THE DHVANI THEORY

DR. (MISS) S. S. JANAKI Boden Scholar, Somerville College, Oxford

The literary medium of any language contains elements of learned speech. Sanskrit provides a fascinating example of a language that has developed in complete freedom as an instrument of intellectual and artistic expression. As in the other classical and modern languages, so in the field of Sanskrit, there have been many writers who analysed the poetic expressions to find out their real essence. The term olamkaara meaning ornament or decoration, refers in a restricted sense, to the figures of speech like metaphor (Ruupaka) hyperbole (Atisayokti) and naturalistic utterances (Svabhaavokti). The same term alamkaara, in a wider sense, connotes the entire field of study that probed into, and discussed in detail, the characteristics and requisites of expressions in literary masterpieces that have made lasting impression and created unforgettable experiences in the minds of great critics and lovers of art. Kashmir has made significant contributions to the Sanskrit alamkaara-saastra. Of these Kashmir writers, Aanandavardhana, patronised by Avantivarman (855-84 A. D.) and probably also by his son and successor Sankaravarman (883-902 A.D.) is the leading commentator who in his Dhvanyaaloka (the light or comprehension of Dhvani) propounded the theory that dhvani or suggestion is the main source of poetic appeal. Abhinavagupta (last quarter of 10th and first quarter of 11th Cent. A.D.) from the same Kashmir is also a distinguished commentator in this tradition. In his elaborate commentaries on Bharatas Naatyasaastra (assigned to periods ranging from 2nd Cent. B.C. to 2nd Cent. A.D.) and Aanandavardhanas Dhvanyaaloka, he has explained all the implications of the dhvani theory and the attendant problem of rasa, with copious illustrations culled from the whole range of Sanskrit literature and criticism.

It is a matter of common experience that an utterance may mean much more than its literal sense. Even the Vedic sages were aware of the fact that the literal meaning of an expression is only a part of its total meaning. One of the well-known hymns in the Rg Veda (X. 71.4) referring to this difference between the literal and the contextual meanings says:

Uta tvah passyan na dadarsa vaacam Uta tvah srnvan na srnotyenaam Uta tvamasmai tanvam visasre

Jaayeva patya usatii suvaasaah

One sees Vaak or speech but yet does not see (that is, rightly); One hears her but does not hear her (rightly); but to another has Vaak shown her beauty as a charming, well-dressed lady to her husband.

The same Rg Veda says in another context:

Saktum iva titaunaa punanto yatra dhiiraa manasa vaacam akrata atraa sakhaayah sakhyaani jaanate bhadraisaa laksmiir nihitoadhi vaaci

Where like men winnowing away the chaff from the grain, the wise in spirit have created language. Friends see and recognise the marks from their friends. Their speech retains the blessed sign imprinted.

It is evident from this that great poets choose their words with great care and that only men of equal scholarship and literary taste can fully appreciate a literary work. As will be seen presently Aanandavardhana also emphasised and dealt with at great length, this rapport between the author and the critic.

Leaving aside these early ideas about poetry and poetic beauty, let us turn to the poetic language itself. The first striking quality of poetic language is its distinction from the utterances used in ordinary parlance on the one hand, and the expression in technical and canonical treatises on the other. In scientific propositions and logical discussions the meaning of a word remains the same in whatever context it is used. Exactness of the usage of words in the different contexts, to convey their ideas is to be found in this sort of literature and hence it is that the normal, literary sense of a word is mostly prevalent here. In both spoken and technical expressions there are instances of metaphoric usage. This again does not present much difficulty since the secondary signification can be easily grasped on a second consideration, when one understands the definite

purpose of the speaker or author in using such an expression. For example, when one hears the sentence simho vatuh (the student is a lion), it is obvious that the primary sense of simha as lion is incompatible, for, a student cannot be a real lion. Then it strikes the hearer or reader that the speaker or author wants to convey the idea that the student referred to at the moment is as courageous, dignified and undaunted as a lion. So he understands simha not as lion but as standing for the qualities of a lion for which it is famous and which could be applied to the student in question. So are the following other examples of this type:

1. Yastikaam bhojaya feed the stick. Here a Brahmin is referred to as a stick (yasti) as he is always associated with the stick which he carries. 2. Annam praanaah food is life. Here food which is the cause of life is referred to as life itself. 3. Aaadityo yuupah the sacrificial post is the sun. This metaphor is based on the similarity of the post to the sun in brightness and height and is meant to eulogise the post.

Writers in the diverse fields of grammar (Vyaakarana) logic (nyaaya) yoga and miimaamsaa, preceding Aanandavardhana has recognised the above two significatory capacities (Vrttis) of words. The primary or denotative or literal sense is called Abhidhaa; the secondary or metaphorical or transferred behaviour is called variously Bhakti, Upacaara, Guna or Lakshana.

As distinct from colloquial utterances and technical jargon are the poetic usages that make the best possible use of the different facets of language behaviour. The poetic language is consequently indirect, wave like and dynamic. Like an object viewed through a cornered glass, or like the twinkle of a star that followed its appearance, the beauty of a poetic word like in its multicoloured looks and the flash of meaning. It is this spreading and spraying or to vary the metaphor, resonating (dhvanana) that poetic expression lives, moves and has its being. Aanandavardhanas main thesis is that poetic expressions possess a literal meaning and also convey a further meaning, the social cultural meaning of the linguists, and under the term meaning used by him in a very wide sense, he includes the idea to be conveyed, the emotion that is created and the scenic beauty that is contextually presented. This is done by words and sentences, by every part of speech including small factors like the case-endings, and the contextual factors like intonation, stress and gesture. When he gave such a comprehension to the meaning he was aware of the fact that this indirect capacity to convey a rich idea is the characteristic of not merely a poetic word but of all forms of fine art, like music, dance and painting, Aanandavardhana, however, confines himself to poetic compositions and deals with, in his Dhvanyaaloka, the suggestive element in poetry that is of aesthetic value. This third potency of language, that is based on, and yet different from, the primary and secondary capacities, is caned by Aanandavardhana, Dhvani, as also by its synonyms, Pratiiti, Gamyaa and Vyanjanaa.

Before proceeding to the illustrations of Dhvani in literature it may be proper and useful to know the basis on which Aanandavardhana postulated this significatory capacity of poetic words and the term given to the same.

On the evidence of Aanandavardhana in the first Uddyota of Dhvanyaaloka, the Sphotaa theory of the grammarians and the use of Dhvani in that context by Bhartruhari and other writers were the guiding factors in the enunciation of the Dhvani theory in poetics and the terminology adopted for the same, Briefly stated Sphotaa is a linguistic sign in its aspect of meaning bearer, and is defined as an eternal, indivisible, entity which is manifested by sounds in words and sentences to convey the idea therein. While the sound-pattern or the acoustic image of a word or sentence is the external aspect of the language, the internal aspect that is directly attached to the meaning is the Sphotaa, which is an integrated linguistic symbol. Each word has the power to refer to itself and to the objects symbolised by it, like light and consciousness, that reveal themselves as well as other objects, How is this Sphotaa manifested? It is manifested by the experience of the last sound of the word together with the impression left of the experience of previous sounds. Sphotaa is thus the significative capacity and the utterance of these sounds that manifest sabda in Sphotaa is called Dhvani. The concept of sabda manifested by Dhvani is made use of by exponents of the Dhvani school to explain the psychologjcal process of the full understanding of a composition of real literary worth. They hold that a poem appeals to a man of taste only because of its suggestiveness and this is got through a peculiar capacity inherent in poetic language called suggestiveness, which is different from the ordinary significatory capacities of words, namely, the primary and transferred senses. The activity involved in getting at the suggested sense is known as suggestion (Dhvani or Vyanjanaa).

While Dhvani in ordinary parlance means tone or sound, the grammarians gave to the word a wider connotation in a technical manner. In the context of the sphotaa theory, the grammarians followed different schools of thought and referred to Dhvani as (1) that which suggests sphotaa, (2) that which is suggested by sphotaa and (3) the process of suggestion itself. The term Dhvani used by the grammarians in a threefold sense was followed verbatim in the field of poetics also in all the senses, as evident in Aanandavardhana using the term in the senses. So the word Dhvani can be derived in different ways:

(a) Dhvanatiiti Dhvanih, that which suggests (both word and meaning can be Dhvani in this sense) (b) Dhvanvataa iti Dhvanih, that which is Suggested (only sense comes under Dhvani here). (c) Dhvanaanam Dhvanih, the process of suggestion.

(d) Dhvanisamudaayah Dhvanih Kaavyam, the entire literature formed out of these elements of Dhvani.

A few verses could be taken now to illustrate Dhvani. Firstly, the following verse found in Dandins Kaavyaadarsa (II. 141)

gaccha gacchasi cet kaanta panthaanah santu te sivaah mamaapi anmatatraiva bhuuyaad yatra gato bhavaan

My dear, go; if you go, then may your paths be auspicious! Of me also, let there be birth (in the place) where you have gone.

The above verse is addressed by a lady to her lover on the eve of his departure to a distant place from his home-town. The lady obviously does not like him to go on such a long journey. She really means, therefore, in the above verse, my dear, I love you intensely; so, do not go. If you do, I will certainly commit suicide. But these ideas, if expressly stated are vulgar and form common parlance. Hence in the above verse, although the literal sense is an express permission given by the lady to her lover, yet the idea (vastu) that the lover should not start on his journey is suggested. The intensity of love and a keen consciousness of the impending separation are suggested by a mention of the ladys death immediately.

And the following Sanskrit chaayaa of a Prakrit verse:

Jaayeya vanoddese kubja iva paadapo ghatitaa patrah maa maanuse loke tyaagaikaraso daridrasca

I would be rather born as a tree, stunted and shorn of leaves, in the forest, than as a generous but poor person in this world of men.

The expressed ideas in this example convey the uselessness of the life of a person who is generous but poor and the praise of the life of a bare, stunted tree. Suggestively, however, a comparison is intended between the above-mentioned tree and the person to bring out the idea that such a man deserves far more pity than the tree in the vegetable kingdom. This type, of distinction between two objects described is called Vyatireka or contrast and the fancied contrast between the tree and the man is suggested here.

Again the following verse from Raamaabhyudaya that suggests the sentiment (rasa) of love in separation (vipralambha sringaara):

Kritakakupitair baaspaambhobhih sadainyavilokitaih vanam api gataa yasya priityaa dhritaapi tathaambayaa navajaladharasyamaah pasyan diso bhavatim vinaa kathinahridayo jivatyeva priya sa tava priyah.

While my mother Kausalyaas entreaties failed with you, (O Sita) your pretended anger, tears and appealing looks prevailed (with me, Rama) and you did come, my beloved, even to the forest, for my sake; but, I, your lover, stone-hearted, still breathe without you, unmoved, even by the sight of the skies overcast by the fresh dark clouds.

In this verse Rama, whose anguish at his separation from Sita is intensified at the advent of the rainy season, reproaches himself. In this mood Rama recollects Sitas intense love for himself, as indicated by her accompanying him to the forest even at the expense or transgressing the entreaties of her elders. The thoughts in Rama about that self-effacing nature of Sita and of his own love for her at the moment are excited (Uddiipita) and heightened by his seeing the dark clouds at the approach of the rainy season. The degree of his mental depression is indicated by the reference to himself as stone-hearted (kathinahridaya) and that he still pulls on life.

Aanandavardhana deals with the above-mentioned three varieties, namely, the suggestion of an idea (vastu), figure of speech (alamkaara) and emotion (rasa) as the three major dhvani varieties. Time and again, he is never tired of emphasising the importance of rasadhvani. For, it is obvious that no emotion could be delineated many common-place words, without an element of suggestion, and therefore, it is in this variety of rasadhvani that the supreme importance of suggestion can be readily realised. In fact, as Aanandavardhana has rightly pointed out, the other elements like poetic qualities (guna), diction (riiti), metres, and figures deserve consideration only in so far as they help to enhance the delineation of an emotion.

The birth of the Ramayana, called also the aadikaavya or the first poem as narrated in the Baalakaanda of the epic, is well-known. Referring to this incident, Aanandavardhana says:

Kaavyasya aatmaa sa evaarthah tathaa chadihaveh puraa kraunchadvandvaviyogotthah sokah slokatvam aagatah

That meaning alone is the soul of poetry; and so it was that of yore, the sorrow of the first poet (Valmiki) at the separation of the krauncha pair took the form of a metrical verse.

In this incident, Valmiki is represented as both a poet and a critic. At the sight of the deep sorrow of the surviving bird after its separation from its partner, Valmikis sympathetic heart was touched so much that it identified itself (tanmayiibhaava) with the birds sorrow. This complete identity in the imaginative poet resulted in the transfiguration of the birds sorrow (soka) into a rhythmic verse (sloka).

The function of the poet and the critic is identical in their understanding and feeling for the character, their emotions, etc., Aanandavardhana significantly calls the critic a sahridaya (one with the same sort of appreciation like the poet) and Abhinavagupta describes a sahridaya as one, whose heart, like a polished mirror, reflects the various feelings delineated by the poet. It may be proper to mention here that some manuscripts of the Dhvanyaaloka go by the name of Sahridayaaloka and all this points to the importance given by the dhvani theorists to the critic also. The poet is superior to the critic in that he possesses the creative genius and the expressive power, which furnish to the critic, poetry that forces him to have the same understanding and feeling as the poet. When the formal or intellectual, imaginative and emotional elements of a composition blend into one predominant sentiment, and making a simultaneous appeal, awaken the dormant emotions of a sympathetic reader or spectator, the relish of rasa is manifested as a

unity in the heart, leaving no trace of the constituent elements. And this unalloyed aesthetic pleasure that is communicated by a poet and perceived by a cultured spectator or registered by a responsive heart is, according to dhvani theorists, the essence or aatman of literary compositions. 1. DHVANI: A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW The term dhvani (sound) is derived from the root 'dhvan' to make sound. Dhvani is an older term going back to Atharva Veda, where it was used in the sense of sound, tune, noise etc. [i] In the Veda and UpaniSad, there are many mythical and magical speculations regarding speech and sound. The BraahmaNa texts have also given some focus on analyzing the words into their elements in the context of meaning [ii]. The problem regarding the relation between sound and meaning is fully discussed by the ancient Indian thinkers. Thinkers like AudumbaraayaNa and VaarttaakSa [iii] were the pioneers in this field. Even Yaaska, in his NirUkta, records the view of AudumbaraayaNa regarding the eternal character of the sound [iv]. PaaNini's grammar does not talk anything about eternality or non-eternality of dhvani because it is not related to the philosophical problem of language. 2. PATANJALI ON DHVANI AND SPHOTA PataNjali has, however, presented a systematic discussion on dhvani by accumulating various ideas from his predecessors. He makes an important statement regarding the nature of dhvani and sphoTa. He says that dhvani is heard by the ear and sphoTa is grasped by intellect. Therefore, both sphoTa and dhvani are essential for the knowledge of meaning [v]. PataNjali mentions that language (shabda) has two aspects, namely, sphoTa and dhvani. The former is the permanent unchanging element, whereas the latter refers to the non-permanent element of the speech associated with length, tempo, and various peculiarities of any individual speaker. Therefore, dhvani is the actualized and ephemeral (lasting a very short time, or transient) element and an attribute of the former [vi] . Commenting upon the rule 'krupo ro laH ' (P. 8.2.18), PataNjali further states that dhvani stands for ordinary sounds and sphoTa represents the class sounds. To explain the above aspect, PataNjali gives the analogy of drumbeat. When a drum is struck, one drum-beat may travel twenty feet, another thirty, another forty, but the sphoTa is precisely such and such a size, the increase and decrease in the steps is caused by the difference in the duration of dhvani [vii] . Thus, the term sphoTa stands for the initial sound of the drum while the term dhvani stands for the reverberation of the initial sound. This reverberation is called dhvani and it is responsible for the increase and decrease in length. The above discussion makes it clear that, for PataNjali, the sphoTa is a unit of sound as an isolated letter or a series of letters, which can be analyzed as a succession of sound units; it has a

normal and fixed size. The difference in the speed of utterance does not affect the sphoTa, but it is felt to be associated with it, due to the difference in the sounds, which manifests the sphoTa. 3. BHARTRHARI ON DHVANI Bhartrhari in his Vaakyapadeeya and MahaabhaaSya Deepikaa exhaustively discusses the dhvani theory. In this regard, he not only gives his own views, but also records the views of others without mentioning their names. According to Bhartrhari, the physical audible sound manifests the sphoTa, which is nothing but the mental articulated image of the sound through which the meaning is conveyed to the listener. Thus, dhvani is the physical body of the word, whereas sphoTa is the conceptual entity of sound. 4. NATURE OF DHVANI An important feature of sound is its fixed capacity to express a particular phoneme. For instance, a particular sound, produced by its particular articulated efforts, reveals a particular phoneme [viii] . Dhvani is a divisible entity. It is produced and grasped in a particular sequence and generally by mistake the same qualities of sound are superimposed on sphoTa [ix]. The sound-wave emanating from its origin is compared to a light-wave starting from the original flame. Once the first flame has been produced by the fire-producing machinery, the light-wave continues to spread in all direction, even after the fire-producing machinery has stopped [x]. The sound, which contains vibration in it, travels in all directions. The range covered by the sound depends upon loudness (intensity) of the sound. The area covered by the sound may be smaller or larger, but that does not change the duration of the sphoTa [xi]. According to another view, sphoTa is the first sound. It results from the conjunction and disjunction of the vocal organs with points of articulations. On the other hand, sounds, which originate from the first sound and spread in all directions and travel over a certain range, are the dhvanis. In short, the articulated sound is sphoTa, and its continuation in the form of sound waves is called dhvani [xii]. 5. TWO TYPES OF SOUNDS: THE PRIMARY AND THE SECONDARY Bhartrhari makes a new distinction within the manifesting sounds: primary sound (praakruta dhvani) and secondary sound (vaikruta dhvani) [xiii]. PRIMARY SOUND Primary sounds are those, without which the form of sphoTa would remain unmanifested and therefore unperceived [xiv]. Primary sounds are considered to be the root cause of sphoTa,

because, as soon as we hear the primary sounds, sphoTa is perceived. Due to this close relationship between the two, the features of primary sounds are often attributed to the sphoTa. Another character of primary sounds is that they determine the exact nature of the sphoTa, as short, long or prolonged, for example a1, a2 and a3. Length of the vowel as short, long or prolonged is considered as the primary feature of sounds because, in the case of length, we find some significant differences in the concerned articulating position of the vocal organ. Duration seems to be the basis for this distinction. According to this distinction, primary sounds are classified into three, namely, apacita, pracita and pracitatara. When a primary sound is apacita (brief in duration), it manifests a short vowel; when it is pracita (long in duration), it manifests a long vowel; when it is pracitatara (longer in duration), it manifests a prolated (extended or elongated) vowel: kaanicidapacitarUpaavrttigraahyaaNi | tathaa svabhaavabhedaadapacitadhvanidyotyo hrasvaH | taavataa'bhivyaktinimittena svarUpasya graahikaa buddhistatrotpadyate | pracitadhvanidyotyastu dIrghaH | pracitataradhvanipratipaadyastu plutaH | sa ca praakrtadhvanikaalo vyatirekaagrahaNaadadhyaaropyamaaNaH sphoTe sphoTakaala ityupacaryate shaastre || vrtti on Bk. 77 || SECONDARY SOUND The second type of sound is called vaikrta dhvani [xv]. It arises out of the primary sounds after the manifestation of sphoTa, and therefore does not affect the quality of sphoTa. It can be perceived again and again uninterruptedly for a longer period of time. The duration of the period depends upon the tempo, (vrtti of the speaker). Drtatva (rapidity); Vilambita [xvi] (slowness) are the properties of secondary sound. These qualities depend on the movements of the vocal organ from one position to another at slower or faster rate. These properties of secondary sounds are not superimposed on the sphoTa [xvii]. The length of the time of continued cognition of sphoTa fully depends on the tempo with which the secondary sound is associated. The term never refers to a single phonemic unit taken by itself, but it refers to the relation of sounds within a series. 7. RELATION BETWEEN DHVANI AND SPHOTA Bhartrhari records three different views regarding the relation between dhvani and sphoTa.

sphoTarUpaavibhaagenadhvanergrahaNamiSyate. kaishcid dhvanirasaMvedyaH svatantro'nyaiH prakalpitaH || Bk. 83 || SPHOTA CANNOT BE DIVORCED FROM THE SOUND According to the first view, the sphoTa perceived by the listener is not different from dhvani produced by the speaker. In this context, sphoTa means auditorily perceived sound, as there is no gap between the perception of sphoTa and dhvani. According to a more orthodox view, it is the sphoTa, which is perceived as one with dhvani, so that the properties of the dhvani are wrongly attributed to sphota. SPHOTA REFERS TO THE DISTINCTIVE PERCEPTION OF SOUND According to the second view, dhvani refers to the sounds emitted from the speaker's vocal organ, whereas the sounds reaching the ears of the listener is called sphoTa. Here, the relation between sphoTa and dhvani is that of manifester and manifested. SPHOTA REPRESENT THE GENERIC ASPECT According to the third view, sphoTa represents the constant distinctive phonetic features revealed to the listener's ear, whereas dhvani represents the gross sound. Thus it is said: anekavyaktyabhivyaNgyaa jaatiH sphoTa iti smrtaa | kaishcid vyaktaya evaasyaa dhvanitvena prakalpitaaH || Bk. 96 || 8. NAADA AND DHVANI As in ordinary language, Bhartrhari uses the terms naada and dhvani as synonyms, even the adjectives praakrta and vaikrta are found added to naada as they are to dhvani, without any apparent difference in the meaning. However, at another occasion, he has differentiated the dhvani and naada. [xviii]. In a passage from vrtti, dhvani, and naada are distinguished, as follows: nityapakSe tu samyogavibhagajadhvanivyaNgyaH sphotaH ekeSaaM samyogavibhaagajadhvanisambhUtanaadaabhivyangyaH || Vrtti on Bk 78 || According to this view, the word is eternal, and the sphoTa is revealed by the sound produced by the contact and separation of the vocal organs. However, according to some, it is manifested by naada resulting from the dhvani produced by the contact and separation.

Thus, according to this view naada is the product of dhvani. In the vrtti on Bk. 47, naada is looked upon as a gross form or an accumulation of dhvanis [xix]. However, this is a minority viewpoint, and it is neither emphasized nor further elucidated. 9. SUMMARY To sum up, dhvani (meaning sound) is the term of an earlier origin. Though, thoughts about its nature are already met with in the works of scholars like AudumbaraayaNa and others, its role in the ordinary verbal usage, and its relation with the abstract level of sphoTa, was defined only at the time of PataNjali. Bhartrhari has thrown more light on this entire issue by expounding the ideas already met with in MahaabhaaSya and by providing an original theory about the two-fold nature of the sound as primary and secondary. He has also elucidated the relation between sphota and dhvani by explaining it from the standpoint of the speaker as well the listener. Another merit of his work is that, he has also provided viewpoints of other scholars on the same issue. Bhartrhari's theories about the praakrta and vaikrta dhvani and the explanation of the dhvanisphoTa relationship are very significant as they provide the solution to some of the linguistic problems.
The Rasa-Dhvani Theory The way to stimulate latent traces is described in the work composed in the ninth-century by a writer Anandavardhana in Dhvanyalok is of much importance. He proposed a theory to distinguish poetical type of speech from extracted prose speech in some ways reminiscent of it suggested first by Robert Graves and Laura Riding. William Empson in his classic Seven Types of Ambiguity later on developed the same concept. Primarily, this theory explains that how artistic forms and processes touch these feeling-responses in order to build up a rasa. The key term to understand this is Dhvani. The term Dhvani refers to the `resonance` that is generated in one`s mind about the unstated meanings and only-suggested auras of significance aroused by words or visible presentations. This idea can be well conveyed through a concrete image of the process embodied in some of the musical instruments of strings in India such as the Sarangi, the big Vina and Sitar. At the lower side of the main playing strings of the instruments, a long series of smaller strings is arranged. Each smaller string is tuned to degrees of the scale in which it supposed to be played. In fact, these smaller strings are never struck in playing, but are expected to resonate in sympathy with the notes that struck on the main strings. Thus the melody that is progressed with time is accompanied by a continuous aura of sympathetic sound. The same effect can also be marked in artistic designs. The consciously stated elements of an artistic design can be compared to the melody of the main strings, and the resonance evoked due to this in the unconscious mind among latent traces (vasanas) with the effect of the smaller strings. Dhvani basically identified as a means for evoking Rasa and can be understood to embrace allegory, the amphiboly and ambiguity of poetic diction. Not only this but also the expressiveness of gesture & movement of figures, the evocative qualities of musical phrases or visual shapes are also defined with Dhvani.