1. The Guptas enjoyed certain material advantages.

2. Their center of operations lay in the fertile land of Madhyadesh, covering Bihar and Uttar
Pradesh.
3. They exploited the iron ores of central India and south Bihar.
4. They benefited from proximity to areas in north India conducting the silk trade with the
Byzantine Empire (eastern Roman Empire).
5. The Guptas established rule over:
○ Anuganga (mid-Gangetic basin along the Ganges)
○ Prayag (modern Allahabad)
○ Saketa (modern Ayodhya)
○ Magadha
6. Over time, this kingdom became an all-India empire.
7. The Kushan power in north India ended around AD 230.
8. A substantial part of central India fell under the rule of the Murundas, possibly kinsmen
of the Kushans.
9. The Murundas ruled until AD 250.
10. Around AD 275, the Gupta dynasty came to power.
11. The first important king of the Gupta dynasty was Chandragupta I.
12. He married a Lichchhavi princess, likely from Nepal, which strengthened his position.
13. The Guptas were probably Vaishyas, and marriage into a Kshatriya family lent them
prestige.
14. Chandragupta I started the Gupta era in AD 319–20, marking the date of his accession.
15. Many inscriptions of the Gupta era were later dated in this era.

Samudragupta

1. The Gupta kingdom was greatly enlarged by Chandragupta’s son and successor,
Samudragupta (AD 335–80).
2. Samudragupta was the opposite of Ashoka, as he believed in violence and conquest,
unlike Ashoka’s policy of peace and non-aggression.
3. His court poet, Harishena, wrote a detailed account of Samudragupta’s military exploits.
4. A long inscription by Harishena enumerates the peoples and countries conquered by
Samudragupta.
5. The inscription is engraved at Allahabad on the same pillar that carries Ashoka’s
inscriptions.
6. The places and countries conquered by Samudragupta can be divided into five groups:
○ Group One: Princes of the Ganga–Yamuna doab, who were defeated and their
kingdoms incorporated into the Gupta empire.
○ Group Two: Rulers of eastern Himalayan states and frontier states like Nepal,
Assam, and Bengal, as well as some republics of Punjab. These were subdued
and brought under Gupta control.
○ Group Three: Forest kingdoms of the Vindhya region, known as Atavika rajyas,
were brought under Gupta rule.
 ○ Group Four: Twelve rulers of the eastern Deccan and south India were
conquered and later liberated.
■ Samudragupta’s influence extended as far as Kanchi in Tamil Nadu,
where the Pallavas recognized his suzerainty.
○ Group Five: Shakas and Kushans, some ruling in Afghanistan, were swept out of
power by Samudragupta.
7. Samudragupta’s prestige and influence spread even outside India.
8. According to a Chinese source, Meghavarman, the ruler of Sri Lanka, sent a missionary
to Samudragupta to request permission to build a Buddhist temple at Gaya.
9. Permission was granted, and the temple was developed into a large monastic
establishment.
10. The eulogistic Allahabad inscription claims that Samudragupta never faced defeat.
11. Due to his bravery and generalship, Samudragupta is called the Napoleon of India.
12. Samudragupta forcibly unified a large part of India under his rule, with his power
extending over a much larger area than his predecessors.

CHANDRAGUPTA 2

1. The reign of Chandragupta II marked the high point of the Gupta empire.
2. He expanded the empire through marriage alliances and conquests.
3. Chandragupta II married his daughter Prabhavati to a Vakataka prince of the Brahmana
caste, who ruled in central India.
4. After the prince’s death, Prabhavati became the virtual ruler as her young son
succeeded the throne.
5. Prabhavati’s land charters showed the influence of eastern Gupta writing and promoted
Chandragupta’s interests.
6. Chandragupta exercised indirect control over the Vakataka kingdom, gaining strategic
advantages in central India.
7. Chandragupta II conquered Mathura from the Kushans.
8. He occupied western Malwa and Gujarat, regions ruled for centuries by the Shaka
Kshatrapas.
9. The conquest of western Malwa and Gujarat gave Chandragupta control over the
western sea coast, known for trade and commerce.
10. This contributed to the prosperity of Malwa and its chief city, Ujjain.
11. Chandragupta II likely made Ujjain the second capital of his empire.
12. The exploits of a king named Chandra are glorified in an iron pillar inscription near Qutb
Minar in Delhi, which may refer to Chandragupta II.
13. The inscription suggests he established Gupta authority in northwestern India and parts
of Bengal, though it may be exaggerated.
14. Chandragupta II adopted the title of Vikramaditya, first used by an Ujjain ruler in 58–57
BC to mark victory over the Shaka Kshatrapas.
15. Chandragupta II proved to be a greater Shakari (enemy of the Shakas) and
Vikramaditya.
 16. The court of Chandragupta II at Ujjain was adorned by scholars such as Kalidasa and
Amarasimha.
17. During Chandragupta’s reign, the Chinese pilgrim Fa-hsien (AD 399–414) visited India
and wrote about the life of its people.

FALL OF EMPIRE

1. The successors of Chandragupta II faced an invasion by the Hunas from Central Asia in
the second half of the 5th century AD.
2. Gupta king Skandagupta initially took effective measures to stop the Hunas' advance
into India.
3. The successors of Skandagupta proved weak and were unable to deal with the Huna
invaders.
4. The Hunas excelled in horsemanship, possibly used metal stirrups, moved quickly, and
were excellent archers.
5. By AD 485, the Hunas occupied eastern Malwa and a significant portion of central India,
as evidenced by their inscriptions.
6. Regions such as Punjab and Rajasthan also came under Huna control, drastically
reducing the Gupta empire's extent by the 6th century.
7. The Huna power was overthrown by Yashodharman of Malwa, from the Aulikara
feudatory family.
8. In AD 532, Yashodharman set up a pillar of victory commemorating his conquest of
almost the whole of northern India.
9. Yashodharman's rule was short-lived but severely weakened the Gupta empire.
10. The Gupta empire was further undermined by the rise of feudatories.
11. Governors in north Bengal and feudatories in Samatata (southeast Bengal) declared
independence.
12. The later Guptas of Magadha established power in Bihar.
13. The Maukharis rose to power in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, with their capital at Kanauj.
14. By AD 550, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh had passed out of Gupta control.
15. Independent princes in northern Madhya Pradesh issued land grants in their own names
while using the Gupta era for dating.
16. The rulers of Valabhi established authority in Gujarat and western Malwa.
17. After AD 467, no significant Gupta coins or inscriptions were found in western Malwa
and Saurashtra.
18. The loss of western India by the end of the 5th century deprived the Guptas of rich trade
revenues and crippled them economically.
19. In north India, the princes of Thanesar established power in Haryana and gradually
expanded to Kanauj.
20. The Gupta state struggled to maintain a large professional army due to the growing
practice of land grants for religious and other purposes, which reduced revenue.
21. Decline in foreign trade further reduced Gupta income.
22. In AD 473, a guild of silk-weavers migrated from Gujarat to Malwa and shifted to
non-productive professions, indicating a decline in demand for their products.
 23. The benefits of Gujarat trade gradually disappeared.
24. After the mid-5th century, Gupta kings reduced the gold content in their coins in an
attempt to maintain their gold currency, but this failed.
25. Although the Gupta dynasty lingered until the 6th century, their imperial glory had
vanished by the 5th century.

LIFE IN THE GUPTA AGE

1. In contrast to the Maurya rulers, Gupta kings adopted pompous titles such as
parameshvara, maharajadhiraja, and paramabhattaraka, indicating their rule over many
lesser kings.
2. Kingship was hereditary, but there was no firm adherence to primogeniture, leading to
succession uncertainties exploited by chiefs and high officials.
3. Gupta kings made generous gifts to brahmanas, who compared the king to gods like
Vishnu, the protector and preserver.
4. The goddess Lakshmi is commonly depicted on Gupta coins as Vishnu’s wife.
5. The numerical strength of the Gupta army is unknown, but it consisted of a standing
army supplemented by feudatory forces.
6. Horse chariots became less important, while cavalry and horse archery emerged as key
military tactics.
7. Land taxes increased during the Gupta period, while taxes on trade and commerce
decreased.
8. The king collected taxes ranging from one-fourth to one-sixth of the produce and
imposed obligations like feeding the royal army and supplying resources.
9. In central and western India, villagers were subjected to forced labor (vishti) by the royal
army and officials.
10. The judicial system under the Guptas was more developed, with clear demarcation
between civil and criminal laws.
11. Theft and adultery were under criminal law, while property disputes were under civil law.
12. Elaborate laws were created on inheritance, often based on varna differentiation.
13. The king upheld the law with the help of brahmana priests, while guilds of artisans and
merchants had their own governance systems.
14. Guilds flourished during Gupta times, as evidenced by seals from Vaishali and Bhita.
15. The Gupta bureaucracy was less elaborate than the Mauryan administration.
16. The most important officers were the kumaramatyas, appointed by the king and possibly
paid in cash.
17. Recruitment was not confined to upper varnas, but offices often became hereditary,
weakening royal control.
18. The Gupta empire was divided into bhuktis, each under an uparika.
19. Bhuktis were divided into vishayas under a vishayapati, and in eastern India, vishayas
were further divided into vithis and villages.
 20. The village headman gained importance, managing affairs with the help of elders, and
no land transactions occurred without their consent.
21. In urban administration, professional bodies like artisans and merchants played a
significant role.
22. Seals from Vaishali indicate that artisans, merchants, and guild heads conducted town
affairs together.
23. Guilds of artisans and merchants, such as silk weavers and oil-pressers, were organized
in places like Bhita, Vaishali, Mandasor, and Bulandshahar.
24. These guilds enjoyed immunities, managed their members' affairs, and enforced laws
and customs.
25. The described administrative system applied to directly ruled areas like north Bengal,
Bihar, UP, and parts of MP.
26. Much of the Gupta empire was ruled by feudatory chiefs subjugated by Samudragupta.
27. Vassals had obligations to pay tribute, attend court, and offer daughters in marriage to
the sovereign.
28. In return, vassals were granted charters to rule their areas, marked with the royal
Garuda seal.
29. Fiscal and administrative concessions were granted to priests and administrators, a
practice regularized during Gupta times.
30. Religious functionaries were granted tax-free land, empowered to collect taxes, and
punish criminals within their villages.
31. It is unclear if state officials were paid with land grants, but abundant gold coins suggest
higher officials were likely paid in cash.
32. The Gupta rulers required fewer officials compared to the Mauryas, as much of the
administration was managed by feudatories and beneficiaries.
33. The Gupta state did not regulate economic activities extensively, unlike the Maurya
state.
34. Participation of local elites in rural and urban administration reduced the need for a large
bureaucracy.
35. The Gupta political system displayed feudal characteristics.

TRENDS IN TRADE AND IN AGRARIAN ECONOMY

1. Fa-hsien, a Chinese traveler, provides insights into the economic life of Gupta times.
2. He mentions that Magadha was filled with cities and that its wealthy people supported
the region with charitable offerings.
3. The Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins in ancient India, called dinaras in
their inscriptions.
4. The coins were regular in size and weight and appeared in various types and sub-types.
5. Gupta coins vividly depicted their kings, showcasing their love for war and art.
6. Gupta gold coins were less pure than Kushan coins but were used to pay army and
administrative officers and for land transactions.
7. After conquering Gujarat, the Guptas issued numerous silver coins for local exchange,
influenced by the Western Kshatrapas' use of silver.
 8. Gupta copper coins were few, indicating that money circulation did not reach the
common people as extensively as during Kushan times.
9. Long-distance trade declined during the Gupta period compared to earlier times.
10. Until AD 550, India exported silk to the eastern Roman (Byzantine) empire.
11. Around AD 550, the Byzantines learned silk production from the Chinese, which hurt
India’s silk export trade.
12. Even before the mid-sixth century, demand for Indian silk abroad had reduced.
13. In the mid-fifth century, a guild of silk weavers from Lata (Gujarat) migrated to Mandasor
(Malwa), abandoning silk weaving for other professions.
14. A significant development in the Gupta period, especially in eastern and central MP, was
the rise of priestly landlords at the expense of local peasants.
15. Land grants to priests brought virgin lands under cultivation but imposed the
beneficiaries on local tribal peasants, reducing their status.
16. In central and western India, peasants were subjected to forced labor.
17. Substantial virgin soil was cultivated, and improved agricultural knowledge was
introduced in central India’s tribal areas by brahmana beneficiaries.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENTS

1. Large-scale land grants to brahmanas in Gupta times suggest an increase in brahmana

supremacy.
2. The Guptas, originally vaishyas, were regarded as kshatriyas by the brahmanas.
3. Brahmanas presented Gupta kings as possessing god-like attributes, legitimizing their
rule.
4. The brahmanas accumulated wealth through land grants and claimed many privileges
listed in the Narada Smriti.
5. The proliferation of castes resulted from the assimilation of foreigners and tribal people
into Indian society.
6. Foreigners were largely given kshatriya status, with the Hunas eventually recognized as
one of the thirty-six Rajput clans.
7. Tribal chiefs were assigned respectable origins, while ordinary tribal members were
assigned lower origins, forming new castes.
8. The position of shudras improved as they were allowed to listen to recitations of the
Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Puranas.
9. Shudras could worship Krishna and perform certain domestic rites, reflecting their
improved economic status.
10. From the seventh century onwards, shudras were mainly represented as agriculturists
rather than servants or laborers.
11. The number of untouchables, especially chandalas, increased during the Gupta period.
12. Fa-hsien noted that chandalas lived outside villages, dealt in meat, and announced their
arrival in towns by striking wood.
13. Women, like shudras, were allowed to listen to the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and
Puranas and worship Krishna.
 14. Women of lower varnas had freedom to earn their livelihood, which was denied to
upper-varna women.
15. Upper-varna women were treated as property, with some expected to follow their
husbands in death.
16. The first recorded instance of widow immolation occurred in AD 510 during the Gupta
period.
17. Some post-Gupta law-books permitted a woman to remarry if her husband was dead,
impotent, renounced, or excommunicated.
18. Upper-varna women's subordination was due to dependence on men and lack of
proprietary rights.
19. Gifts to brides, such as jewelry and garments, were considered their property
(stridhana).
20. Gupta and post-Gupta law-books expanded the scope of stridhana to include presents
from parents and in-laws.
21. Katyayana, a sixth-century lawmaker, allowed women to sell or mortgage immovable
property along with their stridhana.
22. Daughters generally could not inherit landed property in patriarchal communities, despite
some laws permitting it.
23. Niyoga (levirate marriage) was practiced in Vedic times but prohibited by Gupta
law-books for brahmanas and kshatriyas.
24. Widow remarriage was not allowed for upper varnas, but shudras could practice both
niyoga and widow remarriage.

STATE OF BUDDHISM

1. Buddhism ceased to receive royal patronage during the Gupta period.

2. Fa-hsien gave the impression that Buddhism was flourishing during this time.
3. In reality, Buddhism was not as significant during the Gupta period as it had been during
the reigns of Ashoka and Kanishka.
4. Some stupas and viharas were constructed during the Gupta period.
5. Nalanda became a centre of Buddhist education during this era.

ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF BHAGVATISM

1. Bhagavatism originated in post-Maurya times, centered around the worship of Vishnu or

Bhagavata.
2. Vishnu was initially a minor god in Vedic times, associated with the sun and fertility cult.
3. By the second century BC, Vishnu merged with Narayana, a non-Vedic tribal god,
becoming Narayana-Vishnu.
4. Narayana was conceived as a divine counterpart to the tribal chief, bestowing good
fortune (bhaga) on his worshippers (bhaktas), who offered loving devotion (bhakti) in
return.
 5. The worshippers of Vishnu and Narayana were united under a single umbrella, forming
Bhagavatism or Vaishnavism by 200 BC.
6. Bhagavatism was marked by bhakti (loving devotion) and ahimsa (non-killing of
animals), aligned with agricultural society and the life-giving fertility cult of Vishnu.
7. Followers of Bhagavatism offered rice, sesame, etc., to the image of Vishnu, and some
adopted a vegetarian diet.
8. Bhagavatism appealed to foreigners, artisans, and merchants, especially under the
Satavahanas and Kushans.
9. The Bhagavad Gita taught that even women, vaishyas, and shudras could seek refuge
in Krishna.
10. Bhagavatism overshadowed Mahayana Buddhism by Gupta times, emphasizing the
doctrine of incarnation (avatar) of Vishnu.
11. Vishnu's ten incarnations were believed to be essential for the salvation of dharma,
coinciding with varna society and the patriarchal family.
12. By the sixth century, Vishnu became a member of the trinity (Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva),
with Vishnu being dominant.
13. The Bhagavata Purana, written to popularize Vishnu worship, became a significant text,
with religious recitations like Vishnusahasranama.
14. Some Gupta kings were worshippers of Shiva, but Vishnu was more prominent in early
Gupta rule.
15. Idol worship in temples and the celebration of festivals became common in Hinduism
during the Gupta period.
16. Agricultural festivals were given a religious significance and became sources of income
for priests.
17. Gupta kings followed a policy of tolerance towards different religious sects, with no
persecution of Buddhists or Jains.
18. Buddhism had acquired many features of Brahmanism or Hinduism by this time.

ART

1. The Gupta period is called the Golden Age of ancient India, but this may not be true in
the economic field as several towns in north India declined during this period.
2. The Guptas possessed a large quantity of gold and issued the largest number of gold
coins.
3. Princes and the rich supported those engaged in art and literature.
4. Samudragupta and Chandragupta II were patrons of art and literature.
5. Samudragupta is represented on his coins playing the lute (vina).
6. Chandragupta II is credited with maintaining nine luminaries in his court.
7. Art in ancient India was largely inspired by religion, with few examples of nonreligious
art.
8. Buddhism gave great impetus to art in Maurya and post-Maurya times, leading to the
creation of massive stone pillars, beautiful caves, and high stupas or relic towers.
 9. The stupas were dome-like structures on round bases, primarily made of stone, with
numerous images of the Buddha sculptured.
10. During the Gupta period, a life-size copper image of the Buddha over 6 feet tall was
made and discovered at Sultanganj, now displayed in Birmingham.
11. Beautiful images of the Buddha were fashioned at Sarnath and Mathura during the
Gupta period.
12. The finest specimens of Buddhist art from Gupta times are the Ajanta paintings,
depicting various events in the life of Gautama Buddha and the previous Buddhas.
13. The Ajanta paintings are lifelike and natural, with brilliant colours that have not faded
even after fourteen centuries.
14. There is no evidence to suggest that the Guptas were the patrons of the Ajanta
paintings.
15. The Guptas supported Brahmanism, and images of Vishnu, Shiva, and other Hindu gods
were fashioned for the first time during their period.
16. The entire pantheon of Hindu gods was portrayed, with the chief god at the center and
his retainers and subordinate gods represented on a smaller scale, reflecting social
hierarchy and discrimination.
17. The Gupta period was poor in terms of architecture, with only a few temples made of
brick found in UP and a stone temple.
18. Notable brick temples include those at Bhitargaon in Kanpur, Bhitari in Ghazipur, and
Deogarh in Jhansi.
19. The Buddhist university at Nalanda was set up in the fifth century, with its earliest
structure made of brick dating to the Gupta period.

LITERATURE

1. The Gupta period is remarkable for the production of secular literature, including ornate
court poetry.
2. Bhasa was an important poet in the early Gupta period, writing thirteen plays.
3. Bhasa wrote in Sanskrit but included a substantial amount of Prakrit in his dramas.
4. One of Bhasa's plays, Dradiracharudatta, was later refashioned as Mrichchhakatika (The
Little Clay Cart) by Shudraka, which deals with the love affair of a poor Brahmana trader
and a beautiful courtesan.
5. Mrichchhakatika is considered one of the best works of ancient drama.
6. In his plays, Bhasa used the term yavanika for the curtain, suggesting Greek contact.
7. The Gupta period is particularly famous for the work of Kalidasa, the greatest poet of
classical Sanskrit literature.
8. Kalidasa wrote Abhijnanashakuntalam, which tells the love story of King Dushyanta and
Shakuntala, whose son Bharata becomes a famous ruler.
9. Shakuntalam was one of the earliest Indian works translated into European languages,
along with the Bhagavadgita.
10. The plays of the Gupta period were all comedies; no tragedies were found.
11. In Gupta period plays, characters of higher and lower classes did not speak the same
language; women and Shudras used Prakrit, while the higher classes used Sanskrit.
 12. The Ramayana and Mahabharata were almost completed by the fourth century AD.
13. The Ramayana, compiled by Brahmanas, reflects the Kshatriya tradition and is full of
myths, legends, and exaggerations, not reliable for political history.
14. The Ramayana tells the story of Rama, his exile, the abduction of his wife Sita by
Ravana, and his eventual rescue of her with the help of Sugriva.
15. The Ramayana idealizes the family institution, where sons must obey fathers, younger
brothers must obey elder brothers, and wives must remain faithful to their husbands.
16. Ravana symbolizes evil, while Rama symbolizes righteousness, and the story ends with
righteousness triumphing over evil.
17. The Ramayana has wide social and religious appeal and exists in various versions
across Indian languages and Southeast Asia.
18. The Mahabharata tells the story of the conflict between two groups of cousins, the
Kauravas and the Pandavas, with kingship not respecting kinship.
19. The Pandavas, patronized by Krishna, fought the Kauravas, and after a prolonged battle,
the Pandavas emerged victorious, symbolizing the victory of righteousness over evil.
20. The Bhagavadgita teaches that a person must carry out their caste duties without desire
for reward.
21. The Puranas, compiled during the Gupta period, are full of myths, legends, and sermons
meant for educating and edifying the common people.
22. The Gupta period saw the compilation of various Smritis (lawbooks) written in verse,
which outlined social and religious norms.
23. The phase of writing commentaries on Smritis began after the Gupta period.
24. The Gupta period saw the development of Sanskrit grammar based on the work of
Panini and Patanjali.
25. The compilation of Amarakosha by Amarasimha, a luminary in the court of
Chandragupta II, was a significant achievement of the Gupta period.
26. Amarakosha is a lexicon that was memorized by students learning Sanskrit in the
traditional way.
27. The Gupta period was a bright phase in the history of classical literature, known for its
ornate style different from earlier simple Sanskrit.
28. The Gupta period emphasized verse over prose and produced several commentaries.
29. Sanskrit was the court language of the Guptas, and while the period produced much
Brahmanical religious literature, it also gave rise to some of the earliest secular literature.

SCI AND TECH

1. In the fifth century, Aryabhata, a mathematician from Pataliputra, wrote the Aryabhatiya.
2. Aryabhata was well-versed in various kinds of calculations.
3. Aryabhata displayed an awareness of both the zero system and the decimal system.
4. A Gupta inscription from AD 448 in Allahabad district suggests that the decimal system
was known in India in the early fifth century.
5. In the field of astronomy, a book called Romaka Sidhanta was compiled, influenced by
Greek and Roman ideas.
6. Gupta craftsmen were skilled in iron and bronze work.
 7. Bronze images of the Buddha began to be produced on a large scale due to advanced
knowledge of metal technology.
8. The iron pillar found at Mehrauli, Delhi, is an example of exceptional iron craftsmanship.
9. The iron pillar, manufactured in the fourth century AD, has yet to rust over the following
fifteen centuries, showcasing the technological skill of the craftsmen.
10. The preservation of the pillar may also be attributed to the arid conditions in Delhi.
11. The iron pillar is considered an achievement that could not be replicated in the West until
about a century ago.
12. Unfortunately, later Indian craftsmen did not further develop this advanced knowledge.

THE MAURYA AGE

CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA

1. The Maurya dynasty was founded by Chandragupta Maurya, who likely came from an
ordinary family.
2. According to brahmanical tradition, Chandragupta was born to Mura, a shudra woman in
the court of the Nandas.
3. An earlier Buddhist tradition suggests that the Mauryas were the ruling clan of the
republic of Pipphalivana in the Gorakhpur region near the Nepalese terai.
4. Chandragupta was likely a member of the Maurya clan from Pipphalivana.
5. He overthrew the Nandas with the help of Chanakya (Kautilya) and established the
Maurya dynasty.
6. Chanakya's strategies against Chandragupta's enemies are described in the
Mudrarakshasa, a play written by Vishakhadatta in the ninth century.
7. Several modern plays have been based on the Mudrarakshasa.
8. Justin, a Greek writer, claims that Chandragupta overran all of India with an army of
600,000, though this may or may not be true.
9. Chandragupta liberated north-western India from the control of Seleucus, who ruled over
the area west of the Indus.
10. In the war with Seleucus' Greek viceroy, Chandragupta appears to have emerged
victorious.
11. A peace treaty was concluded between the two, in which Seleucus gave Chandragupta
500 elephants, his daughter, eastern Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and the area west of the
Indus.
12. Chandragupta built a vast empire that included Bihar, substantial parts of Orissa and
Bengal, western and north-western India, and the Deccan.
13. The Mauryas ruled over almost the entire subcontinent, except for Kerala, Tamil Nadu,
and parts of north-eastern India.
14. In the north-west, the Mauryas held control over areas that did not form part of the British
empire.
15. The Mauryas also conquered the republics (samghas) which Kautilya considered
obstacles to the growth of the empire.
IMPERIAL ORG

1. The Mauryas organized an elaborate system of administration, known from

Megasthenes's account and the Arthashastra of Kautilya.
2. Megasthenes was a Greek ambassador sent by Seleucus to the court of Chandragupta
Maurya. He lived in Pataliputra and wrote about the administration of the Maurya empire.
3. Megasthenes’s account survives in fragments and has been compiled in a book called
Indika, which provides insights into the Maurya administration, society, and economy.
4. The Arthashastra by Kautilya supplements Megasthenes’s account, providing authentic
details about Maurya administration and economy.
5. Chandragupta Maurya was an autocrat who concentrated all power in his hands.
6. According to the Arthashastra, the king's ideal was to ensure the happiness of his
subjects, linking his own happiness to theirs.
7. Megasthenes mentions a council of wise men who assisted the king, though their advice
was not binding on him.
8. The empire was divided into provinces, each ruled by a prince from the royal family.
9. Provinces were further divided into smaller units, with arrangements for both rural and
urban administration.
10. Excavations show several towns from Maurya times, with Pataliputra, Kaushambi, Ujjain,
and Taxila being the most important cities.
11. Megasthenes describes Pataliputra as the most important city, calling it Palibothra. It
was surrounded by a deep ditch and wooden wall with 570 towers and 64 gates.
12. Pataliputra was 9.33 miles long and 1.75 miles broad, a size similar to modern Patna.
13. Pataliputra was administered by six committees, each consisting of five members,
responsible for functions like sanitation, care of foreigners, and registration of births and
deaths.
14. Kautilya’s Arthashastra mentions that the central government had about two dozen
departments managing social and economic activities near the capital.
15. The Mauryas maintained a large army, with estimates from Pliny stating 600,000 foot
soldiers, 30,000 cavalrymen, and 9,000 elephants, along with 8,000 chariots and a navy.
16. The military administration was managed by a board of 30 officers, divided into six
committees, each overseeing a branch of the armed forces.
17. The Mauryas’ military strength was much larger than the Nandas due to the greater size
and resources of the empire.
18. The Arthashastra reveals that the state controlled most economic activities, including
land cultivation and taxes.
19. The state expanded land cultivation with the help of cultivators and shudra laborers,
generating significant revenue.
20. Taxes from peasants ranged from one-fourth to one-sixth of the produce, and irrigation
facilities provided by the state were charged.
21. During emergencies, peasants were compelled to increase crop production.
22. The state also levied tolls on commodities brought into towns and had a monopoly on
mining, liquor, arms manufacturing, etc.
 23. These state-controlled activities contributed vast resources to the royal treasury.
24. Chandragupta Maurya established a well-organized administration with a strong financial
foundation.

ASHOKA

1. Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded by his son Bindusara.

2. Bindusara’s reign is important for its continuing links with Greek princes.
3. Bindusara’s son, Ashoka, became the greatest of the Maurya rulers.
4. According to Buddhist tradition, Ashoka was very cruel in his early life and allegedly
killed his ninety-nine brothers to win the throne.
5. The claim about Ashoka killing his brothers is based on a legend and may be mythical.
6. Ashoka’s biography, written by Buddhist authors, is filled with fiction and should not be
taken entirely seriously.

ASHOKAN INSCRIPTIONS

1. The history of Ashoka is reconstructed based on his thirty-nine inscriptions.

2. These inscriptions are classified into Major Rock Edicts, Minor Rock Edicts, Separate
Rock Edicts, Major Pillar Edicts, and Minor Pillar Edicts.
3. Ashoka’s name appears in copies of Minor Rock Edict I found at four locations: three in
Karnataka and one in Madhya Pradesh.
4. Ashoka’s name does not appear in any inscriptions from northern or north-western India.
5. In inscriptions without Ashoka’s name, only the title "devanampiya piyadasi" (dear to the
gods) is used, with "piyadasi" being unique to Ashoka.
6. Ashokan inscriptions have been found in India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Afghanistan, at a
total of forty-seven locations.
7. The total number of Ashokan inscription versions is 182, including two that are
considered spurious.
8. Ashokan inscriptions were typically placed along ancient highways and have been found
in six locations in Afghanistan.
9. The inscriptions were composed in Prakrit and written in Brahmi script in most of the
subcontinent.
10. In the north-western part of the subcontinent, inscriptions appeared in Aramaic language
and Kharoshthi script, and in Afghanistan, they were written in both Aramaic and Greek
scripts and languages.
11. Ashoka was the first Indian king to speak directly to the people through his inscriptions,
which carry royal orders.
12. The inscriptions provide insight into Ashoka’s career, his internal and external policies,
and the extent of his empire.
13. The history of Ashoka is reconstructed based on his thirty-nine inscriptions.
 14. These inscriptions are classified into Major Rock Edicts, Minor Rock Edicts, Separate
Rock Edicts, Major Pillar Edicts, and Minor Pillar Edicts.
15. Ashoka’s name appears in copies of Minor Rock Edict I found at four locations: three in
Karnataka and one in Madhya Pradesh.
16. Ashoka’s name does not appear in any inscriptions from northern or north-western India.
17. In inscriptions without Ashoka’s name, only the title "devanampiya piyadasi" (dear to the
gods) is used, with "piyadasi" being unique to Ashoka.
18. Ashokan inscriptions have been found in India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Afghanistan, at a
total of forty-seven locations.
19. The total number of Ashokan inscription versions is 182, including two that are
considered spurious.
20. Ashokan inscriptions were typically placed along ancient highways and have been found
in six locations in Afghanistan.
21. The inscriptions were composed in Prakrit and written in Brahmi script in most of the
subcontinent.
22. In the north-western part of the subcontinent, inscriptions appeared in Aramaic language
and Kharoshthi script, and in Afghanistan, they were written in both Aramaic and Greek
scripts and languages.
23. Ashoka was the first Indian king to speak directly to the people through his inscriptions,
which carry royal orders.
24. The inscriptions provide insight into Ashoka’s career, his internal and external policies,
and the extent of his empire.

Impact of kalinga war

1. Ashoka’s state policy at home and abroad was guided by the ideology of Buddhism.
2. After ascending the throne, Ashoka fought only one major war, the Kalinga war.
3. According to Ashoka, 100,000 were killed, several lakhs died, and 150,000 were taken
prisoner in the Kalinga war. These numbers are likely exaggerated.
4. Ashoka was deeply moved by the suffering caused by the war, especially the impact on
Brahmana priests and Buddhist monks.
5. Ashoka abandoned the policy of physical conquest and adopted cultural conquest,
replacing "bherighosha" (war drums) with "dhammaghosha" (the drum of dhamma).
6. In his Thirteenth Major Rock Edict, Ashoka expresses his remorse for the violence and
suffering caused by the war, stating that the conquest of Kalinga weighed heavily on his
mind.
7. Ashoka now appealed ideologically to tribal peoples and frontier kingdoms, encouraging
them to follow the principles of dhamma.
8. He stopped treating foreign dominions as legitimate areas for military conquest and took
steps for the welfare of people and animals in foreign lands.
9. Ashoka sent ambassadors of peace to the Greek sections of his empire and to foreign
lands in West Asia and Greece.
 10. Buddhist tradition suggests Ashoka sent missionaries to propagate Buddhism to Sri
Lanka and Central Asia, with inscriptional evidence supporting his efforts in Sri Lanka.
11. Ashoka sought to enlarge his influence through propaganda, not by military conquest.
12. Ashoka did not become an extreme pacifist after the Kalinga war; he adopted a practical
policy of consolidating his empire.
13. He retained Kalinga after its conquest and incorporated it into his empire.
14. Ashoka did not disband the large army inherited from Chandragupta Maurya.
15. Despite promoting dhamma, Ashoka threatened adverse consequences for violations of
social order and righteousness (dharma).
16. Ashoka appointed officers called "rajukas" who had the authority to reward or punish
people as necessary.
17. Ashoka’s policy to consolidate his empire proved successful, as evidenced by the
Kandahar inscription, which mentions the success of his policy with hunters and
fishermen, who gave up killing animals and possibly took up agriculture.

INTERNAL POLICY AND BUDDHISM

1. Ashoka was converted to Buddhism as a result of the Kalinga war.

2. According to tradition, Ashoka became a monk, made large gifts to Buddhists, and
undertook pilgrimages to Buddhist shrines.
3. His visits to Buddhist shrines are mentioned in his inscriptions, referred to as dhamma
yatras.
4. Ashoka is believed to have held the third Buddhist council (sangiti) and sent missionaries
to south India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar (Burma), and other countries to spread Buddhism.
5. Brahmi inscriptions from the second and first centuries BC have been found in Sri Lanka.
6. Ashoka set a high ideal of paternal kingship, viewing his subjects as his children.
7. He instructed his officials to care for the people and to convey his paternal attitude to
them.
8. Ashoka appointed dhammamahamatras to propagate dharma among various social
groups, including women.
9. He appointed rajukas to administer justice in his empire.
10. Ashoka disapproved of rituals, particularly those practiced by women.
11. He forbade the killing of certain birds and animals, prohibited slaughter in the royal
kitchen, and banned animal slaughter during sacrifices.
12. Ashoka also banned excessive revelry at gay social functions.
13. His dharma was not sectarian; it promoted amity between different religious sects, as
seen in his Kandahar Greek inscription.
14. Ashoka’s inscriptions, known as dhammalipi, cover religion, morality, social matters, and
administrative issues.
15. The dhammalipi can be compared to the Dharmashastras or law-books written in
Sanskrit under brahmanical influence.
16. Ashoka’s edicts sought to preserve social order, similar to the royal edicts (shasanas)
issued by brahmanized kings.
 17. His instructions emphasized obedience to parents, respect for brahmanas and Buddhist
monks, and mercy towards slaves and servants.
18. The dhammalipi also emphasized loyalty to the king (dridha bhakti).
19. Ashoka’s teachings focused on compassion for animals, proper behavior towards
relatives, and strengthening the family institution and social classes.
20. He encouraged people to live and let live, aiming for a tolerant society.
21. Ashoka never stated that following his teachings would lead to nirvana; instead, he
suggested that behaving well would lead to heaven.
22. His teachings were intended to maintain the existing social order based on tolerance and
compassion, without promoting a sectarian faith.

ASHOKA’S PLACE IN HISTORY

1. It is often said that Ashoka's pacific policy destroyed the Maurya empire, but this is not
true.
2. Ashoka was a great missionary ruler, working with devotion to achieve significant
accomplishments at home and abroad.
3. Ashoka contributed to the political unification of India, binding the country through one
dharma, one language, and virtually one script (Brahmi).
4. He respected non-Indian scripts such as Kharoshthi, Aramaic, and Greek, using them in
his inscriptions to communicate with diverse literate populations.
5. Ashoka's multi-script and multi-lingual inscriptions enabled him to contact people from
different linguistic backgrounds.
6. He followed a tolerant religious policy, not imposing his Buddhist faith on his subjects,
and even made gifts to non-Buddhist and anti-Buddhist sects.
7. Ashoka had a zeal for missionary activity, deputing officials across the empire to promote
his policies.
8. He helped administration and encouraged cultural interaction between the developed
Gangetic basin and more distant, underdeveloped provinces.
9. The material culture of the empire spread to regions like Kalinga, the lower Deccan, and
northern Bengal.
10. Ashoka is significant in history for his policy of peace, non-aggression, and cultural
conquest.
11. His policy had no model in early Indian history, though a similar pacific policy was
pursued by Akhnaton in Egypt in the 14th century BC (though Ashoka was unaware of
this).
12. Despite Kautilya's advice to pursue physical conquest, Ashoka adopted the opposite
approach, encouraging successors to abandon aggressive wars and adopt a policy of
peace.
13. Ashoka followed a policy of peace after the Kalinga war, even though he had sufficient
resources and a large army.
14. Ashoka was far ahead of his time with his policy of peace and non-aggression.
 15. However, Ashoka's pacific policy did not have a lasting impact on his viceroys and
vassals, who declared themselves independent after Ashoka's death in 232 BC.
16. The pacific policy also failed to prevent external threats, as neighboring kingdoms
attacked the north-western frontier of Ashoka's empire within thirty years of his death.

STATE CONTROL

1. Brahmanical law-books emphasized that the king should be guided by the laws in the
Dharmashastras and by prevailing customs.
2. Kautilya advised the king to promulgate dharma when the social order based on varnas
(classes) and ashramas (stages of life) collapses, calling the king "dharmapravartaka"
(promulgator of social order).
3. Ashoka asserted royal orders were superior to other orders in his inscriptions, promoting
dharma and appointing officials to enforce it across India.
4. Royal absolutism emerged as a natural extension of the policy of military conquest
followed by Magadhan kings.
5. Military control over regions like Anga, Vaishali, Kashi, Koshala, Avanti, and Kalinga
turned into coercive control over the lives of the people.
6. The Magadhan empire, with its military power, needed a vast bureaucracy to control
various spheres of life.
7. The Maurya period had an extensive administrative system, with more officers than any
other period of ancient history.
8. An elaborate system of espionage was in place, with spies gathering intelligence on
foreign enemies and monitoring officers.
9. Spies also promoted superstitions to collect money from gullible people.
10. Important officials were referred to as "tirthas," and most officers were paid in cash.
11. The highest-ranking officials, such as the minister (mantrin), high priest (purohita),
commander-in-chief (senapati), and crown prince (yuvaraja), were generously paid,
receiving up to 48,000 panas.
12. Lower-ranking officers received much smaller salaries, with some earning as little as 10
or 20 panas.
13. There was significant disparity in the salaries of different officials, reflecting the
hierarchical structure of the bureaucracy.

ECONOMIC REGULATIONS

1. Economic Regulation by the State:

○ The Maurya state appointed 27 superintendents (adhyakshas) to regulate

agriculture, trade, commerce, weights and measures, crafts (e.g., weaving,
spinning), and mining.
○ The state provided irrigation facilities and regulated water supply to benefit
agriculturists.
○ Megasthenes mentions land measurement and inspection of water channels
similar to Egypt.
2. Slavery and Agricultural Work:

○ The Arthashastra mentions the employment of slaves in agriculture during the

Maurya period.
○ Megasthenes did not observe slaves in India, but it is believed that large-scale
use of slaves in agriculture occurred during this time.
○ War captives from Kalinga may have been engaged in agriculture, though the
number of 150,000 may be exaggerated.
○ India was not a slave society like Greece or Rome; the tasks were mostly
performed by shudras who were considered the collective property of the higher
varnas.
3. Royal Control and Administrative Infrastructure:

○ Pataliputra’s strategic location helped maintain control over vast areas, with river
routes like the Ganges, Son, Punpun, and Gandak connecting regions.
○ Royal roads connected various regions, facilitating transportation, including links
from Pataliputra to Nepal, Kalinga, Andhra, and Karnataka.
○ Ashokan inscriptions appeared on important highways, and stone pillars were
transported from Chunar to various parts of India.
○ The Maurya empire’s control over settled areas may have matched the Mughals
or the East India Company in later times.
4. Provincial Governance:

○ The Maurya empire had provincial capitals like Tosali, Suvarnagiri, Ujjain, and
Taxila, each governed by a royal family member.
○ The princely governors often functioned autonomously, though Ashoka’s
authority remained largely unchallenged.
5. Population and Army:

○The Maurya rulers did not have to deal with a very large population. The army
had a maximum of 650,000 men.
○ The total population in the Gangetic plains may not have exceeded 6.5 million.
6. Ashokan Inscriptions and Royal Writ:

○ Ashokan inscriptions indicate royal control across most of the country, with
exceptions in the extreme east and south.
○ Communication challenges made rigid state control difficult beyond the
mid-Gangetic zone.
7. Taxation System:

○ The Maurya period saw significant development in taxation systems, as outlined

in Kautilya's Arthashastra.
○ Taxes were collected from peasants, artisans, and traders using a strong
machinery for assessment, collection, and storage.
 ○ The samaharta was the highest official in charge of tax assessment, and the
sannidhata was responsible for the state treasury.
○ The Arthashastra lists many taxes, which, if collected, would have left little for the
people.
8. Tax Collection and Storage:

○ Rural storehouses and granaries were used to collect taxes in kind, and they
likely served to assist local populations during famines and droughts.
9. Currency:

○ The Maurya empire used punch-marked silver coins, with symbols like the
peacock and crescented hill, as the imperial currency.
○ Copper coins, punch-marked or cast, were also in circulation.
○ The uniformity of currency facilitated tax collection, officer payments, and market
exchanges.
10. Differences from Colonial Empires:

○ The Maurya empire was a territorial empire focused on taxes and tributes, with
little emphasis on raw material extraction for manufacturing.
○ Colonial empires, like the British Empire, extracted raw materials for production
and sold manufactured goods to their colonies.
○ Unlike later colonial empires, the Mauryas did not rely on importing raw materials
like cotton for manufacturing goods.

ART AND ARCHITECTURE

1. Contribution to Art and Architecture:

○ The Mauryas made a significant contribution to art and architecture, particularly

in stone masonry.
○ Megasthenes described the Maurya palace at Pataliputra as being as splendid as
that of the Iranian capital.
2. Stone Pillars:

○ Fragments of stone pillars and stumps, indicating an 84-pillared hall, were

discovered at Kumrahar near modern Patna.
○ The stone pillars reflect high technical skill in polishing and engineering, with their
shine comparable to the Northern Black Polished Ware.
○ These pillars were made of single pieces of buff-colored sandstone, with
sculptured capitals in the form of lions or bulls.
○ The construction of these polished pillars throughout India shows advanced
knowledge in stone polishing and wide transportation networks.
 3. Cave Architecture:

○ The Mauryas initiated the practice of creating caves for monks to live in, starting
with the Barabar caves near Gaya.
○ This cave architecture later spread to western and southern India.
4. Terracotta Art:

○ The Maurya period saw a significant development in terracotta art, particularly in

the central Gangetic plains around 300 BC.
○ Terracottas were produced on a large scale, often depicting animals like
elephants and figures of women, including mother goddesses.
○ These terracottas were hand-modeled, showcasing Mauryan artistic skill.
5. Yakshini Statue:

○ A stone statue of Yakshini, found in Didarganj (Patna), is noted for its exceptional
Maurya polish and represents a beautiful woman.

SPREAD OF MATERIAL CULTURE AND THE STATE SYSTEM

1. Well-Organized State Machinery:

○ The Mauryas created a highly organized state machinery operating at the heart
of the empire.
○ Their conquests led to increased trade and missionary activities, contributing to
the spread of material culture.
2. Spread of Material Culture:

○ The contacts between administrators, traders, and monks facilitated the spread
of Gangetic basin culture to peripheral regions.
○ The material culture of the Gangetic basin included iron tools, writing,
punch-marked coins, Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW), burnt bricks, ring
wells, and the development of towns.
3. Iron Use and Technological Advancements:

○ Intensive use of iron, particularly from the rich iron ores in south Bihar, led to the
production of iron tools like axes, hoes, spades, sickles, and ploughshares.
○ The spoked wheel was also introduced during this period.
○ Iron tools were not restricted to any specific class, suggesting wide distribution
and usage across the empire.
4. Introduction of Burnt Bricks:

○ Burnt bricks were used for the first time in northeastern India during the Maurya
period, marking a significant architectural advancement.
○ These bricks spread to other provinces, particularly in regions with moist climates
where mud construction was not feasible.
 ○ The use of burnt bricks helped in the growth of towns and urban settlements.
5. Ring Wells:

○ Ring wells, first constructed under the Mauryas, spread beyond the Gangetic
plains.
○ These wells provided water for domestic use and allowed settlements to develop
away from rivers, offering a practical solution for water storage and waste
management.
6. Cultural Diffusion:

○Elements of Gangetic material culture spread to regions such as northern

Bengal, Kalinga, Andhra, and Karnataka, although local cultures also evolved
independently.
○ Archaeological evidence, like Maurya Brahmi inscriptions and NBPW, supports
these cultural exchanges in regions like Bangladesh, Orissa, and parts of Andhra
and Karnataka.
7. Ashoka’s Influence:

○ Ashoka’s influence extended to regions like Orissa, Kalinga, and the Deccan,
promoting the spread of Mauryan culture and governance.
○ Ashoka’s inscriptions in multiple regions, including Andhra and Karnataka,
suggest widespread Mauryan contact and influence.
○ Ashoka’s promotion of dhamma (moral law) helped spread cultural and societal
values across the empire.
8. State Formation and Settlement Policies:

○ Kautilya’s policies encouraged the establishment of new settlements in peripheral

regions, with support for cultivators and laborers.
○ Tax remissions, along with supplies of cattle, seeds, and money, were provided to
settlers to cultivate virgin land.
○ These policies expanded agriculture and settlements across the empire.
9. Acculturation of Tribal Regions:

○ Ashoka’s policy also aimed at acculturation of tribal people in central India

through the spread of dhamma.
○ The tribal people were encouraged to adopt settled agricultural lifestyles and
respect royal authority.
○ Ashoka claimed success in this policy, with evidence that tribal groups had given
up their traditional practices like hunting and fishing.
10. Cultural and Religious Impact:

● Ashoka’s emphasis on dhamma led to a blending of tribal and Gangetic cultures,

promoting a more settled, taxpaying society with respect for royal power and cultural
values.
 ● Ashoka's efforts resulted in the gradual assimilation of tribal people into the wider
Mauryan society.

CAUSES OF THE FALL OF MAURYAN EMPIRE

The decline of the Maurya Empire after Ashoka's reign can be attributed to several factors:

1. Weak Successors:

○After Ashoka’s death in 232 BC, his successors were weak and unable to
maintain the strong governance and leadership that he had provided. This
weakened the central authority and control of the empire.
2. Administrative Overextension:

○
The Maurya Empire, under Ashoka, had expanded to a vast territory, stretching
from present-day Afghanistan in the west to Bangladesh in the east and from the
Himalayas in the north to the Deccan plateau in the south. Such a vast empire
was difficult to manage effectively, especially after Ashoka's departure. The
central administration began to lose its grip on the far-flung regions.
3. Economic Strain:

○The empire’s vast size required significant resources for administration, military
upkeep, and infrastructure. The strain on the economy, particularly after the
Kalinga War, which had been costly both in terms of resources and human lives,
contributed to the weakening of the state.
4. Decline in Military Power:

○ Ashoka’s commitment to non-violence after the Kalinga War led to a reduction in

military strength and expansionist ambitions. This created a power vacuum, and
external threats from neighboring kingdoms, like the Greeks and the Shakas,
became harder to counter.
5. Internal Revolts and Provincial Discontent:

○ The vastness of the empire and the diverse cultures within it led to dissatisfaction
and revolts in various provinces. The local rulers and aristocracies in these
regions sought greater autonomy, undermining the unity of the empire.
6. Religious and Cultural Shift:

○Ashoka’s promotion of Buddhism and dhamma (moral law) was a significant shift
from the traditional Brahmanical practices. While this policy helped maintain
peace and unity during his reign, it may have alienated the traditional elite,
leading to political and social tensions after his death.
7. Decline of Trade:
 ○ The Maurya Empire had flourished due to trade, but the decline of centralized
control and security led to a breakdown in trade routes and a decline in economic
activity, further weakening the empire's foundations.
8. Invasions by Foreign Powers:

○
The empire faced external invasions from the Greeks and other foreign tribes
after Ashoka's reign, which further destabilized the empire.
9. Fragmentation of Power:

○ Following Ashoka’s death, regional powers and governors became more

independent, leading to the fragmentation of the empire. This decentralization
contributed to the eventual collapse of the Maurya Empire.

Together, these factors contributed to the gradual decline and eventual disintegration of the
Maurya Empire, marking the end of one of India’s most powerful ancient empires.

BRAHMANICAL REACTION

The decline of the Maurya Empire and the subsequent rise of new kingdoms saw the
emergence of a brahmanical reaction against Ashoka's policies, especially his promotion of
Buddhism and his efforts to implement a more egalitarian and non-violent societal order. The
reasons behind this reaction can be outlined as follows:

1. Ashoka’s Tolerant Policy:

● Ashoka’s promotion of dhamma, a policy based on moral teachings, emphasized

tolerance and respect for all religions, including Buddhism. However, his edicts were
issued in Prakrit, the language spoken by the common people, rather than Sanskrit,
which was the language of the elite, including the brahmanas. This was seen as a move
that undermined the traditional status of Sanskrit and, by extension, the brahmanical
culture.

2. Opposition to Vedic Sacrifices:

● Ashoka’s policy discouraged animal sacrifice and elaborate rituals, which were integral
to the Vedic tradition. He prohibited the killing of birds and animals, leading to a loss of
income for the brahmanas, who had traditionally profited from performing sacrifices. This
affected their economic and religious authority, especially in rural areas.

3. Social and Legal Reforms:

● Ashoka introduced the Rajuka system, where officials were tasked with implementing
laws uniformly across all varnas (social classes). The introduction of a common civil and
criminal law under Ashoka’s rule, which treated all varnas equally, conflicted with the
Dharmashastra, the traditional brahmanical legal code, which prescribed different duties
 and rights based on varna (the caste system). This move, promoting social equality,
angered the brahmanas, who were deeply invested in the hierarchical social structure.

4. Rise of Brahmanical Dynasties:

● With the decline of the Mauryas, several new kingdoms arose in India, many of which
were founded by brahmanas or were sympathetic to brahmanical traditions. Notably:
○ The Shungas: They established a dynasty in northern India, especially in
Magadha (modern-day Bihar), after the fall of the Mauryas. The Shungas actively
revived Vedic rituals and sacrifices, which Ashoka had discarded.
○ The Kanvas: Another brahmana dynasty that succeeded the Shungas in the
eastern part of the empire.
○ The Satavahanas: Originating from the western Deccan and Andhra region, the
Satavahanas claimed brahmanical lineage and sought to promote Vedic rituals.
They ruled a large part of peninsular India and performed the same Vedic
sacrifices that Ashoka had criticized.

5. Vedic Sacrifices and Political Legitimacy:

● These new brahmana dynasties legitimized their rule by performing Vedic sacrifices,
which had been dismissed by Ashoka as unnecessary and extravagant. By reviving such
practices, these dynasties not only asserted their adherence to traditional brahmanical
norms but also positioned themselves in opposition to Ashoka’s policies of religious
tolerance and social equality.

In summary, the brahmanical reaction to Ashoka's policies was multifaceted. It involved both
an economic and cultural backlash against Ashoka's rejection of traditional rituals and sacrifices,
and a political reaction in the form of new kingdoms that sought to restore and strengthen the
role of the brahmanas in society. The Shungas, Kanvas, and Satavahanas were instrumental in
re-establishing brahmanical practices, marking a shift from Ashoka’s Buddhist-inspired rule to a
resurgence of Vedic traditions.

FINANCIAL CRISIS

OPRESSIVE RULE

● The Mauryan Empire, particularly under Ashoka's successors, saw signs of oppressive
rule, which contributed to its decline.
● Harsh taxation and heavy control: The empire's vast administration and the
centralized control led to heavy taxation on peasants and common people. This
economic burden, along with state control over every aspect of life, created resentment.
● Military repression: After Ashoka's reign, there was a return to military dominance, and
the empire's focus on maintaining control over distant regions involved harsh tactics,
leading to unrest and instability.
● Bureaucratic control: Ashoka’s extensive bureaucracy, including officials like rajukas
(district governors), imposed uniform laws across the empire, causing friction, especially
with the brahmins, who had their own systems of governance based on varna (social
class).
● Religious intolerance: Ashoka’s embrace of Buddhism and his promotion of dharma
(moral law) alienated the traditional Brahmanical order. His prohibition of certain religious
practices and sacrifices angered the Brahmins, and in response, many Brahmanical
kingdoms, like the Shungas and Kanvas, arose in opposition, leading to further
fragmentation of the empire.
● Weak leadership after Ashoka: Ashoka’s death led to weak successors who struggled
to maintain centralized power. The lack of effective leadership and internal strife made it
easier for local powers and external invaders to chip away at the empire.
● Lack of local autonomy: The Mauryan Empire’s strict uniformity and lack of local
autonomy led to widespread dissatisfaction among various regions, pushing them to
break away from the central authority.
● The spread of new knowledge in the outlying areas of the Mauryan Empire contributed
to its decline through the following key developments:
1. Cultural and Technological Diffusion:

○New technologies, such as the use of iron tools and steel-making techniques,
spread to the peripheral regions, leading to increased local autonomy and
economic development, reducing dependence on the central authority of the
Mauryas.
2. Expansion of Material Culture:

○ The introduction of the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW), burnt bricks, and
ring wells in the outlying areas spread the Gangetic basin's material culture. This
regional prosperity allowed for the development of self-sustaining towns and
smaller kingdoms, weakening the Mauryan hold over distant territories.
3. Rise of Local Powers:

○ As the influence of the Mauryan state weakened, local rulers in newly prosperous
regions, such as the Shungas, Kanvas, and Satavahanas, gained power. These
emerging kingdoms often resisted Mauryan authority and were influenced by
Brahmanical traditions that conflicted with Ashoka’s policies.
4. Discontent with Ashoka’s Policies:

○ Ashoka’s focus on non-violence, religious tolerance, and anti-sacrifice policies,

which included prohibitions on animal sacrifices, alienated the Brahmanical order.
This led to a reactionary push for the restoration of Vedic rituals and practices,
fostering political instability in some regions.
5. Decentralization and Rise of Regional Identity:
 ○ The Maurya Empire’s centralization of power began to dissolve, and the
expansion of trade, military activity, and local governance empowered regions to
act independently. This decentralization further undermined the empire's
cohesion, making it more susceptible to internal and external pressures.
6. Increased Tribal Interaction:

○ Ashoka's efforts to acculturate tribal regions through dharma and governance led
to some integration of peripheral areas, but the tribes also began asserting their
autonomy as local power structures grew stronger, contributing to the weakening
of Mauryan control.

These factors, combined with the economic and administrative burden of maintaining such a
vast empire, led to the decline of Mauryan dominance, especially after Ashoka’s death.

NEGLECT IN THE NORTH-WEST FRONTIER AND THE GREAT W