
what is being discussed. Closed positions suggest that people are physically or psychologically
uncomfortable.

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E) Decoding
For the process of communication to be completed, the message must be decoded by the receiver.
Decoding is the technical term for the thought processes of the receiver. Thus, it involves
interpretation. Receivers interpret (decode) the message in light of their own previous
experiences and frames of reference. The closer the decoded message is to the intent of the
communication, the more effective is the communication. In a business organization, if the
message that the chief executive receives from the marketing research department includes
technical terms known only to marketing researchers, no communication exists. In fact, an often
cited complaint in organizations that employ staff specialists is that they frequently cannot
communicate. Each staff group (e.g accountants, personnel, and marketing research) has a unique
language and symbols that persons outside the group cannot decode.
F) Feedback
One-way communication processes do not allow receiver-to-communicator feedback. Two-way
communication processes provide for such feedback. It is desirable to make provision for
feedback in the communication process. It decreases the potential for distortion between the
intended message and the received message. A feedback loop provides a channel for receiver
response, enabling the communicator to determine whether the message has been received and
has produced the intended response. For the manager, communication feedback may come in
many ways.
In face-to-face situations direct feedback is possible through verbal exchanges as well as through
such subtle, means as facial expressions that indicate discontent or misunderstanding. In addition,
communication break downs may be indicated by indirect means, such as declines in
productivity, poor quality of production increased absenteeism or turnover, and conflict or a lack
of coordination between units.
Effective Use of Feedback
For effective use of feedback the following guidelines are vital.
Guidelines in receiving feedback
1. Tell people you want feedback. When people feel that their opinions and observations may be
used against them or that your feelings may be easily hurt, they withhold feedback. Therefore, let
them know that you consider feedback (including personal opinions, questions, and disagreement)
not only useful but also necessary.
2. Identify the areas in which you want feedback. If you want personal feedback, you might say,
“I am trying to improve my speaking and am interested in how many times I said ‘okay’ in

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today’s meeting.” If you want only feedback pertaining to the organization, then specify the
topics in which you are most interested.
3. If you are a manager, set aside time for regularly scheduled feedback sessions. Such sessions
show employees that you value feedback and tend to make it easier for them to ask questions and
express opinions.
4. Use silence to encourage feedback. Too many people ask a question wait two or three seconds,
and then begin talking again. It takes more than two or three seconds for most people to organize
and verbalize their responses. If you remain silent for at least a full ten seconds, you will
probably get more response.
5. Watch for nonverbal responses- because none verbal symbols may comply or contradict with
nonverbal symbols.
6. Ask questions. Do not assume that you understand the meaning of the feedback you receive
from others. When in doubt, ask for clarification.
7. Use statements that encourage feedback. People usually adjust their feedback by monitoring
the listener’s verbal and nonverbal reactions. If you want a person’s honest opinion, you must
encourage it by purposely saying such things as “Really?” “Interesting” “So, you feel that . . . “
8. Reward feedback. If you are a manager, you can reward feedback by complimenting the
person, preferably in front of his or her colleagues. Some companies have a “Best-Idea-of-the-
month” contest and put the winners’ names on a placard or give them a company pen with their
names engraved on them. As an employee, you can sincerely thank people for their comments
and perhaps write them a thank-you note.

Guidelines in sending feedback

In sending feedback make sure your own feedback to others:
Is directed toward behavior rather than toward the person- Often, someone who is angry
criticizes the person rather than the behavior that caused the anger. Telling a secretary “You are a
poor excuse for a secretary” is an attack on the secretary rather than on the offensive behavior and
causes a defensive, emotional response. Your feedback is much more likely to be received
positively if you mention the action or behavior that is unacceptable and focus on what can be
done to avoid it in the future.
Is descriptive instead of evaluative. Descriptive feedback is tactfully honest and objective,
whereas evaluative feedback is judgmental and accusatory. Evaluative feedback: “Where is your
sales report? You know it is due on my desk no later than 9:00 each morning. You’re obviously
not reliable anymore.” Descriptive feedback: “When you don’t turn your sales reports in on

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time, I’m unable to complete the departmental sales report on time. This makes me look bad and
the departments look bad. You’ve been late twice this month. Is there something I can do to help
you get those reports in on time?” Evaluative, judgmental words cause defensiveness and hurt
feelings; words that simply describe the situation in a nonjudgmental way are more likely to result
in cooperation.
Involves sharing ideas instead of giving advice- It is not always sensible to give advice to other
people. If your advice does not work, you will be blamed. One of the best ways to improve a
relationship is by openly sharing opinions and ideas. Suppose a manager who is having trouble
with some employees comes to you and asks, “What am I doing wrong?” Instead of giving
advice, share a personal experience with the manager. For example, you might describe a similar
problem you had and how you handled it. It is then up to the manager to decide what to do.
Includes only as much information as the person can handle at one time. Suppose during a
performance appraisal you give an employee a list of twenty items that need improvement. Is this
type of feedback beneficial? You may feel better now that you have “dumped” your feelings, but
how can anyone improve on twenty things at the same time? When giving feedback, include only
two or three suggestions at a time-a number the person can reasonably handle.
Is immediate and well time- immediate feedback is obviously more valuable than delayed
feedback. After a foul-up shipping, instead of waiting for two weeks to discuss the problem with
the responsible employee, discuss the error immediately or at least within a day or two.
Immediate feedback allows the person to correct actions or behaviors while they are still fresh in
mind. But feedback should also be well timed, and sometimes this means that it can’t be
immediate. If you point out an employee’s mistakes in front of a group of co-workers, such
feedback is likely to be resented. And if you confront an employee anxious to get home after
quitting time, your suggestions may be received absent mindedly. This type of feedback should be
given in a private, relaxed atmosphere. Unfortunately, many people tend to give feedback in
anger and don’t stop to consider the consequences.
G) Noise
In the framework of communications noise is any interfering factor that, if present, can distort the
intended message. Noise can be present in any element. i.e. the sender, channel or receiver.
Noises are of two types: Psychological noise and Physical noise. Physical noise is unwanted
sound created in the external environment or in transmission. On the other hand psychological
noise is created in the mind of senders-receivers. It generally refers to absentmindedness that may
be caused by pain, hunger, headache, and other factors that preoccupy human mind.
2.3 Barriers to Communication

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Any factor that impedes the exchange of information between a sender and a receiver is a barrier
to communication.
It is not possible that every time an order, instruction, guideline, direction programme,
information, etc. transmitted by the superior is properly understood and assimilated by those for
whom it is intended. Similarly suggestions, reports, advices recommendations, complaints etc
transmitted by the subordinates to their superiors may be misunderstood or misinterpreted. In any
case, the purpose of the communication is defeated.
The process of communication is not always smooth. Many obstacles or hindrances obstruct it.
These are referred to as barriers to communication. It refers to these factors which cause
disturbance either in the mind of the communicator (sender) or the communicatee (receiver) or in
the process which will create distortion of the message leading to lack of response ignoring or
misunderstanding.
Such barriers are extremely common in everyday life, and they appear in an almost unlimited
variety of forms. The following are some of the most common barriers to effective
communication.
1. Differing perceptions
Perception is the process by an individual receives information from the environment through the
use of his sense organs and interprets them. One of the most common sources of communication
barriers is individual variation. People who have different backgrounds of knowledge,
experience, and other demographic characteristics often perceive the same phenomenon from
different perspectives.
Suppose that a new supervisor compliments an assembly line worker for his or her efficiency and
high- quality work. The supervisor genuinely appreciates the worker’s efforts and at the same
time wants to encourage the other employees to emulate his or her example. Others on the
assembly line however, may regard the worker’s being singled out for praise as a sign that he or
she has been ‘buttering up to boss” they may react by teasing or being openly hostile. The event
is the same but individual’s perspectives on it differ radically. The environment in which it occurs
influences the way a communication is perceived. Events that are considered appropriate in some
circumstances are inappropriate in others.

2. Language Differences & poor Expressions

Language differences are often closely related to differences in individual perceptions. For a
message to be properly communicated, the words used must mean the same thing to the sender

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and the receiver. The same symbolic meaning must be shared. Suppose that different
departments of a company receive a memo stating that a new product is to be developed in “a
short time”. To people in research and development “a short time” might mean two or three
years. To people in the finance department on the other hand, it might be three to six months,
whereas the sales department might think of it as a few weeks. Since may different meanings can
be assigned to some words, great care must be taken to ensure that the receiver gets the message
that the sender intended.
Further barriers to communication may result from the use of poorly chosen words, omissions,
lack of coherence, poor organization of ideas, unnecessary jargon and so on. Communication in
the international environment becomes even more difficult because of different languages,
cultures. Etc.
3. Loss by Transmission and poor Retention
In a series of transmissions from one person to the next, the message becomes less and less
accurate when a communication is being conveyed from the higher management level to the
lower level step by step. Much of it is likely to be lost in transit. Most of the time, this problem
arises in oral communication. At every successive step some of the message will drop until it
reaches the last person when it will be only a part of the original message, which might be
meaningless.
This problem may arise in case of written communication as well. At every level the superior
will interpret the message in his own way and present it accordingly. Hence the original message
is likely to be destroyed. Further the meaning will change if some words are dropped, changed or
misspelt. On the other hand managers may be main causes for loss of information in
organizational communication. Consciously or unconsciously, information may be lost or
distorted in downward and upward communications.
Loss of information in upward communication
In upward communication may be lost or distorted because of mobility aspiration. Mobility
aspiration is the desire of subordinates for upward movement or promotion. It is likely that
subordinates manipulate upward messages in a way it facilitates their future promotion. Thus
mobility aspiration adversely affects the accuracy of upward messages.
Loss of information in downward communication
Generally replicating a message is difficult; there are neither perfect senders nor receivers. In
addition to this middle level managers may intentionally withhold information for several reasons.
a) Tyrannical managers – are those who do not have confidence in their subordinates.
Because responsibility is ultimate such managers may withhold key information in their drawers

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in order to make their subordinates completely dependent in making decisions or taking actions.
This is designed to prevent subordinates from making important decisions.
b) Insecure managers – are managers who do not have self-confidence. Such managers try to
hide some key information from their subordinates to prevent their subordinates from making
decisions that affect the superior’s position. Less confident managers may fear that if they release
all information the subordinates may make more sound decisions and thereby threat the superior’s
position.
Some superiors may also withhold information from lack of awareness about the relevance of the
information to their subordinates
Poor retention of information is another serious problem. Most of the times there are problems in
handling and retrieving information, particularly when records management is manual. Poor
records and filing system are often major causes for loss of information in organizational
communication. This makes the necessity for repetition of the message and the use of several
channels rather obvious. Consequently, companies often use more than one channel to
communicate the same message.
4. Poor Listening and Pre-mature Evaluation
There are many talkers but few listeners. Listening demands full attention and self-discipline. It
also means avoiding pre-mature evaluation of what the other person has to say. A common
tendency is to judge to approve or disapprove what is being said rather than trying to understand
the speaker’s frame of reference. Yet listening without making hasty judgments can make the
whole organization more effective and more efficient. Sympathetic listening can result in better
labor- management relations and greater understanding among managers. In short, listening with
empathy can reduce some of the daily frustrations in organized life and result in better
communication.
5. Emotionality
Emotional reactions- anger, love, defensiveness, hate, jealousy, fear, embarrassment-influence
how we understand other’s messages and how we influence others with our own messages. If for
example, we are in an atmosphere where we feel threatened with loss of power or prestige we
may lose the ability to gauge the meanings of the messages we receive and will respond
defensively or aggressively.
6. Inconsistent verbal and Nonverbal Communication
We think of language as the primary medium of communication, but the messages we send and
receive are strongly influenced by such nonverbal factors as body movements, clothing, our
posture, gestures, facial expression, eye movements, and body contact. Even when our message

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is as simple as “Good morning”, we can covey different intents by our nonverbal communication.
A busy manager who does not want to be disturbed might respond to a subordinate’s greeting
without looking up from his or her work for example.
7. Noise, Distance and Time
Noise is any factor that disturbs, confuses or otherwise interferes with communication. Little
communication occurs in totally noise-free environments of course. Noise is a big menace to
communication; it creates a great barrier to communication. It is a very common experience that
noise proves a big hindering factor if two persons are talking. If somehow the noise is not
controlled it may not be possible for the communicators to listen anything or make out the sense.
Distance acts as barriers in the process of communication. If the two parties are far from each
other there will be difficulty in communication. Telephone solves this difficult in many cases.
But bad weather, technical defects, breakdown etc may render the telephone useless.
The effectiveness of our communication may be reduced if our timing is not right. First, we must
consider the time of the day. Our attempts at communication must be made at the appropriate
hour of the day. A telephone call will not normally be welcome at 5 o’clock in the morning and
very few of us welcome a string of requests or enquiries on matters of high importance, the
minute we arrive at our office. Second, the time of convenience is important. In other words, we
should not endeavor to communicate with another person if he is pre-occupied with other matters:
we will receive less than proper attention. For instance if the company secretary is concentrating
on arranging the agenda for a particularly important management meeting, he is not likely to pay
much attention to a request for authority to buy a new office equipment. The request could quite
well wait for a more propitious moment. Therefore, to be effective, we must communicate at the
appropriate time both by the clock and by opportunity.
8. The Medium and Method of Communication
A disregard of the medium of communication and the method used often create conditions that
lead to a lack of expected response or to a less than perfect understanding. In all cases the
medium of the communication and the method must be appropriate to the case in hand. Generally
speaking great care is required in this direction. Most people are very sensitive about how certain
subjects are approached and to ignore their sensitivity will often result in faulty communication.
Matters of routine nature such as the opening and closing times of the canteen may well be
appropriately conveyed by a notice on a notice board. At other times a discrete personal word is
called for instance where a staff member has started habitually to arrive late in the morning. A
bold statement on a notice board about lateness would be most inappropriate.

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A more complicated situation, such as an alteration in working conditions requires even more care
in the choice of medium and method. Personal consultations with representatives of those affected
are imperative to prevent misunderstanding and to gain the cooperation of those concerned. In
brief for effective communication, the medium and method used to carry the communication must
be appropriate to the circumstances.
9. Distrust/Lack of Credibility of the Source
Credibility refers to the confidence, faith or thrust that the receiver has on the actions and/or
words of the sender. The credibility of a message is to a large extent, a function of the credibility
of the sender in the mind of the receiver. A sender’s credibility is, in turn determined by a variety
of factors. In some cases, the fact that a message comes from a manager will enhance its
credibility, but it can also have the opposite effect. In negotiations between labor and
management, for example, labor often regards the claims of managers with some suspicion. In
this situation, as in others, the perceived character or honesty of the sender is important.
Distrust can be the result of inconsistent behaviors by the superior, or it can be due to experiences
in which the subordinate was punished for honestly reporting unfavorable, but true, information to
the boss. In any case, the loss of confidence in the superior will drop the effect of the
communication. What is needed is a climate of trust, which facilitates open and honest
communication.
The above being the most common barriers to effective communication there are many others.
For instance closely related to perception is the influence of attitude, which is the predisposition
to act or not, to act in a certain way, it is a mental position regarding a fact or state, clearly. If we
have made up our minds, we cannot objectively listen to what is said. Differences in status and
power between the sender and the receiver still affect communication.
In brief, often our efforts to communicate are quite successful but at other times we fail dismally.
Many factors are at works that has a bearing on our success or failure some of which we can
control and some of which are outside our control.
Other barriers may include:
- Information overload
- Unqualified assumptions
- Position awareness, etc.
10. Semantics: refer to the different uses & meanings of words and symbols. Words and
symbols may not have similar uses and meanings for different individuals from
different cultural group, language and living style so it may create some barrier in the
communication process. Semantic barriers include:

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a) Interpretations of words: Do you remember a situation where you and your friend
understood a word communicated by somebody else in a different way. The knowledge each
have about a subject or word affects the meaning we attach to it. Individuals have their own
network of words & meanings available for recall that overlap, but do not correspond exactly,
with those of other individuals using their own networks can attach different meanings to
words. Receivers decode words & phrases in conformity with their own network, while may
be very different from those of senders. Words are capable communicating a variety of
meanings. It is quite possible that the receiver do not assign the same meaning to a word as
the sender has intended, that may lead to miscommunication. For some, a successful career
means having prestigious job title & making lot of money; for others, it may mean having a
job they really enjoy & plenty of personal time to spend with family & friends. Different
word interpretations especially, noticeable in, “bypassed” instructions & in reactions to
denotations, connotations and euphemisms.

b) Bypassed instructions: when the message sender & receiver attribute different meanings
to the same words or use different words though intending the same meaning, bypassing often
occurs. Example: An office manager handed to a new assistant a letter, with the instruction
“Take it to our store room and burn it” In the office manager’s mind (and in the firm’s jargon)
the word “burn” meant to make a copy on a photocopier. As the letter was extremely
important, she wanted an extra copy. However, the confused employee afraid to ask questions
burned the letter and thus destroyed the original existing copy! To avoid communication
errors of bypassing, when you give instructions or discuss issues, be sure your words &
sentences will convey the intended meaning to the recipient. Also, when you are the recipient
of unclear instruction, before acting on it, ask questions to determine the sender intended
meaning.

11. Attitudes & Opinions: communication effectiveness is influenced also by the attitudes
& opinions the communicators have in their mental filters. People tend to react
favorably when the message they receive agrees with their views towards the
information, the set of facts, & the sender. In addition, sometimes unrelated
circumstances affect their attitudes, & responses like:

12. Emotional state: a person’s ability to encode a message can become impaired when a
person is feeling strong emotions. For example, when you are angry, it is harder to consider the
other person’s viewpoint & to choose words carefully. Likewise, the receiver will have

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difficulty-decoding message when her/his emotions are strong. For instance, a person who is
elated at receiving good news might not pay close attention to someone else’s words or body
language. Someone who is angry might pay attention but misinterpret a message in light of
her/his anger.
13. Favorable or Unfavorable information: rejecting, distorting, & avoiding are three common
undesirable, negative ways receivers react to information they consider unfavorable. For
example, if a change in the policy of an organization proves advantageous to employees, they
welcome it as good; if it is contrary to their beliefs or benefits, they may reject, or resent the
company and their boss, perhaps falsely accusing them of being unfair. Or they may instead,
distort, the meaning and misinterpret the true purpose of the policy change. Or they may avoid
the message, situation or people by putting of acceptance hoping that the delay will somehow
prevent the change & protect them.
14. Closed mind: some people have a closed mind toward receiving new information. The
closed-minded person is one of the most difficult to communicate with. Typically this person has
only inadequate and mainly incorrect knowledge of the subject. Yet she/he refuses to consider
any new facts. Even from an expert who has made a long, careful study of the problem and the
proposed change. The closed minded person says in essence: “my mind is made up” “Don’t
bother me with facts” “I want what I want”. Closed – minded people stubbornly reject distort or
avoid a viewpoint before they know the facts.
15. Status consciousness: people in the upper areas of organization’s hierarchy, those who have
more status & power, may be hesitant to listen to those individuals lower in the hierarchy,
feeling for example, that people of lower status & power do not possess any useful information.
By the same token, people of lower status & power may be reluctant to share information
because they believe that people with higher status & power will not listen. Subordinates are
afraid of communicating any unpleasant information to their managers. They may be afraid that
they might displease their superiors by telling them unpleasant facts. Or they may fear that
unfavorable communication may adversely reflect upon their own competence. The subordinates
also find it difficult to offer proposals for the improvement of the organization, for such
proposals are not usually encouraged.

2.4. GUIDELINES TO OVERCOME COMMUNICATION BARRIERS

Now having the knowledge of the barriers to effective communication, can you think of
alternative ways of avoiding them? The following are ways which are suggested so as to
make your communication in the work place as smooth and effective as possible.

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There are six factors or themes that contribute to effective communication.
1. Fostering an open communication climate.
2. Committing to ethical communication
3. Understanding the difficulties involved in intercultural communication.
4. Adopting an audience-centred approach to communication.
5. Using technology wisely and responsibly to obtain and share information.
6. Creating and processing messages effectively and efficiently.
Now let us discuss them one by one.
1. Fostering an open communication climate.
An organization’s communication climate is a reflection of its corporate culture: the mixture of
values, traditions and habits. It affects the quantity and quality of the information that passes
through the pipeline. The following are the measures that can be taken to create an open
communication climate:
a) Modify the number of organizational levels.
One way to foster an open communication climate is to reduce the number of levels in the
organizations structure. The fewer the links in the communication chain, the less likely the
misunderstandings will occur. In other words, a flat structure (having fewer levels) and a wide
span of control are likely to reduce distortion than a tall structure and a narrow span of
control.
b) Facilitate feedback
Giving the audience a chance to provide feedback is crucial to maintaining an open
communication climate.
2. Committing to ethical communication
Ethics are the principles of conduct that govern a person or a group. Ethical people are
generally trustworthy, fair and impartial, respecting the rights of others, and concerned about
the impact of their actions on society. Ethics plays a crucial role in communication. Ethical
communication includes all relevant information, is true in every sense and is not deceptive in
any way. In order to maintain ethical communication follow the guidelines below:
a) Recognize ethical choices.
Every company has responsibilities to various groups- customers, shareholders, suppliers,
neighbours, the community and the nation. What’s right for one group may be wrong for
another. Moreover as we attempt to satisfy the needs of one group, we may be presented with
an option that seems right on the surface but somehow feels wrong.
b) Make ethical choices.

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Laws provide ethical guidelines for certain types of messages. Look at the consequences of the
decision and opt for the solution that provides the greatest good to the greatest number of
people, and one that we can live with.
c) Motivate ethical choices.
Organizations can foster ethical behaviour:
 by helping top managers become more sensitive communicators

 by using ethics audits

 by rewarding ethical actions

3. Understanding the difficulties involved in intercultural communication

More and more businesses are crossing national boundaries to compete on a global scale and
the makeup of the global and domestic work force is changing rapidly. Global companies
must understand the laws, customs and business practices of many countries, and they must
deal with business associates and employees.
4. Adopting an audience-centred approach to communication
Using an audience-centred approach means keeping the audience in mind all times when
communicating. Since audience is taken care of, every possible step is taken to get the
message across in a way that is meaningful to the audience. Empathizing with and being
sensitive to the audience’s feelings is the best way to overcome such communication barriers
as differences in perception and emotional interference.
5. Using technology wisely and responsibly to obtain and share information
In today’s world, information moves through an array of media at the speed of a neural
impulse. Technology has such an impact on business communication. When used wisely and
responsibly, technology helps to improve the effectiveness of business communication.

6. Creating and processing messages effectively and efficiently.

The sixth guideline is to plan messages, generate ideas, organize the thoughts, and turn the
words into effective business messages. In order to create messages effectively and
efficiently, consider the following issues:
a) Learn about the audience
Creating an effective message is difficult if the audience is unfamiliar, or if we don’t know
how the message will be used. We need to know something about the biases, education, age,
status and style of the receiver in order to create an effective message.

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b) Adapt the message to the audience
Decisions about the content, organization, style, and tone of the message depend on the
relationship between the sender and the audience.
c) Develop and connect ideas
Include only the information that is useful to the audience, and organize it in such a way that
encourages its acceptance. To make message memorable;
 Use telling statistics.

 Use words that evoke a physical, sensory impression.

 Tie the message to the audience’s frame of reference.

 Keep messages as brief and as clean as possible.

 Highlighting and summarizing key points.

d) Reduce the number of messages

Organizations save time and money by sending only necessary messages. If a written message
merely adds to the information overload, it is probably better left unsent or handled some
other way – by a quick telephone call or a face to face chat. By holding down the number of
messages, organizations will maximize the benefits of their communication activities.
e) Choose the correct channel and medium
The careful choice of channel and medium helps focus the audience’s attention on message.
The choice of a communication channel and medium depends on the:
 Message

 Audience

 Need for speed

 Situation.

f) Strengthen the communication skills

Recognizing the importance of efficient communication, many companies today train
employees in communication skills. Companies offer seminars and workshops on handling
common oral communication situations (such as dealing with customers, managing
subordinates, and getting along with co-workers), as well as training in computers and other
electronic means of communication.

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 2.5 Types of Interpersonal communication

Verbal and Nonverbal Communication

Ideas and feelings can be shared only if they are represented by symbols. Symbols are things that
stand for something else.
1. Verbal symbols – refer to the words in our language.
2. Nonverbal symbols – are anything we communicate without using words, figures, or letters.
This may include various tools such as facial expressions, gestures, body movements, etc.
Verbal Communication: Written and oral communication media have favorable and unfavorable
characteristics. Consequently, they are often used together so that the favorable qualities of each
can complement the other. The question as to which medium of communication to use depends on
the communication the message to be transmitted, the audience (communicate) and the situation.
Written Medium (Communication): As the name implies it is the communication which is
produced in black and white. A written communication is conveyed through a letter, reports,
circulars, memoranda, notices, etc. It is a very common form of communication in most
organizations and is suitable for many situations.
Advantages of Written Medium (Communication
- It provides records for future references and can serve as a legal document.
- It provides enough time for serious thinking and as a result the message can be prepared
carefully.
- It is useful when the message to be transmitted is lengthy and the receivers are large in
number and located at a distance from the sender.
- It can promote uniformity in policy and procedures.
Disadvantages of Written Medium (Communication
Written messages may create mountains of paper
As compared to oral communication it is more time and money consuming.
 There is less flexibility. Once the message has been sent it will be difficult to withdraw.
Frequent amendments and changes in written communication leads to loss of trust and prestige.
 It will be difficult to keep a matter confidential if it is considered necessary
 It may not provide an immediate feedback, consequently, it may take a long time to know
whether or not a message has been received and properly understood.
Oral Medium (Communication): In this medium of communication the two parties in
communication exchange their ideas or the message with the help of words of mouth. The
message-instruction order, directive, etc, is conveyed through spoken words. This method can be

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observed in a number of forms of communication such as conferences, committee meetings,
interviews, telephone conversations, face-to-face talks etc.
Advantages of Oral Medium (Communication)
 It provides for speedy interchange with immediate feedback. People can ask questions and
clarify points at the spot and in face-to-face communication the effect can be noted.
 In most cases, it economical both in terms of time and money.
 It brings people together, eliminates the gap between the communicator and the
communicate facilitates free discussion and promotes the chance of better understanding.
Furthermore, it may give a subordinate a feeling of importance.
 It can be supported by non-verbal symbols.

Disadvantages Oral Medium (Communication)

 It does not provide any proof. There is nothing on record. One can forget completely or
partially what had been said.
 It does not provide for serious thinking as decisions are to be taken immediately.
 It is not appropriate if there is a distance between the communicator and the communicatee.
 It is not suitable if the message to be communicated is quite lengthy.
In brief, before employing a certain medium of communication, one must weight its advantages
and disadvantages and select the one that best suits the overall situation under which the
communication takes place.
Nonverbal Communication
We communicate in many different ways. What we say can be reinforced or contradicted by
nonverbal communication, such as facial expressions and body gestures. Nonverbal symbols are
expected to support the verbal. But it is not always so. For example, an autocratic manager who
pounds a first on the table while announcing that from now on participate management will be
practiced certainly creates a credibility gap. Similarly, managers who state that they have an
open-door policy, but then have a secretary carefully screen people who want to see the boss
create incongruence between what they say and the way they behave. Clearly, nonverbal
communication may support or contradict verbal communication, giving rise to the saying that
actions often speak louder than words.
Nonverbal communication is any message (information) the sender communicates without using
words. This type of communication, sometimes referred to as body language, is an important part
of the communication process. It takes place through body language (body movement) such as
gesture, eye contact, facial expression, and voice intonations as well as physical appearance. A

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meaning is attached to these nonverbal symbols. The meaning of nonverbal communication is in
the observer, who both reads specific signals and interprets them in the context of the particular
situation.
Channels of nonverbal communication
1) Facial expressions and eye behavior
The face is the primary site for the expression of emotion, revealing both the type and the
intensity of a person’s feelings. A person’s eyes are especially effective as a tool of
communication. They can be used to indicate attention and interest, to influence others, to
regulate interaction and to establish dominance. Although the eyes and the face are usually
reliable sources of meaning, people sometimes manipulate their expressions to simulate an
emotion they do not feel or to mask their true feelings.
2) Gestures and Postures
By moving their bodies people can express both specific and general messages. Many gestures, a
wave of the hand, for example, have a specific and intentional meaning such as “hello” or
goodbye.” The other types of body movement are unintentional and express general messages.
These unconscious signals reveal whether a person feels confident or nervous, friendly or hostile,
assertive or passive, powerful or powerless.
3) Vocal characteristic/tones
The tone and volume of your voice, your accent and speaking pace say a lot about who you are,
your relationship with the audience and the emotions underlying your words.
4) Personal/physical/ appearance
The physical appearance and personal style contribute to our identity. People respond to use on
the basis of our physical attractiveness. Because we see ourselves as others see us. When people
think we are capable and attractive, we feel good about ourselves and this affects our behavior,
which in turn affects other people’s perceptions of us. Our grooming, clothing and our style
modify our appearance.
5) Use of time and space
This involves showing respect by being on time. Space also serves as a symbol of status and
determines how comfortable people feel talking each other. Nonverbal communication serves
important functions with respect to the verbal message; it can complement it, regulate it,
substitute for it, or accent it.
It is important for the receiver to understand the real message conveyed by the nonverbal
communication. Although verbal and nonverbal communication works together best when they
are complementary, nonverbal communication may take the place of or even contradict formal

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communication or is misleading. One should look for nonverbal symbols as well as listen to the
literal meaning of a sender’s words; he should particularly be aware of contradictions of the
messages. For instance, a boss may say that he/she is free to talk to him about a grievance but he
may see nonverbal signals that suggest that this is not the time to discuss the subject. Regardless
of what is being said, an individual who frequently glances at his/her wristwatch is giving the
message that he/she would prefer to terminate the conversation. These contradictions suggest one
saying that “actions speak louder-and more accurately-than words.

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