UNIVERSITY OF SAINT LOUIS

Tuguegarao City

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, ARTS and SCIENCES

Second Semester
A.Y. 2021-2022

CORRESPONDENCE LEARNING MODULE

ETHC 1013-ETHICS

Prepared by:

ALAN ANTHONY BACCAY, MARS

NESTOR M. CABRIDO JR., MAED

Reviewed by:

WILSON J. TEMPORAL, LPT, MST

Department Head

Recommended by:

VENUS I. GUYOS, Ph.D.

Academic Dean

Approved by:

EMMANUEL JAMES PATTAGUAN, Ph.D.

Vice President for Academics

ETHC 1013- ETHICS | PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 7

This Week’s Time Table: (February 28 & March 1-4, 2022)

For this week, the following shall be your guide for the different lessons and tasks that you need to accomplish.
Be patient, read them carefully before proceeding to the tasks expected of you.
HAVE A FRUITFUL LEARNING EXPERIENCE!

Date Topics Activities or Tasks

February 28 Nicomachean Ethics Read Lessons

March 1-2
Virtue Ethics

October 3 Submission of learning tasks Accomplish the worksheet in the Activities

Portion of this module
October 4 Checking of outputs

ETHC 1013- ETHICS | PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 7

 CORRESPONDENCE LEARNING MODULE
ETHC 1013 (ETHICS)
AY 2021-2022

Lesson 8: Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics

Topic: Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics

Learning Outcomes: At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. Define and explicate the nature of Virtue Ethics;

2. Explain the significance of the virtue ethics of Aristotle; and
3. Relate the significance of virtue ethics in the moral development of the person.

LEARNING CONTENT

Introduction:

In his virtue ethics, Aristotle believed in the excellence of philosophical contemplation and
virtuous actions stemming from virtuous persons (i.e. virtuous actions are what the person with wisdom would
choose because what is good is obvious to such a person). In terms of the material world, Aristotle believed
that organisms continually moved from imperfect to perfect states in a teleological development, the perfect
being innate within the imperfect (ex. a seed becomes a plant, an embryo becomes a baby which becomes an
adult). In this way, he believed that the essential nature of things lay not at their cause (or beginning) but at
their end (telos).

Lesson Proper:

Aristotle’s Ethics

Aristotle conceives of ethical theory as a field distinct from the theoretical sciences. Its methodology
must match its subject matter—good action—and must respect the fact that in this field many generalizations
hold only for the most part. We study ethics in order to improve our lives, and therefore its principal concern is
the nature of human well-being. Aristotle follows Socrates and Plato in taking the virtues to be central to a well-
lived life. Like Plato, he regards the ethical virtues (justice, courage, temperance and so on) as complex
rational, emotional and social skills. But he rejects Plato's idea that to be completely virtuous one must acquire,
through a training in the sciences, mathematics, and philosophy, an understanding of what goodness is. What
we need, in order to live well, is a proper appreciation of the way in which such goods as friendship, pleasure,
virtue, honor and wealth fit together as a whole. In order to apply that general understanding to particular
cases, we must acquire, through proper upbringing and habits, the ability to see, on each occasion, which
course of action is best supported by reasons. Therefore, practical wisdom, as he conceives it, cannot be
ETHC 1013- ETHICS | PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 7
acquired solely by learning general rules. We must also acquire, through practice, those deliberative,
emotional, and social skills that enable us to put our general understanding of well-being into practice in ways
that are suitable to each occasion.

The Human Good and the Function Argument

The principal idea with which Aristotle begins is that there are differences of opinion about what is best
for human beings, and that to profit from ethical inquiry we must resolve this disagreement. He insists that
ethics is not a theoretical discipline: we are asking what the good for human beings is not simply because we
want to have knowledge, but because we will be better able to achieve our good if we develop a fuller
understanding of what it is to flourish. In raising this question—what is the good?—Aristotle is not looking for a
list of items that are good. He assumes that such a list can be compiled rather easily; most would agree, for
example, that it is good to have friends, to experience pleasure, to be healthy, to be honored, and to have such
virtues as courage at least to some degree. The difficult and controversial question arises when we ask
whether certain of these goods are more desirable than others. Aristotle's search for the good is a search for
the highest good, and he assumes that the highest good, whatever it turns out to be, has three characteristics:
it is desirable for itself, it is not desirable for the sake of some other good, and all other goods are desirable for
its sake.

Aristotle thinks everyone will agree that the terms “eudaimonia” (“happiness”) and “eu zên” (“living well”)
designate such an end. The Greek term “eudaimon” is composed of two parts: “eu” means “well” and “daimon”
means “divinity” or “spirit”. To be eudaimon is therefore to be living in a way that is well-favored by a god. But
Aristotle never calls attention to this etymology in his ethical writings, and it seems to have little influence on his
thinking. He regards “eudaimon” as a mere substitute for eu zên (“living well”). These terms play an evaluative
role, and are not simply descriptions of someone's state of mind.
No one tries to live well for the sake of some further goal; rather, being eudaimon is the highest end, and all
subordinate goals—health, wealth, and other such resources—are sought because they promote well-being,
not because they are what well-being consists in. But unless we can determine which good or goods
happiness consists in, it is of little use to acknowledge that it is the highest end. To resolve this issue, Aristotle
asks what the ergon (“function”, “task”, “work”) of a human being is, and argues that it consists in activity of the
rational part of the soul in accordance with virtue (1097b22–1098a20). One important component of this
argument is expressed in terms of distinctions he makes in his psychological and biological works. The soul is
analyzed into a connected series of capacities: the nutritive soul is responsible for growth and reproduction, the
locomotive soul for motion, the perceptive soul for perception, and so on. The biological fact Aristotle makes
use of is that human beings are the only species that has not only these lower capacities but a rational soul as
well. The good of a human being must have something to do with being human; and what sets humanity off
from other species, giving us the potential to live a better life, is our capacity to guide ourselves by using
reason. If we use reason well, we live well as human beings; or, to be more precise, using reason well over the
ETHC 1013- ETHICS | PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 7
course of a full life is what happiness consists in. Doing anything well requires virtue or excellence, and
therefore living well consists in activities caused by the rational soul in accordance with virtue or excellence.
Aristotle's conclusion about the nature of happiness is in a sense uniquely his own. No other writer or thinker
had said precisely what he says about what it is to live well. But at the same time his view is not too distant
from a common idea. As he himself points out, one traditional conception of happiness identifies it with virtue
(1098b30–1). Aristotle's theory should be construed as a refinement of this position. He says, not that
happiness is virtue, but that it is virtuous activity. Living well consists in doing something, not just being in a
certain state or condition. It consists in those lifelong activities that actualize the virtues of the rational part of
the soul.
At the same time, Aristotle makes it clear that in order to be happy one must possess others goods as well—
such goods as friends, wealth, and power. And one's happiness is endangered if one is severely lacking in
certain advantages—if, for example, one is extremely ugly, or has lost children or good friends through death
(1099a31–b6). But why so? If one's ultimate end should simply be virtuous activity, then why should it make
any difference to one's happiness whether one has or lacks these other types of good? Aristotle's reply is that
one's virtuous activity will be to some extent diminished or defective, if one lacks an adequate supply of other
goods (1153b17–19). Someone who is friendless, childless, powerless, weak, and ugly will simply not be able
to find many opportunities for virtuous activity over a long period of time, and what little he can accomplish will
not be of great merit. To some extent, then, living well requires good fortune; happenstance can rob even the
most excellent human beings of happiness. Nonetheless, Aristotle insists, the highest good, virtuous activity, is
not something that comes to us by chance. Although we must be fortunate enough to have parents and fellow
citizens who help us become virtuous, we ourselves share much of the responsibility for acquiring and
exercising the virtues.
Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics

The Nicomachean Ethics of Aristotle leads us to knowledge of ethics known as virtue ethics because
of its reference to the concept of virtue. The word virtue comes from the Greek word aretê which could be
translated in English as “excellence.” Someone has aretê if he/she performs well with the intellectual and moral
virtues. Aristotle defines moral virtue as a disposition to behave in the right manner and as a mean between
extremes of deficiency and excess, which are vices. We learn moral virtue primarily through habit and practice
rather than through reasoning and instruction.

Each of the virtues is a state of being that naturally seeks its mean relative to us. According to Aristotle,
the virtuous habit of action is always an intermediate state between the opposed vices of excess and
deficiency: too much and too little are always wrong; the right kind of action always lies in the mean. Happiness
(or flourishing or living well) is a complete and sufficient good. This implies (a) that it is desired for itself, (b) that
it is not desired for the sake of anything else, (c) that it satisfies all desire and has no evil mixed in with it, and
(d) that it is stable (Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics: eudaimonia)

ETHC 1013- ETHICS | PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 7

Aristotle begins with the Nicomachean Ethics by asking "What is the
good of man?" and his answer is "an activity of the soul in conformity
with virtue". To understand ethics, therefore, we must understand
what makes someone a virtuous person (Rachels, 2003).

According to Aristotle, we study Ethics, not merely to know, but to

attain the good and to live good lives. The good is happiness (most
desired), and the good is reasoning well (by analogical argument).
Aristotle produces his definition of happiness from those 2 lines of
reasoning (since happiness and reasoning well must be the same
somehow). In short, happiness is an activity of the soul (reasoning) in
conformity with virtue (reasoning well).

In Book I, Chapter 13 of the Nichomachean Ethics, Aristotle says,

"Since happiness is an activity of the soul in accordance with perfect
virtue, we must consider the nature of virtue; for perhaps we shall
thus see better the nature of happiness."

Imagine a person who always knows what to say, can diffuse a tense situation, deliver tough news
gracefully, confident without being arrogant, brave but not reckless, generous but never extravagant. This is
the type of person that everybody wants to be around and to be liked, someone who seems to have mastered
the art of being a person. But this seems to be impossible, but Aristotle believed that while rare these people
do exist and they are what we should aspire to be- Virtuous. When we relate this topic on Virtue theory, there
is no categorical imperative or principle of utility, instead ethical theory emphasizes an individual’s character
rather than following a set of rules just to be a good person. Aristotle reasoned that if we can just focus on
being good people, the right actions will follow, effortlessly. Meaning, become a good person and you do good
thing. There is no book needed. But why should you become a virtuous person? It is because of
EUDAIMONIA.

Virtue theory says that you should become virtuous because if you are, you can attain the pinnacle of
humanity. It allows us to achieve what’s known as EUDAIMONIA - a Greek word that means “a life well lived”
or translated also as “human flourishing.” And a life of Eudaimonia is a life of striving. It’s a life of pushing
yourself to your limits and finding success. A Eudaimonistic life will be full of happiness that comes from
achieving something really difficult, rather than just having it handed to you. Choosing to live life in this way
also means you’ll face disappointments, and failures. Eudaimonia doesn’t mean a life of cupcakes and
rainbows. Eudaimonia is a fulfilled accomplishment and satisfaction through hard work. This is morality for
Aristotle, being the best person you could ever be and honing your strength while working on your
weaknesses. And for Aristotle, the kind of person who lives like this is a kind of person who will do good
things.
Like Socrates, Aristotle though people should strive to be good. He came up with a “means test” so
that people could hone their virtues. He argued that real virtue lies between overdoing something and not
doing it enough. For instance, being courageous is the mean average between being rash and being
cowardly.

The “golden mean” is also reflected in Aristotle’s view on poitics. Unlike Plato’s belief on elite
philosopher-rulers, Aristotle believed that a strong middle class should be in charge, so creating a balance
between tyranny and democracy.

ETHC 1013- ETHICS | PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 7

 Aristotle identifies 11 moral virtues, all governed by one intellectual virtue, prudence or good
deliberation. These virtues are the following: courage, temperance, generosity, magnificence (generosity with
wealth), magnanimity (proper pride), right ambition, good temper, friendliness, truthfulness, with, and justice.
All except justice are mean between two extremes. As mentioned earlier, the virtue of courage is the mean
between being a coward and being rash. For instance, when running into battle, the coward lags behind, and
the brash or rash person runs ahead. The courageous person keeps with his or her mates. Prudence, the
intellectual virtue that finds the mean, tells us that being courageous is more like being rash than it is like being
cowardly. In fact, all the virtues depend on prudence for their existence. We couldn’t discover the moral virtues
without skillful deliberation.

According to Aristotle, Virtue is a skill, a way of living, and that’s something that can only really be
learned through experience. Virtue is a kind of knowledge that he called Practical Wisdom. Aristotle said your
character is developed through habituation - If you do a virtuous thing over and over again, eventually it will
become part of your character. So, virtues are attained or acquired by practice and habit. We become just by
doing just acts, generous by generous acts, temperate by temperate acts, etc. Moral virtues are purposive
dispositions, lying in a mean determined by reason. To possess a virtue is to hold a complex mental framework
of the right feelings, attitudes, understanding, insight, experience, etc. Thus, virtue involves knowing the act,
choosing it for its own sake, and a consistent state of character.

With regard virtue and self-control, Aristotle contrasts self-controlled or continent people, who have
unruly desires but manage to control them, guided by good judgment (right reason); temperate people, whose
reason and desires have become harmonized—second-nature—and choose that which is good for them; and,
weakness of will (akrasia) occurs when right-thinking people cannot keep their desires under control
(discussed in NE, Bk VII).

To sum it up, Nicomachean Ethics is a philosophical inquiry into the nature of the good life for a human
being. To discover the nature of human happiness it is necessary to determine what the function of a human
being is, for a person's happiness will consist in fulfilling the natural function toward which his/her being is
directed. This natural function must be something which is specific to human beings, which is essential to
being human. A person is primarily his/her intellect. While the spirited and desiring parts of the soul are also
important, the rational part of the soul is what one can most properly consider a person's identity. The activity
which only human beings can perform is intellectual; it is activity of the highest part of the soul (the rational
part) according to reason. Human happiness, therefore, consists in activity of the soul according to reason. In
practical terms, this activity is expressed through ethical virtue, when a person directs his actions according to
reason. The very highest human life, however, consists in contemplation of the greatest goods
(https://www.gradesaver.com/aristotles-ethics/study-guide/summary).

-End of Lesson 8-

ETHC 1013- ETHICS | PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 7

REFERENCES

Textbook

Oswald, Martin (1983). Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics, Book I and II (translated). Indianapolis: Bobbs Merril
Educational Publishing.

Online Reference

1. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. First published Tue May 1, 2001; substantive revision Fri Jun 15,
2018. Retrieved on September 25, 2021 from https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/

2. Crash Course (2016). Aristotle & Virtue Theory: Crash Course Philosophy #38. Retrieved on September
25, 2021 from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PrvtOWEXDIQ

Picture Reference:

1. William, Rankin (2020). From Instruction to Construction: Plato and Aristotle. Retrieved on September 25,
2021 from https://medium.com/age-of-awareness/from-instruction-to-construction-plato-aristotle-c4d646ef23fc

2. Schools of Philosophy: The Materialists. Retrieved on September 25, 2021 from

http://www.moradnazari.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/aristotle.png

3. Pinterest. Eudaimonia. Retrieved on September 25, 2021 from

https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/431149364308809945/

ETHC 1013- ETHICS | PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 7