2 CHAPTER 1 : Electric Charges and Fields

[Topic 1] Coulomb’s law, electrostatic field and

electric dipole

Summary Three basic properties of electric

charge
Electric Charge
• Quantization: When the total charge of a body is
• Electrostatic charge is a fundamental property of an integral multiple of a basic quantum of charge,
matter due to which it produces and experiences this is known as quantization of electric charge.
electrical and magnetic effects. i.e., q = ne where
• Properties of atoms, molecules and bulk matter n = ±1, ±2, ±3, .................
are determined by electric and magnetic forces.
• Additivity: It means that the total charge of a
• It can be inferred from simple experiments based system is the algebraic sum (adding taking into
on frictional electricity that there are two type of account negative and positive signs both) of all
charges in nature: negative and positive; and like the charges in the system.
charges repel and unlike charges attract.
• Conservation of charge: Conservation of
• By convention, the charge on electron is electric charges means that there will be no
considered as negative and the charge on proton change in the total charge of the isolated system
is considered as positive and the charge present is with time. There is transfer of the electric charge
equal. The S.I. unit of electric charge is coulomb. from one body to another, but no charge will be
Its C.G.S unit is stat coulomb. created or destroyed.
• The nature and amount of electric charge present
in a charged body is detected by Gold-leaf Coulomb’s law
electroscope. The force between two point charges q1 and q2
• Total charge on a body is expressed as q = ± ne. is directly proportional to the product of the two
charges(q1q2) and inversely proportional to the
Conductors and Insulators square of the distance between them(r2)and it acts
along the straight line joining the two charges.
• Objects that allow charges to flow through them
are called Conductors (metals) and objects that k ( q1 q 2 )
do not allow charges to flow through are called F12 = force on q2 due to q1 = r̂21
r 221
Insulators (rubber, wood, and plastic).
1
• Objects that behave as an intermediate between where k =
conductors and insulators are called semi- 4 πε 0
conductors, for example- silicon. The experimental value of the constant ε0 is
• The process of sharing charges with the earth, 8.854 × 10–12C2N–1m–2
when we bring a charged body in contact with the Therefore, the approximate value of k is
earth is called grounding or earthing. 9 × 109Nm2C–2
F21
Charging by Induction F12
r21 = r2 – r1
q2
q1
• Charging by induction means charging without
contact. r1 r2

• If a plastic comb is rubbed with wool, it becomes o

negatively charged.
Fig. Depiction of Coulomb’s law
CHAPTER 1 : Electric Charges and Fields 3

Facts about Coulomb’s law:  In regions of constant electric field, the field
lines formed are uniformly spaced parallel
• Coulomb’s law is not valid for charges in motion; straight lines.
it should only be used for point charges in vacuum • Field lines are continuous curves. There will be
at rest. no breaks.
• The electrostatic force obeys Newton’s third law
of motion and acts along the line joining the two
charges.
• Presence of other charges in the neighborhood + +
does not affect Coulomb’s force. q q
• The ratio of electric force and gravitational force
between a proton and an electron is represented
k e2 Fig. Electric field lines
by ≅ 2.4 × 1039
G me mp • Field lines are not intersecting. They cannot cross
each other.
Superposition Principle • Electrostatic field lines begin at positive charges
and terminate at negative charges.
The presence of an (or more) additional charge does
not affect the forces with which two charges attract • No closed loop can be formed by them.
or repel each other. Superposition principle states
that the net force on any charge due to n number of Electric Dipole
charges at rest is the vector sum of all the forces on
that charges, taken one at a time. • A pair of equal and opposite charges q and
     –q separated by small distance 2a is known
i.e. F0 = F01 + F02 + F03 + ..F0n as electric dipole. The magnitude of its dipole
• The force on a small positive test charge q placed moment vector is 2qa and is in the direction of
at the point divided by the magnitude of the the dipole axis from –q to q.
charge is the electric field E at a point due to 2a
E+q E–q p
charge configuration. p q –q
r
Electric Field Fig. Electric dipole
• The space around a charge up to which its force • Field of an electric dipole in its equatorial plane
can be experienced is called electric field. at a distance r from the center:
• Electric field due to a point charge q has a −p 1
q E=
magnitude E ( r ) = (
4 πε o a + r 2 )
32
rˆ 2

4 πε 0 r 2
 It is radially outwards if q is positive. −p
≅ for r >> a
 It is radially inwards if q is negative. 4 πε o r 3
• Electric field satisfies the superposition principle. • Dipole electric field on the axis at a distance r
 The unit of electric field is N/C. from the center:
 Electric field inside the cavity of a charged 2pr
E=
conductor is zero.
( )
2
4 πε o r 2 − a 2
Electric Field lines 2p
≅ for r >> a
• The tangent at each point on the curve of electric 4 πε o r 3
field line, gives the direction of electric field at
that point. The 1/r3 dependence of dipole electric fields should
be noted in contrast to the 1/r2 dependence of electric
• The relative strength of electric field at different
field due to a point charges.
points is indicated by the relative closeness of
field lines. • In a uniform electric field E, a dipole experiences
a torque t given by
 In regions of strong electric field, they crowd
near each other. t=p×E
 In regions of weak electric field, they are far But no net force will be experienced by it.
apart.
8 CHAPTER 1 : Electric Charges and Fields

Topic 2: Electric Flux

Summary Where, r is the radial (perpendicular) distance of the
point from the wire and n̂ is the radial unit vector in
• Electric flux is proportional to number of lines
the plane normal to the wire passing through the
leaving a surface, outgoing lines with positive
point.
sign, incoming lines with negative sign.
E • Infinite plane sheet (thin) of uniform surface
charge density s
Surface charge
z density
S
E y
E E
Fig. Electric flux 1 2 x
• Through a small area element DS, the flux Df of
electric field E is given by x x

Df = E.DS Fig. Infinite plane sheet (thin)

And the vector area element DS is σ
E= nˆ
∆S =∆Snˆ 2ε o
Where n̂ is a unit vector normal to the plane and
Where DS is the magnetic of the area element and n̂ going away from it.
is normal to the area element, which can be considered
• Thin spherical shell of uniform surface charge
planar for the sufficiently small DS. density s
q 
Gauss’s Law and its application= E
4 πε o r 2
r ( r ≥ R)
• The flux of electric field through any closed Gaussian surface
surface S is 1/e0 times the total charge enclosed Surface charge
density
by S. P
R r
q enclosed
= ∫ dA
φ E=
ε0
O

• The law is mainly useful in determining electric

Fig.: Thin uniformly surface charged spherical
field E, when the source distribution has simple
shell (r > R)
symmetry:
(For r > R)
 Thin infinitely long straight wire of uniform
linear charge density l E = 0 (r < R)
Gaussian
+ Surface charge surface
+
+ density
+
+
+ R
+ O
+
+ r
+ P
+
P r +
+ l
E + Fig.: Thin uniformly surface charged spherical
+
+
+ shell (r < R)
+
+
+
r (For r < R)
+
+
Where r is the distance of the point from the center
+ of the shell whose radius is R with the total charge
Fig. Thin infinitely long Straight wire q. The electric field outside the shell is the same as
the total charge is concentrated at the center. A solid
λ 
E= n sphere of uniform volume charge density shows the
2πε o r
same result. Inside the shell at all the points, the
field is zero.
16 CHAPTER 2 : Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance

Topic 1: Electrostatic Potential and Electrostatic Potential

Energy

Summary q from a point R to a point P is VP – VR , which is

the difference in potential energy of charge q be-
Electrostatic potential: tween the final and initial points.
• The amount of work done by an external force in Potential difference:
moving a unit positive charge from one point to
When the work is done upon a charge to change its
another in electrostatic field is called electrical
potential energy then the difference between the fi-
potential.
nal and the initial location is called electric potential
1 q difference.
• Such that V =
4 πε r
Electric Potential due to a dipole:
• Where, q = charge causing the field, e = permittiv- • The electrostatic potential at a point with distance
ity, r = separation between centre of charge point. r due dipole at a point making an angle q with
• Electrostatic force is a conservative force. dipole moment p placed at the origin is given by
• Work done by an external force (equal and oppo- 1 p ⋅ rˆ
=
V(r) ⋅ 2 .
site to the electrostatic force) in bringing a charge 4 πε o r

r1
q
+
r

2a r2
p O

–
–q
Fig. Electrical potential due to dipole

• It is a scalar quantity. • The result is true also for a dipole (with charges
• Let A and B be the initial and final location for a –q and q separated by 2a for r >> a.
single charge q then the potential difference be- Dipole and System of charges
tween A and B is given by: • For a charge configuration q1, q2, ......, qn with po-
B B B sition vectors r1, r2, r3, ......, rn, then the potential
∆V = − ∫ E × ds =
VB − VA = − ∫ Eds cos θ =
− ∫ E × ds V1 at point P due to charge q1 will be,
A A A
1 q1
V1 =
Where, E is the field due to a point charge, ds = dr, 4 πε 0 r1
so that
And the sum of potentials due to individual charges
rB r
q dr q 1 
B
q 1 1 is given by the superposition principle,
VB −=
VA ∫
rA
=
4 πε 0 r 2
4 πε 0
=
r  − 
  rA 4 πε 0  rB rA  1  q1 q 2 q 
=V  + + .... + n 
4 πε o  r1P r2P rnP 
CHAPTER 2 : Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance 17

q5 • In this system the two charges q1 and q2 when

separated by distance r, will either repel or
q1 q4 attract each other.
r5P
• Electrical potential of charges q1 and q2 is given by:
r4P
r1P 1 2
U= ∑ q i Vi
2 i =1
r3P
P q3
r2P
Potential Energy in an External Field:
q2
• The potential energy of a charge q in an external
• In a uniformly charged spherical shell, the electric potential V(r) is qV(r). The potential energy of a di-
field outside the shell with outside potential is pole moment p in a uniform electric field E is –p.E.
given by,
• Electric dipole in an electrostatic field: Electric
1 q potential due to a dipole at a point at distance r
V=
4 πε 0 r and making an angle q with the dipole moment p
is given by
Equipotential surfaces 1 p cos θ
V=
• A surface over which potential has a constant val- 4 πε 0 r 2
ue is known as an equipotential surface.
• The amount of work done in moving a charge over Electrostatics of conductors:
an equipotential surface is zero.
• Concentric spheres centered at a location of the • Electrostatic field is zero inside a conductor.
charge act as equipotential surfaces for a point • Electrostatic field at the surface of a charged
charge. conductor must be normal to the surface at every
point.
• The electric field E, at a point and equipotential
surface are mutually perpendicular to each other • In the static situation, there cannot be any excess
through the point. The direction of the steepest charge in the interior of a conductor.
decrease of potential is in E. • Throughout the volume of the conductor, the
• Regions of strong and weak fields are located be- electrostatics potential is constant and has same
cause of the spacing among equipotential surfac- value on its surface.
es. • Electrostatics field E is zero in the interior of a
conductor; just outside the surface of a charged
Potential Energy of a System of conductor, E is normal to the surface given by
Charges: E=
σ
nˆ where n̂ is the unit vector along the
Potential energy stored in a system of charges is εo
the work done by an external agency in assembling outward normal to the surface and σ is the surface
the charges at their locations. Total work done charge density.
in assembling the charges is given by • Electrostatic shielding: A field which is inside
1  q1 q 2 q1 q 3 q 2 q 3  the cavity of a conductor is always zero and it
U= ⋅ + + where r12 is distance remains shielded from the electric field, which is
4 πε o  r12 r13 r23 
known as electrostatic shielding.

between q1 and q2, r13 is distance between q1 & q3 and Dielectrics and Polarization:
r23 is distance between q2 & relabel q3.
r23 • Dielectrics: A non-conducting substance which
q3
q2 has a negligible number of charge carriers unlike
conductors is called dielectrics.
r13 r12 • Electric polarization: The difference between
induced electric field and imposed electric field in
q1 dielectric due to bound and free charges is known
Fig. Potential energy due to System of charges as electric polarization. It is written as:
D−E
Electric potential energy of system P=
4π
of two point charges Note: Polarisation can also be written as polariza-
• Here the work done doesn’t depend on path. tion (with ‘z’ in place of ‘s’)
CHAPTER 2 : Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance 25

Topic 2: Capacitance
Summary • The net electric field inside the dielectric and
hence the potential difference between the plates
Capacitor and Capacitance is thus reduced. Consequently, the capacitance
C increases from its value Co when there is no
• Capacitor: The system of two conductors
medium (vacuum),
separated by an insulator is called capacitor. ε
C = KCo where K = is the dielectric constant
The device which is used to store charge is known ε0
as capacitor. The applied voltage and size of
capacitor decides the amount of charge that can of the insulating substance.
be stored i.e., Q = CV
Two similar connecting plates are placed in
Types of capacitor:
capacitor in the front of each other where one
A
plate is connected to the positive terminal and • Parallel plate capacitor: C= Kε 0
other plate is connected to the negative terminal. d
• Capacitance: The ratio of magnitude of charge 1
stored on the plate to potential difference between • Cylindrical capacitor: C = 2πKε 0
the plates is called capacitance. It is written as: ln ( b a )
Q  ab 
C= • Spherical capacitor: C = 4 πKε 0 
∆V  b − a 
Size, shape, medium and other conductors in
surrounding influence the capacitance of a
conductor.
Combination of Capacitors
Its S.I. unit is farad. • For capacitors in the series combination, the total
capacitance C is given by
1F = 1CV–1 For a parallel plate capacitor (with
A 1 1 1 1 1
vacuum between the plates), C = ε o where A = + + + ....
d C C1 C2 C3 Cn
is the area of each plate and d in the separation
between the parallel plates. • In the parallel combination, the total capacitance
Area A C is C = C1 + C2 + C3 ...... Cn, where C1, C2, C3 ......
I are individual capacitances.
1 • Capacitors connected in series have the same
+ + + + + + + + + + + +
charges and when connected in parallel have the
same voltage.
E • Potential across capacitor remains same if the
d battery is connected but if it is disconnected
– – – – – – – – – – –
then charge remains the same which is stored in
capacitor.
2
II Electrical Energy Stored in a
Capacitor:
Fig. Capacitor • The energy U stored in a capacitor of capacitance
C, with charge Q and voltage V is
Effect of Dielectric on Capacitance:
1 1 1 Q2 .
• If the medium between the plates of a capacitor =U = QV CV 2
=
is filled with an insulating substance (dielectric), 2 2 2 C
the electric field due to the charged plates induces • The electric energy density (energy per unit vol-
a net dipole moment in the dielectric. This effect, 1
ume) in a region with electric field is ε o E2 .
called polarization, gives rise to a field in the 2
opposite direction.
• The dielectric is polarised by the field and also • Electric density is alternatively known as
the effect is equivalent to two charged sheets with electrostatic pressure.
surface charge densities sp and –sp.
26 CHAPTER 2 : Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance

Van De Graaff Generator: plastic

spherical
charge taken by roller
• A Van de Graaff generator consists of a large metal cover
pointed electrode
spherical conducting shell (a few meters in diam-
eter).
• There are two pulleys, one at ground level and
one at the center of the shell. Both of them are
wounded around by a long and narrow endless
belt of insulating material.
• The motor drives the lower pulley which keeps
moving this belt continuously. pointed electrode
rubber belt
• At ground level to the top, it continuously carries produces charge
the positive charge and sprayed on to it by a brush. by friction or high
Then the positive charge is transferred by it to an- voltage plastic
other conducting brush connected to the large shell. roller
• After the transferring of the positive charge is
done, it spreads out uniformly on the outer sur-
face. It can build the voltage difference of as much
as 6 to 8 million volts. Fig. Yande Graff Generator

How will the (i) charge and (ii) potential

PREVIOUS YEARS’ difference between the plates of the capacitors

be affected after the slabs are inserted?

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
TOPIC 2
1 Mark Questions
1. Why should electrostatic field be zero inside a
[DELHI 2011]
conductor?
[All INDIA 2012]
6. A slab of material of dielectric constant K has
2. A capacitor has been charged by a dc source. the same area as that of the plates of a parallel
What are the magnitudes of conduction and d
plate capacitor but has the thickness 2 , where
displacement current, when it is fully charged? 3
[All INDIA 2013] d is the separation between the plates. Find out
3. Define dielectric constant of a medium. What is the expression for its capacitance when the slab
its S.I. unit? is inserted between the plates of the capacitor.
[DELHI 2015] [DELHI 2011]
4. Predict the polarity of the capacitor in the 7. A capacitor of unknown capacitance is connected
situation described below: across a battery of V volts. The charge stored in
it is 360 μC. When potential across the capacitor
is reduced by 120 V, the charge stored in it
becomes 120 μC.
A Calculate:
S N S N
B (i) T h e p o t e n t i a l V a n d t h e u n k n o w n
capacitance C.
(ii) What will be the charge stored in the
[All INDIA 2017] capacitor, if the voltage applied had increased
by 120 V?
2 Mark Questions [DELHI 2011]
5. Figure shows two identical capacitors, C1 and C2 8. A parallel plate capacitor of capacitance C is
each of 1µF capacitance connected to a battery of charged to a potential V. It is then connected to
6V. Initially switch ‘S’ is closed. After sometime another uncharged capacitor having the same
‘S’ is left open and dielectric slabs of dielectric capacitance. Find out the ratio of the energy
constant K = 3 are inserted to fill completely the stored in the combined system to that stored
space between the plates of the two capacitors. initially in the single capacitor
[All INDIA 2014]
38 CHAPTER 3 : Current Electricity

Topic 1: Electricity conduction, Ohm’s law and resistance

Summary R=
ρl
, ρ being the resistivity of the material of the
Electric Current: Net charge flowing across a given A
area of conductor per unit time is defined as electric conductor.
current.
l
q
I= , S.I. unit of current is Ampere (A).
t A
A steady current is generated in a closed circuit
where electric charge moves from lower to higher Fig.: Resistance in a conductor
potential. Electromotive force or emf is the work Resistivity: It depends on the nature of the material
done by the source in taking the charge from higher and temperature. It is also termed as specific
to lower potential energy. resistance.
Drift velocity: The free electrons drift with some m gives the relation between resistivity and
velocity towards the positive terminal when a ρ=
ne 2 τ
potential difference is applied across the ends. The
average velocity with which the electrons move is relaxation time.
termed as drift velocity. There is an increasing order of resistivity as we go
eEτ eVτ from metal to insulator.
Drift velocity,=
vd = ρmetals < ρsemiconductors < ρinsulators
m ml
Conductivity and conductance: The reciprocal of
Where e = charge on electron resistivity is conductivity (s).
E = Electric field intensity 1
σ= and its S.I. unit is W–1m–1.
V = Potential difference across the ends of the ρ
conductor The reciprocal of resistance is the conductance of the
t = Relaxation time conductor. Its S.I. unit is mho.
m = Mass of electron Current Density: The amount of charge flowing per
Relation between current and drift velocity: unit area per second is called the current density.
Current is directly proportional to the drift velocity. J = mqvd , where vd is the drift velocity of the charge
I ∝ vd carriers, n is the number of charge carriers and q is
When the number of electrons are less, current is less the charge.
so the drift velocity is small. The relation between current density and conductivity
When the number of electrons are large, high current is
flows so the drift velocity is large. J = sE
Ohm’s law: The voltage across the ends of the Mobility: Mobility is the ratio of drift velocity to the
conductor is directly proportional to the electric applied electric field. Mobility is symbolized by m.
current flowing through the conductor.
v d qτ
V ∝I =
µ =
E m
Or V = IR, where R is the electrical resistance of the
conductor Its S.I. unit is m2s–1V–1.
Resistance: The property that resists the flow of Resistors: The objects which resist the flow of charge
current through any conductor is called the resistance are called resistors which can be of two types, i.e. wire
of the conductor. bound resistors and carbon resistors.
V Resistors can combine in two different ways; either in
R= series or in parallel.
I
• Consider n number of resistors connected in series,
It varies directly with the length of the conductor
then the combined resistance will be as follows:
while depends inversely on the area of cross section
of the conductor. R eqv = R1 + R 2 + R 3 + ....... + R n
CHAPTER 3 : Current Electricity 39

Same amount of current will flow through each resistor Internal resistance: It is the resistance on the cur-
connected in series while the potential difference rent offered by the electrolyte and the electrodes. It
would be different for every resistor. is symbolize by r.
• Consider n number of resistors connected in Let us assume a cell with 2 electrodes connected by
parallel, then the combined resistance will be as ε
an external resistance R. Then current is, I =
follows: R+r
1 1 1 1
R eqv = + + + ...... + where e = emf, r = Internal resistance
R1 R 2 R 3 Rn

The current flowing through each resistor would be

different in this case while the potential difference
would be same for all the resistors.

7. Define the term ‘electrical conductivity’ of a

PREVIOUS YEARS’ metallic wire. Write its S.I. unit.

[DELHI 2014]

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 8. Show variation of resistivity of copper as a

function of temperature in a graph.
TOPIC 1 [DELHI 2014]

1 Mark Questions 9. Graph showing the variation of current versus

1. When electrons drift in a metal from lower to voltage for a material GaAs is shown in the
higher potential, does it mean that all the free figure, Identify the region of:
electrons of the metal are moving in the same (i) Negative resistance
direction? (ii) Where Ohm’s law is obeyed
[ALL INDIA 2012]
2. Show on a graph, the variation of resistivity with
temperature for a typical semiconductor.
Current I

[ALL INDIA 2012] C D

3. The graph shown in the figure represents
a plot of current versus voltage for a given
semiconductor. Identify the region, if any, E
B
over which the semiconductor has a negative
resistance.
A
Voltage V
Current (mA)

B
[DELHI 2015]
C 10. V-I graph for a metallic wire at two different
A temperature T1 and T2 is as shown in the figure.
Which of the two temperatures is higher and
O Voltage (V) why ?
[ALL INDIA 2013] T1
4. Define the term ‘Mobility’ of charge carriers in
a conductor. Write its S.I. unit. V
[DELHI 2014] T2
5. Plot a graph showing variation of current versus θ1
voltage for the material Ge. θ2
[DELHI 2014]
6. Define the term ‘drift velocity’ of charge carriers I
in a conductor and write its relationship with [ALL INDIA 2015]
the current flowing through it.
[DELHI 2014]
CHAPTER 3 : Current Electricity 45

Topic 2: Kirchhoff’s Laws, cells and their combinations

Summary Kirchhoff’s law:
• Junction Rule: The sum of currents entering a
Cells in series and in parallel junction would be equal to the sum of currents
• The equivalent emf of a series combination of n leaving the junction.
cells is just the sum of their individual emfs • Loop Rule: The sum of changes in potential
• The equivalent internal resistance of a series around any loop that is closed should be zero.
combination of n cells is the sum of their internal Wheatstone bridge: It is an arrangement of four
resistances. resistors in a way so that a galvanometer is placed
ε1 ε2 between the two opposite arms.
I
There is a null-point condition in the wheat
A r1 B C stone bridge where current is zero which can be
r2
represented as follows:
e = e1 + e2 R1 R 3
=
R2 R4
• In a parallel connection,
B
1 1 1 ε eq ε1 ε I4 U
= + ...... + and = + ...... + n nk
req r1 rn req r1 rn no
w
I2 R2 R4 n
ε1 A C
I1 I1 I1 R1 R3
r1

m rd
ar nda
A B1 ε2 B2 I C

a
I2

St
I2 I3
r2 D

ε
Fig.: Wheastone bridge

3. Two identical cells, each of emf E, having

PREVIOUS YEARS’ negligible internal resistance, are connected

in parallel with each other across an external
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS resistance R. What is the current through this
resistance?
TOPIC 2 [ALL INDIA 2013]
1 Mark Questions 2 Marks Questions
1. A cell of emf E and internal distance r draws a 4. A cell of emf E and internal resistance r is
current ‘I’. Write the relation between terminal connected to two external resistances R1 and
voltage ‘V’ in terms of E, I, r. and R2 a perfect ammeter. The current in the
[DELHI 2013] circuit is measured in four different situations:
2. A heating element is marked 210 V, 630 W. What (i) without any external resistance in the circuit
is the value of current drawn by the element
(ii) with resistance R1 only
when connected to a 210 V, dc source?
(iii) with R1 and R2 in series combination
[DELHI 2013]
(iv) with R1 and R2 in parallel combination
54 CHAPTER 3 : Current Electricity

Topic 3: Electrical devices

Summary Potentiometer: It is a device which is used to
compare potential differences and emf’”s. It also
Meter Bridge: Meter Bridge is the simplest form measures the internal resistance of a cell.
of the Wheatstone bridge which is used for accurate ε1 1
comparison of resistances. 3
In order to find out an unknown resistance R with the ε2
2
help of a standard known resistance S: B A
R S
B G
N1
R
G
A l1 100 - l1 C
D C N2

Metre scale K1
Fig.: Potentiometer
ε K1 ε1 l
= 1
ε 2 l2
Fig.: Meter bridge
l1 Potentiometer does not draw any current from
R=S , l1 being the distance of the jockey from
100 − l1 the voltage source being measured. The internal
resistance of a given cell can be measured by:
end A at the balance point. l 
=r R  1 − 1
 l2 

4. Two electric bulbs P and Q have their resistances

PREVIOUS YEARS’ in the ratio of 1:2. They are connected in series

across a battery. Find the ratio of the power
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS dissipation in these bulbs.
[DELHI 2018]
TOPIC 3 5. In a potentiometer arrangement for determining
1 Mark Questions the emf of a cell, the balance point of the cell in
1. A resistance R is connected across a cell of emf ε open circuit is 350cm.When a resistance of 9Ω
and internal resistance r. A potentiometer now is used in the external circuit of the cell, the
measures the potential difference between the balance point shifts to 300 cm. Determine the
terminals of the cell as V. Write the expression internal resistance of the cell.
for ‘r’ in terms of ε, V and R.
[ALL INDIA 2018]
[ALL INDIA 2011]

2 Marks Questions 3 Marks Questions

2. Use Kirchhoff’s rules to obtain conditions for the 6. A potentiometer wire of length 1.0 m has a
balance condition in a Wheatstone bridge. resistance of 15 Ω. It is connected. o a 5V battery
[DELHI 2015] in series with a resistance of 5 Ω. Determine the
3. Describe briefly, with the help of a circuit diagram, emf of the primary cell which gives a balance
how a potentiometer is used to determine the
point at 60 cm.
internal resistance of a cell.
[ALL INDIA 2013] [DELHI 2016]
66 CHAPTER 4 : Moving Charges and Magnetism

[Topic 1] Magnetic Field Laws and their

Applications
Summary • Magnetic field at centre of the coil is
µ 0 Ni
• The Oersted’s law states that an electric current= B =
2R
( x 0)
creates a magnetic field.
• The Biot Savart’s law states that, the magnitude • Magnetic field due to current carrying circular
of magnetic field dB is proportional to the current µ i
arc with centre O is B = 0
I, the element length dl and inversely proportion- 4r
al to the square of the distance r. Its direction is
• If we curl the palm of our right hand around the
perpendicular to the plane containing dl and r.
circular wire with the fingers pointing in the di-
µ
Thus in vector notation, dB ∝ Idl × r , where 0 rection of the current, the right hand thumb rule
r3 4π
gives the direction of the magnetic field.
is the constant of proportionality and is equal to • Ampere’s circuital law: The line integral of the
10–7 Tm/A. magnetic field around some closed loop is equal to
Current element the times the algebraic sum of the currents which
Y pass through the circular loop. For some circuital
θ loop, C, ∫ B.dl =
C
µ 0I
Idl
r
P dB
Applications of Ampere’s Law
I
Magnetic field due to current carrying solenoid, B
= m0nI
X
µ 0 nI
At the end of a short solenoid, B =
Fig.: Biot Savart’s law 2

• The magnetic force produced by a Solenoid as

Applications of Biot-Savart’s Law: stated by Ampere’s law is given as F = m0nI,
where n is the number of turns of the wire per
• Magnetic field at a point in circular loop will be
unit length, I is the current flowing through the
µ 0 IR 2 wire and the direction is given using the right
B= 3
hand thumb rule.
(
2 R 2 + x2 ) 2

• Due to a toroid a magnetic field is given as,

Y µ NI
B= 0 where ‘N’ is the number of turns of the
2πr
dl r dB1 toroid coil, I is the amount of current flowing and
dB r is the radius of the toroid.
R
O θ • Antiparallel currents repel and parallel currents
I x X
P dBx attract.
dl • Magnetic moment on a rectangular current loop
in a uniform magnetic field, m = NIA where m
is the magnetic moment and N is the number of
Z closely wounded turns and A is the area vector.
Fig.: Magnetic field at a point in circular loop
CHAPTER 4 : Moving Charges and Magnetism 73

Topic 2: Lorentz Force and Cyclotron

Summary Magnetic field out

of the paper
Deflection plate

• The electric field, E produced by the source of the

Qrˆ Exit Port
field Q, is given as E = , where r̂ is the
( 4π ∈0 ) r 2
unit vector and the field E is a vector field. A Charged
charge ‘q’ interacts with this field and experiences particle
a force F, expressed as
qQrˆ
= =
F qE
( 4π ∈0 ) r 2 D1 D2

• In the presence of both electric field E(r) and mag-

netic field B(r) there is a point charge q (moving OSCILLATOR
with a velocity v and located at ‘r’ at a given time
t ). The force on an electric charge ‘q’ due to both Fig.: Cyclotron
of them is written as • The charged particle gets accelerated and moves
F q [ E(r) + v × B(r)
= = ] Felectric + Fmagnetic . This force in a circular path whose radius is given by
mv
r =
is called the Lorentz force. q0B

• We can calculate the Lorentz force for a straight • The frequency of the cyclotron is given by
rod, if B is the external magnetic field by consid- 1 Bq
=
v =
ering the straight rod as a collection of linear T 2π m
strips dlj , where l is the length of the rod, j is the
current density. Hence, the force can be calculat- • A charge of any type in uniform circular motion
would have an associated magnetic moment given
ed=
as F ∑ Idl
j
j ×B.
−e
by µL = l , where l is the magnitude of
2 me
Cyclotron: angular momentum of electron.
• It consists of two D’s which are placed in a strong µL e
= = 8.8 × 1010 C / kg . , and this ratio is
magnetic field. An oscillating electric field is ap- l 2 me
plied from the oscillator which is parallel to the called Gyro magnetic ratio.
magnetic field.
80 CHAPTER 4 : Moving Charges and Magnetism

Topic 3: Magnetic Force and Torque between

Two Parallel Currents
Summary Moving coil galvanometer
Force on a current-carrying • Its main use is to detect and measure small
electric currents.
conductor in a uniform magnetic • The current carrying coil is suspended in a
field: uniform magnetic field, so it produces a torque
• The force on a current carrying conductor of which is responsible for rotating the coil.
length l in a uniform magnetic field B when q is Scale
the angle between current and magnetic field can
be calculated by F = IBl sin q
• Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule is used to find the Pointer Permanent magnet
direction of the magnetic force which is right
angled to the plane containing conductor and Coil
magnetic field.
Force between two parallel current-
carrying conductors: N Sp S

Two parallel conductors carrying current Pivot

experiences a force. When current flows in same Soft-iron
core
direction, wire B experiences magnetic field due
µ II
to wire A which is: B 1 = o 1 Uniform radial magnetic field
2π d
Force per unit length in the given wire is Fig.: Moving coil galvanometer
F 2 µo I 1I 2 • The torque is given by t = F × b = nBIl × b = BInA
= sinq
l 2π d d
Current sensitivity of galvanometer
a • When a galvanometer produces a large deflection
for a small amount of current, it is said to be
sensitive.
b
• The voltage sensitivity of galvanometer is
Fba
deflection per unit voltage and is given as
θ nBA
=
L I C
Ia Conversion of galvanometer into
ammeter
Ba
Ib A small resistance called a Shunt resistance is
Fig.: Force between two parallel currents attached with the galvanometer coil in parallel so
carrying conductores. that most of the current passes through the shunt
resistance.
Torque experienced by a current
loop in uniform magnetic field: Conversion of galvanometer into
The torque experienced by a rectangular loop in
voltmeter
uniform magnetic field B of length l, breadth b A high resistance is connected in series with the
with current I lowing through it is: galvanometer coil so that the galvanometer acts
t = nBIAsinq as a voltmeter.
88 CHAPTER 5 : Magnetism and Matter

[Topic 1] Magnetic Dipole and Magnetic Field

Lines
Summary • Bar magnet as an equivalent solenoid: The
magnetic field B due to bar magnet of size l and
Magnetism: magnetic moment m which is at a distance r from
the mid-point when r >> l, is given by
• Magnetic phenomena are universal in nature.
Magnetism is a physical phenomenon produced
µ0 2m
by the motion of electric charge, which results in B = (Along axis)
attractive and repulsive forces between objects. 4π r 3
• The magnetic field of the Earth points from
x
geographical south to the north.
• A bar magnet always points in the north-south dx
direction when suspended freely.
• When same poles of two magnets are brought close a
P
to each other, a repulsive force is experienced.
When Opposite poles of two magnets are brought O r
close, then an attractive force is experienced.

Bar Magnet: l
2l
Iron fillings sprinkled on a glass plate kept over
a short bar magnet arrange themselves in a
pattern. It shows that the magnet has two poles Fig: Bar magnet as an equivalent solenoid
in the same way as the positive and negative
charge of an electric dipole called as the North • Dipole in a uniform magnetic field: When a bar
and the South pole. magnet is having a dipole moment m and it is
Magnetic field lines: The magnetic field lines of placed in uniform magnetic field B,
a bar magnet form continuous closed loops. The The force acting on it is equal to 0.
direction of net magnetic field at any point is
determined by the tangent to the field line at that The torque acting on the magnet is m × B
point. The magnitude of the magnetic field will be It has a potential energy of –m.B
stronger for the area from which more number of
field lines are passing. The magnetic field lines Gauss’s law for magnetic fields:
never intersect each other.
It states that the magnetic flux through any
Axis

B closed loop is equal to zero.

φB = ∑∆φB = ∑B .∆S = 0
all all
H
N

i
Fig: Magnetic field lines in a bar magnet
90 CHAPTER 5 : Magnetism and Matter

[Topic 2] Earth’s Magnetism and Magnetic

Properties of Material
SUMMARY Magnetization and magnetic field:
• The magnetization M is equal to its magnetic
Earth’s Magnetism: moment per unit volume
• The earth’s magnetism is of the order of 10–5 T. Its m
M = net
strength is different at different place. The pole V
near to geographic north pole is called the north • The magnetic intensity H is defined as the amount
magnetic pole and the pole near to geographic of magnetic flux in a unit area perpendicular to
south pole is called south magnetic pole. The the direction of magnetic fow.
magnetic of the field on the earth’s surface is B
4 × 10–5 T. H = 0
µ0
• There are three elements of the earth’s magnetic
field which are used to specify the magnetic field • The magnetic field B in the material is given by,
of earth’s surface – the horizontal component, the B = m0(H + M)
magnetic declination and the magnetic dip. • The degree of magnetization of a material in
• The magnetic field of a bar magnet tilted 11° from response to an applied magnetic field is denoted
the spin axis of Earth is in the same direction as as magnetic susceptibility. It is given by
the Earth’s magnetic field. M
χ =
H
So, m = m0mr
Where mr = 1 + 
Magnetic properties of materials:
Magnetic Materials are broadly classified as paramagnetic, diamagnetic and ferromagnetic materials. For
paramagnetic materials  is positive and is small, for diamagnetic materials  is negative and lies between
0 and -1 and for ferromagnetic materials  is positive and large.
Property Ferromagnetic Diamagnetic Paramagnetic
Effect of magnets They are strongly They are feebly repelled by They are feebly attracted by
attracted by magnets. magnets. magnets.
Susceptibility value Large and positive Small and negative Small and positive
m m > 1000
Permeability value µ >> µ0 µ < µ0 µ < µ0
In a uniform Freely suspended rod Freely suspended rod Freely suspended rod aligns
magnetic field aligns itself parallel to aligns itself perpendicular itself parallel to the field.
the field. to the field.
Relative It is greater than 1000. Slightly less than 1. Slightly greater than 1.
permeability value
Effect of temperature Susceptibility Susceptibility is Susceptibility varies inversely
decreases with independent of with temperature.
temperature. temperature.
Physical state of the Solids only. Solid, liquid or gas. Solid, liquid or gas.
material
Hysteresis effect Shows hysteresis Does not show hysteresis. Does not show hysteresis.
Removal of magnetic Magnetization retain Magnetization is only for Magnetization is only for the
field even on removal of the time magnetic field is time magnetic field is applied.
magnetic field. applied.
Examples Fe, Ni, Gd, Co Bi, Si, Cu, Pb Al, Ca, Na
CHAPTER 5 : Magnetism and Matter 91

Ferromagnetic materials show the property of Permanent magnets:

hysteresis.
• Permanent magnets are those substances which
B
(Tesla) at room temperature retain their ferromagnetic
1.5 a property.
b • An iron rod held in north-south direction and
1.0 if it is hammered repeatedly it will become a
0.5 permanent magnet.
c • It can also be made by placing a ferromagnetic
–200 –100 O 100 200 H rod in a solenoid and passing current through it.
–0.5
A/m The rod gets magnetized by the magnetic field of
–1.0 the solenoid.
d e • A material having high permeability, high
–1.5 coercivity, and high retentivity could be suitable
for permanent magnets.
Fig: Magnetic hysteresis loop
The magnetic hysteresis loop is the B-H curve for
Electromagnets:
ferromagnetic materials • A solenoid having a core of iron with wire wrapped
around it is called an electromagnet.
Curie’s law: • Ferromagnetic materials are used for core of
The intensity of magnetization I of a paramagnetic electromagnets.
material varies directly to the strength of the external • Some of the applications of electromagnets
magnetic field H, called magnetizing field and is are loudspeakers, electric bells, telephone
inversely proportional to absolute temperature of the diaphragms.
material.
C
χ = where C is Curie constant.
T

5. Which of the following substances are

PREVIOUS YEARS’
paramagnetic?
Bi, Al, Cu, Ca, Pb, Ni
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS [DELHI 2013]
2 Mark Questions
TOPIC 2 6. A magnetic needle free to rotate in a vertical
1 Mark Questions plane parallel to the magnetic meridian has its
1. The permeability of a magnetic material is north tip down in 60° with the horizontal. The
0.9983. Name the type of magnetic materials it horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic
represents. field at the place is known to be 0.4 G. Determine
[DELHI 2011] the magnitude of the earth’s magnetic field at
2. The horizontal component of earth’s magnetic the place.
field at a place is B and the angle of dip is 60°. [DELHI 2011]
What is the value of vertical component of the 7. The susceptibility of a magnetic material is –2.6
earth’s magnetic field at equator? × 10–5. Identify the type of magnetic material
[DELHI 2012] and state its two properties.
3. What are permanent magnets? Give one [DELHI 2013]
example. 8. Show diagrammatically the behaviour of
[DELHI 2013] magnetic field lines in the presence of (i)
4. Which of the following substances are paramagnetic and (ii) diamagnetic substances.
diamagnetic? How does one explain this distinguishing
Bi, Al, Na, Cu, Ca and Ni feature? [DELHI 2014]
[DELHI 2013]
98 CHAPTER 6 : Electromagnetic Induction

[Topic 1] Electromagnetic Induction Laws

Summary Lenz’s law and Conservation of

• Electromagnetic Induction is the one in which by Energy
which electric current is generated with the help The Lenz’s law states that the polarity of
of a magnetic field. induced emf is such that it tends to produce
• The Experiments of Faraday and Henry a current which opposes the change in
The observations from the experiments of magnetic flux that produced it.
Faraday and Henry concluded that it is the
relative motion between the magnet and the coil
that is responsible for generation or induction of
the electric current in the coil.
• Magnetic Flux N N

It is the amount of field lines cutting through a

surface area A defined by unit area vector. The Fig. Lenz’s law
magnetic flux that passes through a plane of area
A and has a uniform magnetic field B, is given by,
Motional Electromotive Force
fB = B.A = BA cosθ where θ is the angle between The relationship between induced emf and a
magnetic field B and Area A. Magnetic flux is a wire moving at a constant speed v is given by
scalar quantity and its SI unit is weber. e = Blv

Energy Consideration: A
B Quantitative Study
A • ‘r’ is the resistance of the movable arm PQ of the
rectangular conductor. Assume that remaining
arms QR, RS, SP have negligible resistance
compared to r. In the presence of magnetic field
there will be a force on the arm AB. This force I(l
Fig. Field lines in a magnetic field × B) is outwards directed in a direction opposite
to the velocity of rod.
B 2 l 2v
Faraday’s Law of Induction • Magnitude of force is = F I= lB .
r
• Faraday’s First Law: Whenever a conductor is B 2 l 2v 2
• Magnitude to push arm PQ = Fv =
placed in a varying magnetic field, there is an r
induced emf and if the conductor circuit is closed,
I
there is an induced current. S
• Faraday’s Second Law: This law of electromagnetic P M
induction states that the magnitude of the
induced emf in a circuit is equal to the time rate l v
of change of magnetic flux through the circuit.
Mathematically, the induced emf is given by Q N
−d φB
ε= , the negative sign indicates direction R
dt
of the induced emf and hence the direction in a x
closed loop. Fig. Energy Consideration in a Magnetic field
CHAPTER 6 : Electromagnetic Induction 103

[Topic 2] Eddy currents, self and mutual inductance

Summary Self – Inductance

• The production of induced emf in a circuit when
Eddy Currents the current changes in the same circuit is called
• When bulk pieces of conductors are subjected to self-induction.
changing magnetic flux then induced currents are
dI
produced in them which are called as eddy currents. • The induced emf is given by ε = −L , where is
dt
• Eddy currents create a significant drag known as
magnetic damping. the coefficient of self-induction.
• The applications of eddy currents are in magnetic • The direction of induced emf is given by Lenz’s
braking in trains, electromagnetic damping, Law.
electric power meters and induction furnace.
AC Generator
Inductance
• The electromagnetic induction has its applications
• Flux change produced by another coil in the close
proximity of a coil or flux exchange produced by in an AC generator, where mechanical energy is
the same coil induces electric current. converted to electrical energy.
• The inductance in series is given by Ls = L1 + L2 +
L3 + .......... Coil Axle
• The inductance in parallel is given by
1 1 1 1
= + + + ...........
L p L1 L 2 L 3

Mutual- Inductance
• When the emf is induced into the adjacent coil
situated within the same magnetic field, the emf N S
is said to be induced magnetically or by mutual
induction. Slip
rings Alternating emf
• Mutual inductance of a pair of coils, solenoids etc.
depends on their relative orientation as well as
their separation.
dI 2 Carbon
ε1 = −M
dt brushes
• Mutual Inductance of two coils is given by Fig. A.C. Generator
µ0 µr N p N s As where A , A are the cross • The motional emf is of a coil with N turns and area
M = p s
Ip A, rotated at v revolutions per second in a uniform
d
sectional areas of primary and secondary coil in magnetic field B is given as, ε = −NBA (cos ωt )
dt
m2, I is the coil current and Ns, Np are the number
of turns of secondary and primary coils
respectively.
112 CHAPTER 7 : Alternating Current

[Topic 1] Introduction to Alternating Current

Summary Mean value of Alternating Current

The value of alternating current that would give
Alternating Current same amount of charge in to a circuit at half cycle
The electric main supply that varies like a sine that is sent for steady current in the same duration.
function with time is called alternating voltage 2I o
and the current drawn by it in the circuit is called =
I avg = 0.637I o
π
Alternating current. Alternating current is the
current which varies on two factors i.e. magnitude
and the direction periodically and alternatively.
Alternating Voltage
Mathematically alternating current can be expressed Alternating voltage is the voltage which varies on two
as: factors i.e. magnitude and the directions periodically
I = I0sinwt and alternatively.
Where I0 , is the peak value of alternating current. Alternating Voltage is expressed mathematically as,
V = V o sin ωt

Vo
=
V r ms = 0.707V o or V r ms
= 70.7% of V o
2
2V o
=
V avg = 0.637V o or V avg
= 63.7% of V o
π
The alternating current and alternating voltage is
illustrated in the following diagram:
Fig.: Alternating Current in an electrical circuit.

RMS value of Alternating Current
The value of alternating current over a complete
cycle which would generate same amount of heat in
a given resistors that is generated by steady current
in the same resistor and in the same time during a
complete cycle.
Io
= =
I r ms 0.707I o
2

Fig.: Variation of V0, I0 w.r.t wt.

Fig.: Variation of Current with respect to wt.

124 CHAPTER 7 : Alternating Current

[Topic 2] AC Devices

Summary Mathematically it can be expressed as:

1 1
X=C =
ωC 2π fC
Inductive Reactance (XL) Where C is capacitance.
Instantaneous power supplied to the capacitor is
When the current flows in the circuit, the inductor i v
opposes its motion, this opposing nature of the pc = m m sin (2ωt )
2
inductor is termed as Inductive Reactance. π
In case of capacitor, the current leads the voltage by
Mathematically it can be expressed as: 2
XL = wL = 2pfL
Where L is self-inductance.
Instantaneous power supplied to an inductor
i v
p l = − m m sin (2ωt )
2
Average power supplied to an inductor over one
complete cycle is zero.
π
In case of inductor, the current lags the voltage by
2 Fig.: Phasor Diagram of Capacitor
Capacitive reactance can be graphically expressed as
follows:

Fig.: Phasor Diagram of inductor

Inductive reactance can be graphically expressed as follows:

Fig.: Capacitive Reactance Vs f

• For a series LCR circuit driven by voltage v =
vmsin(wt), the current is given by
i = imsin(wt + f).

Fig.: Inductive Reactance Vs f

Capacitive Reactance (XC)
When the current flows in the circuit, the capacitor Fig.: LCR Circuit
opposes its motion, this opposing nature of the
capacitor is termed as capacitive Reactance.
CHAPTER 7 : Alternating Current 125

vm • LC Oscillations: When an inductor is connected to

Where i m = an initially charged capacitor, the charge on the
R 2 + (X c − X L )2 capacitor and the current in the circuit exhibit the
phenomenon of electrical oscillations. When the
XC − X L
And φ = t an −1 circuit has no ac source and no resistor then the
R
d 2q 1
charge q of the capacitor is given by + q =
0
2 LC
dt
Z = R 2 + (X C − X L )2 is called the impedance of the
Where
1
= ω0 is the frequency of free
LC
circuit.
oscillation.
Power
In an alternating circuit, the voltage and the current
both keep on changing with respect to time. Hence the
rate at which the electric energy is transferred in a
circuit is called as it’s power. The SI unit is Watt.
• Electric Power: The product of direct current flowing
through a circuit and the voltage across the circuit.
P = IV Fig.: LC Oscillalions
• Instantaneous Power: The product of current and • Idle Current: If the average power consumed in
voltage as a function of time. an alternating current circuit is zero because of the
current flowing through it, this current is called as
Pinst = Einst × Iinst
Idle Current.
• Average Power: Average of instantaneous power
• Pure Inductor circuit and pure capacitor circuit are
can be called as average power.
the two circuits whose average power consumed is
Mathematically it is expressed as, zero as the phase difference is 90°.
Pavg = VrmsIrmscos • In generators and motors, the roles of input and
where cos is power factor. output are reversed. In a motor, electric energy is
• Power factor: It is the ratio of true power to the the input and mechanical energy is the output. In
apparent power. a generator, mechanical energy is the input and
electric energy is the output. Both devices simply
• The phenomenon of resonance is an interesting
transform energy from one form to another.
characteristic of a series LCR circuit. The amplitude
of the current is maximum at the resonant frequency
1
Transformer
and the circuit thus exhibits resonance, ω 0 = .
LC • They convert an alternating voltage from one to
ω0L 1 another of greater or smaller value by using the
The quality factor Q is defined by
= Q = principle of mutual induction.
R ω 0CR
and it tells about the sharpness of the resonance.

Fig.: Transformer Showing Primary & Secondary coils.

126 CHAPTER 7 : Alternating Current

• A step-up transformer changes a low voltage in to E sI s

high voltage. η=
E pI p
0
• A step-down transformer changes high voltage to • Energy losses in transformers may be due
low voltage. to Flux leakage, resistance of windings, Eddy
• The primary and secondary voltage and currents currents and Hysteresis.
are given by • The choice of whether the description of an
N  N p  oscillatory motion is by means of sine or cosine
V S =  S V p and I s =  I p
N p  Ns  or by their linear combinations is unimportant,
since changing the zero-time position transforms
• Efficiency of the transformer is the ratio of the one to the other.
output power to the input power. It is usually for
a real one.

transformation ratio is also 100. The input

voltage and power are respectively 220V and
PREVIOUS YEARS’
1100 W Calculate:
(a) Number of turns in secondary.
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
(b) Current in primary.

(c) Voltage across secondary.
TOPIC 2
(d) Current in secondary.
5 Mark Questions
(e) Power in secondary.
1. (i) With the help of a labelled diagram, describe [CBSE 2016]
briefly the underlying principle and working Solutions
of a step up transformer.
(ii) Write any two sources of energy loss in a 1. (i) Principle underlying the working of
transformer. transformer: The principle is of Mutual
(iii) A step up transformer converts a low input Inductance. When a changing source of
voltage into a high output voltage. voltage is introduced across a coil (which
Does it violate law of conservation of energy? is physically coupled to another coil), the
Explain. changing current through it induces an EMF
2. (i) Write the function of a transformer. State across the second coil.
its principle of working with the help of a
A transformer consists of two sets of coils,
diagram. Mention various energy losses in insulated from each other. They are wound
this device. on a soft-iron core, either one on top of the
(ii) The primary coil of an ideal step up other, or on separate limbs of the core.
transformer has 100 turns and

Fig.: Principle & Working of Transformer

132 CHAPTER 8 : Electromagnetic Waves

[Topic 1] Electromagnetic Waves, its Types &

Properties
Summary • Faraday’s law:
∫ E .dl =
−d φB
dt
Displacement Current
d φE
• It is defined as the rate of change of electric • Ampere-Maxwell law: ∫ B=
.dl µ0 I c + µ0ε 0
dt
displacement.
An electric charge oscillating harmonically with a
d φε
• It is given by I d = ε 0 where e0 is the frequency, produces electromagnetic waves of the
dt same frequency . The frequency of the electromag-
permittivity of the free space and fs is the amount netic wave naturally equals the frequency ofoscilla-
of electric flux. tion of the charge.
An electric dipole is a basic source of electromagnetic
Properties of EM Waves waves.
• The electric and magnetic fields Ex and By are From Maxwell’s equations it can be seen that the
always perpendicular to each other, and also to magnitude of the electric and the magnetic fields in
the direction z of propagation. Ex and By are given E0
an electromagnetic wave are related as B 0 =
by: c

E x = E 0 sin (kz-ω t )
Properties of EM Waves
• Oscillations of electric and magnetic fields sustain
B = B 0 sin (kz-ω t ) in free space, or vacuum. So, the electromagnetic
y
x waves can travel in vacuum.
E • An electromagnetic wave carries momentum
and energy. Since an electromagnetic wave
z carries momentum, it also exerts pressure, called
radiation pressure.
B • Let the total energy transferred to a surface in time
y
t is U, so the magnitude of the total momentum of
Fig. Electromagnetic Waves
an electromagnetic wave delivered to the surface
Where, U
(for complete absorption) is, P =
“k” is the magnitude of the wave vector (or c
propagation vector) and can be calculated as; • The energy of electromagnetic waves is shared
equally by the electric and magnetic fields.
2π
k =
λ
• w is the angular frequency,
Types of EM Waves
• “k” is direction describes the direction of • Radio waves are produced by the accelerated
propagation of the wave. The speed of propagation motion of charges in conducting wires. They
of the wave is ω . are used in radio and television communication
k systems.The radio waves generally lie in the
• The frequency of EM waves can be from 0 to  . frequency range from 500 kHz to about 1000
Ampere Circuital Law is given by: ∫ B ⋅ dl µ0 i (t )
= MHz

The four Maxwell’s equations are given as: • Microwaves have frequency in the range of
Q gigahertz and are used in aircraft navigation.
∫ E .dA =
• Gauss’s law of electricity: 
ε0 • Infrared waves are also referred to as heat waves
as they are produced by hot bodies and molecules.
• Gauss’s law of magnetism: ∫ B .dA = 0
CHAPTER 8 : Electromagnetic Waves 133

• Visible rays can be detected by the human eye. They lie between frequency range of about
4 × 1014 Hz to about 7 × 1014 Hz or a wavelength range of about 700 –400 nm.
• Ultraviolet radiation or the UV radiation is produced by special lamps and very hot bodies.
• X-rays lie beyond the UV region and are used as a diagnostic tool in medicine and for treating various kinds
of cancer.
• Gamma rays are emitted by radioactive nuclei and also are produced in nuclear reactions and are used in
destroying the cancer cells.
The properties of different types of EM Waves are:
Type Wavelength range Production Detection
Radio > 0.1 m Rapid acceleration and Receiver’s aerials
decelerations of electrons
in aerials
Microwave 0.1 m to 1 mm Klystron valve or magne- Point contact diodes
tron valve
Infra-red 1 mm to 700 nm Vibration of atoms and Thermopiles, Bolometer,
molecules Infrared photographic film
Light 700 nm to 400 nm Electrons in atoms emit The eye, Photocells, Photo-
light when they move graphic film
from one energy level to a
lower energy level
Ultraviolet 400 nm to 1 nm Inner shell electrons in Photocells, Photographic
atoms moving from one film
energy level to a lower
level
X-rays 1 nm to 10–3 nm X-ray tubes or inner shell Photographic film, Geiger
electrons tubes Ionisation chamber
Gamma rays <10–3 nm Radioactive decay of the Photographic film, Geiger
nucleus tubes Ionisation chamber

5. Write the expression for the de Broglie

PREVIOUS YEARS’ wavelength associated with a charged particle

having charge ‘q’ and mass ‘m’, when it is
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS accelerated by a potential V.
[ALL INDIA 2013]
TOPIC 1 6. Welders wear special goggles or face masks
1 Mark Questions with glass windows to protect their eyes from
1. A plane electromagnetic wave travels in vacuum electromagnetic radiations. Name the radiations
along z-direction. What can you say about the and write the range of their frequency.
direction of electric and magnetic field vectors? [ALL INDIA 2013]
[ALL INDIA 2011] 7. Why are microwaves considered suitable for
2. Name of physical quantity which remains same radar systems, used in aircraft navigation?
for microwaves of wavelength 1 mm and UV [DELHI 2016]
radiations of 1600 A° in vacuum. 8. Write the following radiations in ascending
[ALL INDIA 2012] order with respect to their frequencies: X-rays.
3. State De-Broglie hypothesis. Microwaves. UV rays and radio waves.
[ALL INDIA 2012] [DELHI 2017]
4. Which of the following waves can be polarized 9. Do electromagnetic waves carry energy and
(i) Heat waves (ii) Sound waves? Give reason to momentum?
support your answer. [DELHI 2017]
[ALL INDIA 2013]
142 CHAPTER 9 : Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

[Topic 1] Reflection, refraction and dispersion of

light
Summary Object on left Mirror

The speed of light in vacuum is given by c = 3 × Heights Incident light

upwards
108ms–1, which is the highest speed that can be at- positive
tained in nature. x-axis
A light wave travels along a straight line from one Distances
point to another. This path is called a ray of light, Heights
against
and bundle of such rays together form a beam of light. incident
downwards light Distances
negative negative along incident
Laws of reflection states that light positive
Fig.: Cartesian sign convention
• The angle of reflection (i.e., the angle between
If the distance of the object and the image is given by
reflected ray and the normal to the reflecting u and v, respectively and f is the focal length of the
surface or the mirror) equals the angle of mirror. Then the mirror formula is given by,
incidence (angle between incident ray and the 1 1 1
normal), i.e. ∠i = ∠r + =
v u f
• The incident ray, the normal to the mirror at the Focal length f for a concave mirroris negative and is
point of incidence and the reflected ray, they all positive for a convex mirror.
lie in the same plane. The magnification produced by a mirror is given by
sin i h' v
Snell’s law for refraction is given by =n, m = = − where h′ is the height of the image and
sin r h u
where the angle of incidence, angle of refraction and h is the height of the object.
refractive index of the medium is given by i, r and n
Total Internal Reflection:
respectively.
The angle of incidence at which a ray travelling from • When light travels from an optically denser
a denser to rarer medium makes an angle of refrac- medium to a rarer medium at the interface, it
tion of 90° is a critical angle and is denoted by ic. is partly reflected back into the same medium
and partly refracted to the second medium. This
Cartesian sign convention: reflection is called internal reflection when all
light is reflected back, it is called total internal
• Positive sign is used for distances measured in
reflection.
the same direction as the incident light, whereas
negative sign is used for those measured in the B
Rarer
direction opposite to the direction of incident medium
Water-air
light. (Air)
O1 r O2 r O3 D O4 interface
• All distances are measured from the pole of the ic
i i N i>ic
mirror or the optical centre of the lens. The
N N Totally
heights measured upwards with respect to x-axis Denser reflected ray
and normal to the principal axis of the mirror/ medium Partially
(water)
lens is taken as positive. A C reflected rays
• The heights measured downwards with respect to Fig.: Total Internal Reflection
x-axis are taken as negative.
• The applications of total internal reflection
include mirage, diamond, prism and optical
fibers.
CHAPTER 9 : Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 143

Refraction through glass slab: Focal length f is positive for a converging lens and
The emergent ray through a glass slab is parallel to is negative for a diverging lens.
the incident ray but it is laterally displaced. • The magnification produced by a mirror is given
Also, ∠Angle of incidence = ∠Angle of emer gence h′ v
= =
by m where h′ is the height of the image
Medium al h u
(Glass) a ter t
L hif
s and h is the height of the object.
r3
Medium i2 • The power (P) of a lens is given by, P = 1 .
Medium f
(Air) r1 (Air)
i1 Where f is the focal length of the lens and the SI
unit of power is dioptre (D): 1 D = 1 m–1

Fig.: Reflection through glass slab • The effective focal length of a combination of thin
lenses of focal length f1, f2, f3 ..... is given by
Refraction at spherical surfaces 1 1 1 1
= + + + ..........
If the rays are incident from a medium of refractive f f1 f 2 f3
index n1 to another of refractive index n2, then
And the effective power of the same combination
n 2 n1 n 2 − n1
− = is given by
v u R
P = P1 + P2 + P3 ......
N Dispersion:
n1 i n2
• Splitting of light into its constituent colors is
r
known as dispersion of light.
O C I
M R • When a white light is incident on a prism, the
white light is split into seven components, violet,
u v
indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red (given
by the acronym VIBGYOR)
Fig.: Refraction at spherical surface
Some natural phenomenon due to sunlight are rainbow
For a prism of the angle A, of refractive index n2 and scattering of light.
placed in a medium of refractive index n1 and Dm be-
The Eye: It has a convex lens of focal length about
ing the angle of minimum deviation.
2.5 cm. This focal length can be varied somewhat by
A
the help of ciliary muscle so that the image is always
formed on the retina. This ability of the eye of adjusting
M the muscle to form a clear image is called accommo-

i r e dation.
Q r1 2 R
N In a defective eye, if the image is focused before the
retina, it is called myopia. For correction of myopia, a
P S diverging corrective lens is needed.
In a defective eye, if the image is focused beyond the
B C
retina, it is called hypermetropia. For correction of hy-
Fig.: Prism permetropia, a converging corrective lens is needed.
n 2 sin ( A + D m ) / 2 Astigmatism: A refractive error in which the vision is
n=
21 = blurred at all distances, is corrected by using cylindri-
n1 sin ( A / 2)
cal lenses.
• If the distance of the object and the image is given
by u and v, respectively and f is the focal length of
the lens. So, the lens formula is,
1 1 1
− =
v u f
CHAPTER 9 : Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 157

[Topic 2] Optical Instrument

Summary =
the objective. Also, m
L
×
D
, where f0 and fe are
fo fe
Simple microscope the focal length of the objective and the eyepiece,
• A simple magnifier or microscope is a converging respectively, and L is the distance between their
lens of small focal length. focal points.
u fo
fc
A
 B Eyepiece
Eye focussed h
B B O  h E
on near point
Objective A
u
D

A
Fig.: Compound microscope

Telescope

h • The telescope is used to provide angular

i 
 magnification of distant objects. It also has an
f i
objective and an eyepiece
• Magnifying power (m) of a telescope is the ratio of
Eye focussed the angle b subtended at the eye by the image to the
at infinity angle a subtended at the eye by the object.
Fig.: Magnifier β fo
=
m = , f0 and fe are the focal length of the
D  α fe
• The magnifying power (m) is given by m= 1 +   ,
f
objective and the eyepiece, respectively.
where D = 25 cm is the least distance of distinct vision Objective fo Eyepiece
and f is the focal length of the convex lens. If the image
fe
is at infinity, magnifying power (m) is given by,
 O B E
D  h 
m = .
f A

• For a compound microscope, the magnifying

power m is given by m = me × m0 where,
D 
me = 1 +   is the magnification due to the
f  Fig.: Telescope
eyepiece and mo is the magnification produced by
166 CHAPTER 10 : Wave Optics

[Topic 1] Huygens Principle

Summary • Doppler Effect is defined as the change in

wavelength or frequency of a wave in relation
• The effects which depend on wave nature of light to observer who is moving relative to the wave
are included under wave optics. Interference and source. The Doppler shift is expressed as:
diffraction of light shows that light behaves as
∆ν υ r adial
wave and not as a stream of particles. = −
ν c
• Huygens principle: It states that each point
of the wavefront is the source of a secondary
disturbance. Also, the wavelets emanating from
these points spread out in all directions with
the speed of the wave which are referred to as
PREVIOUS YEARS’
secondary wavelets and if we draw a common EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
tangent to all these spheres, a new position of the TOPIC 1
wavefront is obtained at a later time.
1 Mark Questions
• When a wave gets refracted into a denser medium 1. In a transistor, doping level in base is increased
the wavelength and the speed of propagation slightly. How will it affect
decrease but the frequency remains the same. (1) Collector current and
(2) Base current? [ALL INDIA 2011]
Incident wavefront 2. What type of wave front will emerge from a
(i) point source, and (ii) distant light source?
A´ B [DELHI 2017]

v1 2 Mark Questions

v1 i 3. Define a wavefront. Using ‘Huygens’ principle,
draw the shape of a refracted wavefront, when
Medium 1 i a plane wavefront is incident on a convex lens.
P A r C P´
v 2 [ALL INDIA 2015]
r
Medium 2
Refracted 3 Mark Questions
v2 < v1 E wavefront 4. Use Huygen’s principle to verify the laws of
refraction. [ALL INDIA 2011]

Incident wavefront 4 Mark Questions

5. Use huygen’s principle to explain the formation
Medium 1 of diffraction pattern due to a single slit
B illuminated by a monochromatic source of light.
i When the width of the slit is made double the
v1 v 1
original width, how would this affect the size
i and intensity of the central diffraction band?
Medium 2 A r C [ALL INDIA 2012]
r v 2
v2
5 Mark Questions
Refracted 6. (a) Define wave front. Use Huygens’ principle
v2 < v1 wavefront to verify the laws of refraction.
E (b) How is linearly polarised light obtained by
the process of scattering of light? Find the
Fig.: Huggen’s Principle
Brewster angle for air – glass interface,
n1 sin i = n2 sin r is the Snell’s law of refraction. when the refractive index of glass = 1.5
[ALL INDIA 2017]
170 CHAPTER 10 : Wave Optics

[Topic 2] Interference of Light

Summary S1P – S2P = nl(n = 0, 1, 2, ....) and resultant

intensity is 4I0
• Superposition principle states that at a
• Destructive interference: It is observed in cases
particular point in the medium, the resultant
when two coherent sources are vibrating in phase
displacement produced by a number of waves is
having path difference for a point P as
the vector sum of the displacements produced by
each of the waves.  1
S1P − S 2 P = n +  λ (n =0 , 1, 2, .....) and
• The resultant displacement at a point from two 2
coherent sources will be equal to the sum of the resultant intensity is zero.
individual displacement at that point. • Young’s double slit of length d gives equally
y = 2a cos wt spaced fringes which are at angular separation
Resultant intensity is four times the intensity λ . The midway-point of the slits, the central
produced by each source. d
I = 4I0 and I0  a2 bright fringe and the source, all lie in a straight
• Constructive interference: It is observed in line. But this fringe gets destroyed by an extended
cases when two coherent sources are vibrating in λ
source, if the angle subtended is more than at
phase having path difference for a point P as d

the slits.

P G
P
O
S1 x x
S1° d Z z
O y
S°2 D
S2
D
S

G
Fig.: Young’s Double Slit Experiment
n λD
• Path difference, y =
d

• Fringe width: Distance between two consecutive bright and dark fringes represented by
λD
d
178 CHAPTER 10 : Wave Optics

[Topic 3] Diffraction and Polarisation of Light

Summary • Resolving power of telescope: For two stars to

be just resolved,
• Diffraction: Bending of light around corners
0.61λ f
of an obstacle into the region where shadow of f ∆θ ≈
a
obstacle is expected.
0.61λ
So, ∆θ ≈
To P a
Telescope will have better resolving power if a is
large.
L 
M1 • A diffraction pattern with a central maximum is

From S M given by a single slit of width a. At angles of
M2 Q M2
 λ 2λ
N ± ,± , etc., along with successively weaker
a a
secondary maxima in between, the intensity
reduces to zero. The angular resolution of a
λ
telescope is limited to , due to diffraction
D
Fig.: Diffraction Phenomenon where D is the diameter. Strongly overlapping
• Light energy is redistributed in interference images are formed when two stars are closer than
and diffraction. When it reduces in one region, this angle. Similarly, in a medium of refractive
emitting a dark fringe, it increases in another index n, a microscope objective subtending angle
region, emitting a bright fringe. In this process 2b at the focus, will just separate two objects
the energy remains constant i.e. neither energy is spaced at a distance
gained nor lost, with the principle of conservation λ
, which is the resolution limit of a
of light. (2 n sin β )
• The resolving power of the microscope is given microscope.
by the reciprocal of the minimum separation of
• The Fresnel distance is given by the formula
two points seen as distant. The resolving power
can be increased by choosing a medium of higher a 2 , where a is the size of the aperture and
ZP =
refractive index. λ
1.22 λ l is the wavelength.
d min =
2 sin β

Image

D
 1.22 f 
 D
Object f
Object
v
plane
Objective Image plane
lens
Fig.: Resolving power of the microscope
CHAPTER 10 : Wave Optics 179

• Polarized wave: A long string is held

horizontally, the other end of which is assumed to

PREVIOUS YEARS’
be fixed. If the end of the string is moved up and
down in a periodic manner, a wave propagating
in the +x direction will be generated. Each point
on the string moves on a straight line, the wave
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
is also referred to as linearly polarised wave. TOPIC 3
The linearly polarized waves are transverse 1 Mark Questions
waves; i.e., the displacement of each point of the 1. If the angle between the pass axis of polarizer
string is always at right angles to the direction of and the analyser is 45°, write the ratio of the
propagation of the wave. intensities of original light and the transmitted
light after passing through the analyzer.
• Unpolarized wave: When the plane of vibration
[DELHI 2017]
of the string is changed randomly in very short
intervals of time, then we have what is known as 2 Mark Questions
an unpolarised wave. Thus, for an unpolarised 2. (a) When a wave is propagating from a rarer to
a denser medium, which characteristic of the
wave the displacement will be randomly changing
wave does not change and why ?
with time though it will always be perpendicular
(b) What is the ratio of the velocity of the wave in
to the direction of propagation. the two media of refractive indices µ1 and µ2?
• A Polaroid consists of long chain molecules [ALL INDIA 2015]
aligned in a particular direction. The electric 3. Unpolarised light is passed through a Polaroid
vectors along the direction of the aligned molecules P1. When this polarized beam passes through
another Polaroid P2 which makes an angle q with
get absorbed. Thus if an unpolarised light wave
the pass axis of P1, then write the expression for
is incident on such a Polaroid then the light wave
the polarized beam passing through P2. Draw a
will get linearly polarized with the electric vector plot showing the variation of intensity when q
oscillating along a direction perpendicular to the varies from 0 to 2p. [ALL INDIA 2017]
aligned molecules; this direction is known as the
pass-axis of the Polaroid. 3 Mark Questions
4. (a) Describe briefly, with the help of suitable
• If I is the intensity of polarized light after passing
diagram, how the transverse nature of light
through the first polariser P1 then the intensity can be demonstrated by the phenomenon of
of the light after passing through the second polarization.
polarizer P2 will be I = Icosθ. This is called Malus’ (b) When unpolarized light passes from air to a
Law. transparent medium, under what condition
does the reflected light get polarized?
• Natural light from the sun is unpolarised which
means that the electric vector takes all possible
[ALL INDIA 2011]
random directions in the transverse plane. A
polaroid transmits only one component of these 4 Mark Questions
vectors, which is parallel to a special axis. 5. (a) What is linearly polarized light? Describe
Therefore the light wave is called plane polarised. briefly using a diagram how sunlight is
When this kind of light is viewed through another polarized.
(b) Unpolarized light is incident on a Polaroid.
polaroid which is rotated through an angle 2p,
How would the intensity of would transmitted
we can see two maxima and minima of same
light change when the Polaroid is rotated?
intensity. [ALL INDIA 2013]
• Plane polarised light can also be producedby 6. What is an unpolarized light? Explain with the
reflection at a special angle known as the help of suitable ray diagram how an unpolarized
π light can be polarized by reflection from a
Brewster angle and by scattering through in transparent medium. Write the expression for
2
Brewster angle in terms of the refractive index
the earth’s atmosphere. of the denser medium. [DELHI 2018]
188 CHAPTER 11 : Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

[Topic 1] Photoelectric Effect

Summary light, potential difference between both the plates

and the material of the plate.
• Work Function: The minimum energy which
• Stopping Potential: Stopping potential or cut-
is necessary for an electron to get away from the
off potential is the minimum retarding (negative)
surface of metal is called the work function of
potential for which the photoelectric current stops
the metal which is denoted by 0. The unit for
at a particular frequency of incident light. It is
measuring work function is electron volt (eV). This
denoted by V0.
minimum energy can be provided by thermionic
emission, field emission or photo-electric emission. • Saturation Current: At a certain potential
difference, the photoelectric current stops increasing
Thermionic emission: When a metal is heated,
further. This maximum value of photocurrent is
thermal energy is imparted to free the electrons
known as the saturation current.
from the surface of the metal.
• Maximum Kinetic Energy: The maximum kinetic
Field emission: Electrons can be pulled out of
energy of the photoelectric electrons is denoted by
metal by applying a very strong electric field (of the
Kmax and it depends directly on the frequency of the
order of 108 Vm–1) to it, as in a tesla coil.
incident light. It is independent of the intensity of
Photo-electric emission: Electrons are emitted the light.
when a light of suitable frequency hits a metal
The maximum kinetic energy Kmax = eV0
surface. This can be seen in a photodiode.
• Threshold Frequency: The minimum cut-off
• 1eV is the energy attained by an electron when it
frequency which is required for the emission of
has been accelerated by a potential difference of 1,
electrons is called the threshold frequency which is
so that 1eV = 1.602 × 10–19J.
denoted by ν 0 . No emission is possible for the
• Photoelectric Effect: When metals are irradiated
frequency lower than the cut-off frequency.
by light of suitable frequency, electrons start
emitting from the metal surface. This phenomenon • In the photoelectric effect, the light energy
is known as photoelectric effect. is converted into the electrical energy. The
photoelectric emission is a quick process having
Quartz S
window very less time lag.
Evacuated • Effect of intensity of light on photocurrent:
Photosensitive glass tube
plate Number of photoelectrons emitted per second varies
directly with the intensity of incident radiation.
Electrons
C A • Effect of potential on photoelectric current: The
stopping potential is independent of its intensity for
a given frequency of the incident radiation.
Commutator
• Effect of frequency of incident radiation on
A stopping potential:
V
The stopping potential V0 varies linearly with
the frequency of incident radiation for a given
+ – photosensitive material.
Fig.: Depiction of Photoelectric effect There exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency v0
• Some metals are sensible to ultraviolet light and for which the stopping potential is zero.
some to visible light also. Photocurrent depends • Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation: Einstein
upon the intensity of light, frequency of incident proposed that light is comprised of small discrete
CHAPTER 11 : Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter 189

energy packets known as photons or quanta and 2. The graph shows variation of stopping potential
energy carried by each photon is hv, where v is the versus frequency of incident radiation v for two
frequency of light and Planck’s constant. The photosensitive metals A and B. Which of the two
h metals has higher threshold frequency?
momentum carried by each photon is . In
λ Metal B Metal A
photoelectric effect, emission is possible because of Stopping
the absorption of a photon by an electron. The potential
(v0)
maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electron is: O v0 v0
= hν − φ0 , where f0 is the work function.
K max Frequency of incident
–
Radiation (v)
= h( ν − ν 0 )
The photoelectric emission is possible only when –
hν > φ0 as Kmax must be non-negative.
φ0 [ALL INDIA 2014]
⇒ ν > ν 0 where ν 0 =
h 3. Draw graphs showing variation of photoelectric
• From the photoelectric equation, current with applied voltage for two incident
eV= hν − φ0 , for ν ≥ ν 0 (as K max = eV 0 ) radiations of equal frequency and different
0
intensities. Mark the graph for the radiation of
h  φ
=
or V 0  ν − 0 higher intensity.
e  e [DELHI 2014]
According to this result, the graph of V0 versus  is
4. The figure shows a plot of three curves a, b,
a straight line having the slope equal to  h  . c, showing the variation of photocurrent vs
e  collector plate potential for three different
intensities I1, I2 and I3 having frequencies v1, v2
and v3 respectively incident of a photosensitive
surface. Point out the two curves for which the
PREVIOUS YEARS’ incident radiations have same frequency but
different intensities.
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
Photoelectric
TOPIC 1 current
l1
l2
1 Mark Questions c l3
b
1. The given graph shows the variation of photo-
electric current (I) versus applied voltage (V) a
for two different photosensitive materials and Collector plate potential
for two different intensities of the incident
radiations. Identify the pairs of curves that
[DELHI 2017]
correspond to different materials but same
intensity of incident radiation. 2 Mark Questions
5. Using Bohr’s postulates, obtain the expressions
for (i) kinetic energy and (ii) potential energy
I of the electron in stationary state of hydrogen
atom.
Draw the energy level diagram showing how the
1 transitions between energy levels result in the
3 appearance of Lyman series.
2 [DELHI 2013]
6. (i) Monochromatic light of frequency 6.0 × 1014
Hz is produced by a laser. The power emitted
is 2.0 × 10–3 W. Estimate the number of
4
photons emitted per second on an average
by the source.
V
[DELHI 2013]
CHAPTER 11 : Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter 197

[Topic 2] Matter Wave

Summary
Dual Nature of matter PREVIOUS YEARS’
• Particle Nature of matter: EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
Radiation behaves as if it is made up of particles
in interaction of radiation with matter, called
TOPIC 2
photons. 1 Mark Questions
1. Show graphically, the variation of the de-Broglie
Each photon has energy E = hv and momentum wavelength (λ) with the potential (V) through
hυ which an electron is accelerated from rest.
p = , and speed c that is the speed of light.
c [DELHI 2011]
• Wave Nature of Matter: 2. State de-Broglie hypothesis.
De Broglie proposed that the moving particles are [DELHI 2012]
associated with the waves. If a particle is having 2 Mark Questions
a momentum p, then the associated wavelength 3. A proton and a deuteron are accelerated through
h h the same accelerating potential. Which one of
λ =
= , where  is the speed of the moving
p mv the two has,
(a) Greater value of de-Broglie wavelength
particle and its mass. The wavelength l is known associated with it, and
as the de Broglie wavelength and the above (b) Less momentum?
relation as the de Broglie relation. Give reasons to justify your Answer.
4. A proton and an α-particle have the same de
The wavelength of an electron accelerated with
Broglie wavelength. Determine the ratio of (i)
the potential V is:
their accelerating potentials (ii) their speeds.
1.227 [DELHI 2015]
λ= nm
V 5. Plot a graph showing variation of de-Broglie
1
• Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle: This wavelength l versus , where V is accelerating
V
principle states that, “it is not possible to measure
potential for two particles A and B carrying same
both the position and momentum of an electron
charge but of masses m1, m2 (m1 > m2). Which
at the same time exactly. There is always some
one of the two represents a particle of smaller
uncertainty in the position and in momentum. mass and why?
h [DELHI 2016]
∆x ∆p ≈  , where  = 6. A proton and an α particle are accelerated
2π
through the same potential difference. Which
• The wave nature of electron was verified and one of the two has (i) greater de-Broglie
confirmed by the electron diffraction experiments wavelength, and (ii) less kinetic energy? Justify
performed by Davisson and Germer, and G.P. your answer.
[ALL INDIA 2016]
Thomson. Many other experiments later also
7. An electron is accelerated through a potential
confirmed the wave nature of electron. difference of 64 volts. What is the De-Broglie
wavelength associated with it? To which part of
the electromagnetic spectrum does this value of
wavelength correspond?
[DELHI 2018]
202 CHAPTER 12 : Atoms

Topic 1: Rutherford’s Atomic Model, Bohr’s Model & Energy

Level Diagram

Summary • The alpha particles are fast moving and positive-

ly charged Helium nuclei with two protons and
Introduction two neutrons.
• Atoms in simple terms are defined as the smallest Rutherford observed the deflection of alpha particles
unit of matter. after passing through metal sheet and proposed his
• Atoms are electrically neutral because they con- atomic model
tain same number of electrons and protons. • After passing through the metal sheet, the alpha
particles strike on fluorescent screen which was
Plum-Pudding Model coated with zinc sulphide and produced a visible
• In 1898, J. J. Thomson proposed the first model flash of light
of atom. • He concluded that an atom consists of a minute
• He stated, there is a uniform distribution of the positively charged body at its center called as nu-
positive charge of the atom throughout the vol- cleus. The nucleus, though small, contains all the
ume of the atom and like seeds in a watermelon, protons and neutrons.
the negatively charged electrons are embedded in
it. This model was picturesquely called plum pud- Alpha-Particle Trajectory
ding model of the atom. • The trajectory traced by an a particle depends on
the impact parameter, b of collision.
Alpha-Particle Scattering • The particle near to the nucleus suffers large
• Rutherford used a “Gold foil experiment” scattering.
• Rutherford only identified one of type of radiation • Only a small fraction of the number of incident
given off by radioactive elements like polonium, particles rebound back indicating that the num-
uranium and named them as alpha particles. ber of a-particles undergoing head on collision is
small.


b
Target nucleus
Fig.: Alpha-Particle Trajectory
Rutherford’s nuclear model of Atom • Drawbacks of Rutherford’s model: There were
two major drawbacks in Rutherford nuclear model
• According to Rutherford’s model, the entire pos-
in explaining the structure of atom:
itive charge and most of the mass of the atom is
It cannot explain the characteristic line spectra of at-
concentrated in a small volume called the nucleus
oms of different elements.
with electrons revolving around the nucleus just
It contradicts the stability of matter because it specu-
as planets revolve around the sun.
lates that atoms are unstable because the accelerated
• Rutherford scattering is a powerful way to deter- electrons revolving around the nucleus must spiral
mine an upper limit to the size of the nucleus. into the nucleus.
CHAPTER 12 : Atoms 203

Electron Orbits • Bohr’s second postulate defines these stable orbits.

This postulate states that the electron revolves
• The electrostatic force of attraction, Fe between
around the nucleus only in those orbits for which
the revolving electrons and the nucleus provides
the angular momentum is some integral multiple
the requisite centripetal force (Fc) to keep them in
of h/2p where h is the Planck’s constant (= 6.6 ×
their orbits. Hence, for a dynamically states orbit 10– 34 Js). Thus the angular momentum (L) of the
in a hydrogen atom Fe = Fc orbiting electron is quantised. That is L = nh/2p.
• The total energy of the electron is negative. It is • Bohr’s third postulate incorporated into atomic
e2 theory the early quantum concepts that had been
given by E = − .
8πε 0 r developed by Planck and Einstein. It states that
an electron might make a transition from one of its
specified non-radiating orbits to another of lower
Atomic Spectra energy. When it does so, a photon is emitted hav-
• Each element has a characteristic spectrum of ra- ing energy equal to the energy difference between
diation, which it emits. the initial and final states. The frequency of the
• Study of emission line spectra of a material can emitted photon is then given by
therefore serve as a type of “fingerprint” for iden- hv = Ei – Ef, where Ei and Ef are the energies of the
tification of the gas. initial and final states and Ei > Ef.
• The atomic hydrogen emits a line spectrum con- • Bohr radius is represented by the symbol a0, is
sisting of various series as: h 2ε 0
given by a0 = .
1
Lyman series: v = Rc  −
1  π me 2
2  : n = 2, 3 , 4 ,...
1 n2  • The total energy of the electron in the stationary
states of the hydrogen atom is given by
 1 1  13.6
Balmer series: v = Rc  −  : n =3 , 4 , 5,...
2 2
n2  En = − eV
n2

 1 1 
De Broglie’s Explanation of Bohr’s
Paschen series: v = Rc  − : n = 4 , 5, 6,...
 32 n 2 
Second Postulate of Quantisation
 1 1  • De Broglie hypothesis provided an explanation
Brackett series: v = Rc  − : n = 5, 6, 7,...
 4 2 n 2  for Bohr’s second postulate for the quantisation
of angular momentum of the orbiting electron. The
quantised electron orbits and energy states are
 1 1  due to the wave nature of the electron and only
Pfund series: v = Rc  −  : n = 6, 7, 8,...
2
5 n2  resonant standing waves can persist.
• De Broglie’s hypothesis is that electrons have a
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom wavelength λ =
h
.
Bohr combined classical and early quantum concepts, mv
explained the spectrum of hydrogen atom based on
quantum ideas and gave his theory in the form of three
postulates. These are:
Limitations of Bohr’s model: Bohr’s
• Bohr’s first postulate was that an electron in an model however has many limitations.
atom could revolve in certain stable orbits with- • It is applicable only to hydrogenic (single electron)
out the emission of radiant energy, contrary to the atoms.
predictions of electromagnetic theory. According • It cannot be extended to even two electron atoms
to this postulate, each atom has certain definite such as helium.
stable states in which it can exist, and each possi- • While the Bohr’s model correctly predicts the fre-
ble state has definite total energy. These are called quencies of the light emitted by hydrogenic atoms,
the stationary states of the atom. the model is unable to explain the relative intensi-
ties of the frequencies in the spectrum.
216 CHAPTER 13 : Nuclei

Topic 1: Radioactivity and Decay Law

Summary • Isotopes: Atoms of an element that have differ-
ent mass numbers but same atomic number are
• Nucleus: Nucleus can be defined as the central known as isotopes. e.g., 1H1, 1H2, 1H3 is an exam-
part of an atom, made up of neutrons, protons, ple of isotopes.
and other elementary particles. The nucleus has • Nuclear Force: Nuclear force can be referred
protons and neutrons inside it. They are called to as the force that acts inside the nucleus or
nucleons. between nucleons. These forces are neither elec-
• Mass Number: The total number of protons and trostatic nor gravitational in nature. They have
neutrons present inside the nucleus of an atom of a very short range and are independent of any
an element is referred to as mass number (A) of charge. They are a hundred times that of electro-
the element. static force and 1038 times that of gravitational
• Atomic Number: The number of protons present force.
in the nucleus of an atom of an element is known • Radioactivity: Radioactivity refers to the break-
as atomic number (Z) of the element. down of heavy elements into comparably lighter
1
elements by the emission of radiations. This phe-
• Nuclear Size: The radius of the nucleus R ∝ A 3
nomenon was discovered by Henry Becquerel in
1
1896.
• R = Ro A 3 where R0 = 1.2 × 10–15 m is an em- • Packing Fraction (P):
(Exact nuclear mass ) – (M ass number )
pirical constant. P =
M ass number
• Nuclear Density: Nuclear density is indepen-
dent of mass number and is therefore same for (A − M )
all nuclei. =
M
M ass of nucleus
ρ= For greater stability of the nucleus, the value of pack-
volume of nucleus
ing friction should be larger.
3m
ρ= where is the average mass of a • Radioactive Decay law
4π R 0 3
The Radioactive law states that the rate of disinte-
gration of radioactive atoms at any instance is direct-
nucleon. ly proportional to the number of radioactive atoms
• Atomic Mass Unit: Abbreviated as amu and is present in the given sample at that instant.
defined as one-twelfth of the mass of a carbon
dN 
nucleus. It is also denoted by u. Rate of disintegration  − ∝N
 dt 
Therefore,
1.992678 × 10 −26 dN
1 amu = kg – = λ N , where l is the decay constant.
12 dt

= 1.6 × 10–27 kg = 931 MeV The number of undecayed atoms present in the
• Isomers: The atoms that have the same mass sample at any instance N = N 0 e − λt where, N0 is
number, atomic number but different radioactive
properties are known isomers. number of atoms at time t = 0 and N is number of
• Isotones: Atoms of elements that have different atoms at time t.
mass numbers, atomic numbers but same number
• Activity of a radioactive element
of neutrons are known as isotones. e.g., 1H3, 2H4
and 6C14, 8O16 are isotones. The activity of a radioactive element is equal to its
• Isobars: The atoms of an element having differ- rate of disintegration.
ent atomic numbers but same mass numbers are dN 
Activity R =  −
known as isobars. e.g., 1H3, 2H3 and 10Na22, 10Ne22  dt 
are isobars.
 CHAPTER 13 : Nuclei 217

Activity of the sample after time t, R = R 0 e – λt Relation between half-life and average life t= 1.44T
Relation between average life and decay constant
Its SI unit is Becquerel (Bq). Curie and Rutherford 1
τ =
are its other units. λ
1 Curie = 3.7 × 1010 decay/s and 1 rutherford = 106 • Alpha decay: In alpha decay, a nucleus gets
decay/s transformed into a different nucleus and an a
• Half-life of a radioactive element particle is emitted. The general form can be ex-
Half-life (T) of a radioactive element is the time tak- pressed as:
A −4
en for the radioactivity of an isotope to fall to half its A
Z X → Z − 2Y + 24H e and the Q value:
original value. The relation between disintegration
constant and half-life is given by Q = ( m X − mY − m H e )c 2
log e 2 0.6931 • Beta decay: When a nucleus undoes beta decay,
=T =
λ λ it emits an electron or a positron. When an elec-
tron is emitted, it is said to be beta minus decay
• Average Life or Mean Life (t) while in beta plus decay, a positron is emitted.
Average life or mean life (t) of a radioactive element • Gamma decay: In gamma decay, the photons
can be defined as the ratio of total life time of all the are emitted from the nuclei having MeV energy
atoms and total number of atoms present, initially in and thus the gamma rays are emitted. This is
the sample. called as gamma decay.

3 Marks Questions
PREVIOUS YEARS’ 5. State the law of radioactive decay.
Plot a graph showing the number (N) of
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS undecayed nuclei as a function of time (t) for a
given radioactive sample having half life.
TOPIC 1
1 Mark Questions Depict in the plot the number of undecayed nuclei
at (i) t = 3T1 / 2 and (ii) t = 5T1 / 2
1. Define the activity of a given radioactive
substance. Write its S.I. units. [ALL INDIA 2011]
[DELHI 2011] 6. Show that the density of nucleus over a wide
2. Why is it found experimentally difficult to detect range of nuclei is constant independent of mass
neutrinos in nuclear b-decay? number A.
[ALL INDIA 2014] [ALL INDIA 2012]

3. Two nuclei have mass numbers in the ratio 1: 2. 7. Draw a plot of potential energy between a pair
What is the ratio of their nuclear densities? of nucleons as a function of their separation.
[DELHI 2017] Mark the regions where potential energy is (i)
positive and (ii) negative
2 Marks Questions [DELHI 2013]
4. A radioactive nucleus ‘A’ undergoes a series of
8. (a) In a typical nuclear reaction, e.g.
decays according to the following scheme:
2
 1H  12 H  23 He  01 n  3.27 MeV ,

A  A1 

 A2  A3  A4


although number of nucleons is conserved,
The mass number and atomic number of A are yet energy is released. How? Explain.
180 and 72 respectively.
(b) Show that nuclear density in a given nucleus
What are these numbers for A4? is independent of mass number A.
[DELHI 2017] [DELHI 2013]
CHAPTER 13 : Nuclei 221

Topic 2: Mass Defect and Binding Energy

Summary When a slow moving neutron strikes with a uranium

• Mass Defect: Mass defect can be mentioned as

nucleus ( 92U 235 ) , it splits into 56
Ba141 and 36Kr92 along
the difference between the sum of masses of all
with three neutrons and a lot of energy.
nucleons (M) and the mass of the nucleus (m).
Mass Defect (Dm) = M – m
235
92U + 0 n1 → 56 Ba
141
+ 36 K r
92
→ 3 0 n 1 + ener gy
= [Zmp + (A – z)mn – mn]
• Nuclear Binding Energy: Nuclear binding energy • Nuclear Chain Reaction
can be referred to as the minimum energy that is Nuclear chain reactions are defined as a chain of nu-
required to separate the nucleons up to an infinite clear fission reactions (splitting of atomic nuclei), and
distance from the nucleus. each one of them is initiated by a neutron produced in
Nuclear binding energy per nucleon = Nuclear binding the previous fission reaction. Nuclear chain reactions
energy / Total number of nucleons Binding energy, Eb are of two types:
= [Zmp + (A – Z)mn – mn]c2  Controlled chain reaction
• Nuclear Fission  Uncontrolled chain reaction
The process of the splitting a heavy nucleus into two
or more lighter nuclei is known as nuclear fission.
• Nuclear Reactor
Control Superheated
Rods Coolant Steam
Shielding
Electric
Steam Generator
Turbine
Heat
Exchanger
Water
Condenser
Fission Fuel User
Chamber Rods Steam
Moderator
Water
Pump
Cold Water
Fig.: Setup of a Nuclear Reactor
The vital parts of a nuclear reactor are the following:
1 1 2 +
 Fuel: Fissionable materials like 92U235, 92U238, 94U239 1 H + 1 H → 1 H + e + v + 0.42 MeV, where a deu-
are used as fuel. teron and a positron are formed by the combination
 Moderator: Graphite, heavy water and beryllium of two protons and 0.42 MeV energy is released.
oxide are used to slower down fast moving neutrons. The source of energy of sun and all the stars is a nu-
 Coolant: Liquid oxygen, cold water, etc. are used clear fusion reaction in which hydrogen nuclei com-
to remove heat generated in the fission process. bine to form helium nuclei.
 Control rods: Cadmium or boron rods are considered 4 11H + 2e − → 24H e + 2v + 6γ + 26.7 MeV
as good absorber of neutrons and are therefore used • Advantages of Nuclear fusion:
to control the fission reaction.  Nuclear fusion does not cause any waste as
• Nuclear Fusion: The process of combining two the only by product is helium.
light nuclei in order to form a single large nucleus  Nuclear fusion is very simple to control as
is called nuclear fusion. A large amount of energy there is no change of chain reaction.
is released in this process. The example of nuclear  There is unlimited supply of fuel for nuclear
fusion is: fusion.
226 CHAPTER 14 : Semiconductor Electronics

[Topic 1] Semiconductor, diode and its applications

Summary are shared by different number of atoms in the

crystal which causes splitting of energy levels.
• The materials which are present in solid state These energy levels are called energy bands. The
and their conductivity lies between insulator energy band which contains valence electrons
and conductor are called as semiconductors. is called as valence band. It always has some
Semiconductors are either pure substance like electrons and can never be empty.
silicon, germanium or they can also be formed
 The energy band which contains conduction
by addition of impurities which form a compound
electrons is called as conduction band. It can be
like gallium arsenide, cadmium selenide, etc.
empty or have some electrons which take part in
• Semiconductors have resistivity in the range flow of current.
of metals and insulators. Insulators have  The band which lies between conduction band
resistivity in the range of 1011 – 1019 Wm and and valence band is called as forbidden band. The
metals have resistivity in the range of 10–2 to minimum amount of energy required to transfer
10–8 Wm while semiconductors have resistivity in electrons from valence band to conduction band
the range of 10–5 – 106 Wm is called as band gap.
• Semiconductors can be elemental (without  Metals do not have any band gap and E g ≈ 0
doping) as well as compound (by doping).
• Intrinsic semiconductors: These are pure while band gap in insulators is greater than 3 eV
semiconductors where the conductivity is due to and the band gap for semiconductors lies between
electrons moving from valence band to conduction 0.2 eV and 3 eV.
band. Their conductivity is called intrinsic Empty 4 N states
conductivity. In intrinsic conductors, ne = nh EC
• Extrinsic semiconductors: When Impurity
is added to pure semiconductor to increase its
conductivity, is called as extrinsic semiconductor.
Eg
It can be divided into two types, i.e. p-type
semiconductors and n-type semiconductors.
In p-type semiconductors, number of holes are
EV
greater than number of electrons.
Filled 4 N states
nh >> ne
Infinitely large number of
In n-type semiconductors, number of electrons
states each occupied by
are greater than number of holes. two electrons
at 0 K
ne >> nh
Fig.: The energy band positions in a semiconductor
Trivalent atoms (B, Al, etc.) called acceptor atoms at 0 K. The upper band is conduction band and
are used for doping p-type semiconductors while the lower band is called valence bond.
pentavalent atoms (As, Sb, etc.) called donor
• p-n junction: p-type semiconductor when
atoms are used for doping n-type semiconductors.
brought in contact with n-type semiconductor
• Energy bands: Valence electrons of an atom forms a p-n junction.
CHAPTER 14 : Semiconductor Electronics 227

p-n junction

p n

+ + + +

+ + + +
p n
+ + + + Electron Symbol

Hole Depletion layer

Fig.: p–n junction depicting Depletion layer

When there are no charge carriers, a region is junction diodes are zener diode, light-emitting
created at the p-n junction called as depletion diode, photo-diode, etc.
layer.  In zener diodes, when it is reversed biased the
 Forward Biasing: When the p-side is connected current increases after a certain voltage and
to the positive terminal and n-side is connected the voltage is called breakdown voltage. This
to the negative terminal of a battery, it is called property of zener diodes is used in regulating
forward biasing. Majority charge carriers cause voltage.
forward current flow in this biasing and the
width of the depletion layer decreases.
 Reverse Biasing: When the n-side is connected
to the positive terminal and p-side is connected
Fig.: Zener diode
Zener diode
to the negative terminal of the battery then it is  In photodiodes, photons are excited which
called reverse biasing. Minority charge carriers result in change of reverse saturation current to
cause reverse current flow in this biasing and measure light intensity.
width of the depletion layer increases. hv
• Junction diode as rectifier: By applying
alternating voltage across a diode the current
flows in only that part if the diode is forward
biased and by using this property diode could be
used to design a circuit which can be used as a A
rectifier.
p-side n-side
Transformer A X

Primary Fig.: An illuminated photodiode
Secondary RL
~  In light emitting diodes, electrons are excited
by a biasd voltage resulting in generation of light.
B Y
 In solar cells, emf is generated when solar
Fig.: Half-wave rectifier circuit using diode
Half wave rectifier circuit using diode
Centre-Tap radiation falls on the p-n junction. It works on
Transformer the principle of photovoltaic effect.
Diode 1(D1)
I1
Centre A
X
Tap
B
Diode 2(D2) RL Output

Y
Fig.: Full-wave rectifier circuit using diode
Depletion
• Diodes: Ac voltage can be restricted to one layer
direction using diodes. Some examples of p-n Fig.: Typical p-n junction solar cell
CHAPTER 14 : Semiconductor Electronics 237

[Topic 2] Transistors, its application and logic gates

Summary  ∆V BE 
ri = 
• A thin layer of one type of semiconductor is added  ∆I B V
CE
between two thick layers of other semiconductor
 Output resistance is the ratio of change in
of same type and this forms a transistor.
collector emitter voltage to the change in collector
It can be done in two ways, i.e. adding a
current at a constant base current and is given by
p-type semiconductor between two n-type
semiconductors forming n-p-n transistor or by  ∆V 
r o =  CE 
adding an n-type semiconductor between two  ∆I C  I
B
p-type semiconductors forming p-n-p transistor.
Emitter Base Collector Emitter Base Collector
• Current gain: There are two low current gains
defined as follows:
E n p n C E p n p C  Common base current amplification factor
(a) : Ratio of the small change in collector current
to the small change in emitter current at constant
B
n-p-n transistor
B
p-n-p transistor collector-base voltage.
δ I C 
 Any transistor has 3 parts: Base (central block), α = 
Emitter and Collector (two electrodes). Therefore  δ I E VCB = const ant

the three parts of the transistor can be connected
 Common emitter current amplification
in three ways: Common Emitter (CE), Common
factor (b): Ratio of the small change in collector
Collector (CC) and Common Base (CB).
current to the small change in base current at
 For fixed IB, the plot between IC gives output
constant collector-emitter voltage.
characteristics and for fixed VCE, the plot between
IB and VBE gives input characteristics. δ I C 
β = 
• Common emitter transistor: The input is  δ I B VCE = const ant

between the base and the emitter and output is
β
between the collector and the emitter. Terms a and b are related as: α = and
IC 1+ β

+ α
mA β =
IB R1 1−α
C +
B
R2 + • A transistor can be used as an amplifier to
µA E VCE
VCC increase voltage, current or power. Voltage gain
IE
VBB VBE of an amplifier can be defined as the ratio of small
change in output voltage to small change in input
voltage. Ratio of the small change in collector
current to the small change in base current

n-p-n transistor in CE configuration at constant collector-emitter voltage is called
 Input resistance is the ratio of change in base current gain.
emitter voltage to the resulting change in base Voltage gain of amplifier is given by,
current at constant collector emitter voltage and β R 
Av = −  ac L 
is given by  r 
238 CHAPTER 14 : Semiconductor Electronics

described as OR, AND, NOT, NAND, and NOR.

IC Different logic gates are integrated in a single
RB C RC
B chip called Integrated circuits (IC).
~ V0
IB E VCC  Boolean expression for OR gate: Y = A + B
IE
V1 ~ VBB
A
Y

Fig.: C-E transistor amplifier B

• A transistor can be used as a switch by analyzing The truth table for OR gate is shown below:
the behavior of the base-biased transistor in CE A B Output Y
configuration. When transistor works as a switch
0 0 0
a low input to the transistor gives high output
0 1 1
and a high input gives a low output. In this case
1 0 1
the transistor does not remain in active state.
1 1 1
IC
RB RC  Boolean expression for AND gate: Y = A.B
C
B +
A
~ v0
IB E VCC Y
IE
v1 ~ VBB
B
The truth table for AND gate is shown below:

Fig.: Base-biased transistor in CE configuration A B Output Y

to work as a switch 0 0 0
• Transistor oscillator: When we get ac output 0 1 0
without any external input signal then the 1 0 0
transistor works as an oscillator. 1 1 1
T1  Boolean expression for NOT gate: Y = A
1
2 Mutual inductance
(Coupling through
magnetic field) A Y
3
C T2
n-p-n T2¢ Output
L
4 The truth table for NOT gate is shown below:

S1(Switch) A Output Y
0 1
Fig.: Tuned collector oscillator
1 0
Frequency at which the oscillator will work is
• Integrated circuits: When a entire circuit
1
given by, v = (including all passive components and active
2π L C
devices) is fabricated on a single chip or block of
• Logic gates are digital circuits which perform a semiconductor then it is known as integrated
special; logic operations. These logic gates can be circuit(IC). The most widely used technology for
making IC’s is monolithic Integrated circuit.
250 CHAPTER 15 : Communication System

[Topic 1] Communication

Summary
• Communication is a two way process in which exchange of information takes place either in verbal or
written form.
• Elements of communication system: There are three essential elements of communication transmitter,
medium/channel and receiver.
Communication System

Information Message Transmitter Channel Receiver Message user of

Source Signal Signal information

Noise

Transmitter transmits the signals through • Amplification: The process of increasing the
channel which is a physical medium and the amplitude and the strength of a signal using an
receiver receives the signals. electronic circuit is called amplification.
The two basic types of communication modes are • Range: The largest distance between a source
point-to-point and broadcast. and a destination is called range up to which the
signal is received with sufficient strength.
• Transducer: A device which transforms the
energy from one form into another. Example: • Bandwidth: The range of frequency over
Loudspeaker. which an equipment operates or the portion of
the spectrum occupied by the signal is called
• Signal: An information transformed into
bandwidth.
electrical form for suitable transmission is termed
as signal. Signals can be of two types: analog or • Repeater: A combination of transmitter and
digital. receiver is the repeater which amplifies the
signals picked up from the transmitter and then
• Noise: The unwanted signals which have
retransmits those signals to the receiver. In order
a tendency to create the disturbancein the
to extend the range of the communication system,
transmission and processing of message is called
the repeaters are used.
noise.
• Bandwidth of signals: The difference between
• Transmitter: The device that processes the
the upper and lower frequencies of the signals
incoming message signal in order to make it
is termed as bandwidth of signals. The different
suitable for transmission through a channel and
bandwidths of the different kinds of signals is
subsequent reception is known as transmitter.
shown in the following table:
• Receiver: In order to extract the appropriate
Types of Signals Bandwidth
message signals from the received signals at the
channel output, receiver is used. Speech signal 2800 Hz
Music signal 20 KHz
• Attenuation: When signals are propagated
through a medium, some of their strength is lost Video signal 4.2 MHz
which is known as attenuation. TV signal 6 MHz
CHAPTER 15 : Communication System 251

• Bandwidth of transmission medium: Free from few MHz to 40MHz. It uses the phenomenon
space, wire, fibre optic cable and optical fibre are of bending of EM waves so that they are diverted
the common transmission media. The bandwidths towards the earth is similar to total internal
are different for various transmission media. reflection in optics.
• Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves: In • Space wave propagation: For long distance
radio waves communication, the EM waves are transmission, antennas are used to radiatesignals
radiated at the transmitter by antenna. into space. In order to travel from transmitting
• Ground wave propagation: The ground wave antenna to the receiving antenna, space wave
propagation is also termed as surface wave takes the straight line path.They are useful for
propagation.The radio waves are travelled along line-of-sight (LOS) communication and satellite
the earth surface in this type of propagation. It is communication.
necessary for the antenna to be of a size which is • The range dT of an antenna of height hT that
comparable to the wavelength of the signal so that radiates electromagnetic waves is given by
the signals can be radiated with high efficiency. 2RhT ; R = radius of the earth.
As the frequency increases, the attenuation also
increases.
• To find out the maximum distance of line of sight
• Sky wave propagation: It is used for long (dM) between antennas with heights hT and hR:
distance communication in the frequency range =
dM 2RhT + 2RhR

Communication satellite

Space wave
Ionosphere

Los

Los Sky wave

Ground wave

Earth
258 CHAPTER 15 : Communication System

[Topic 2] Modulation

Summary  The size of antenna is given by

λ
and low
4
• Modulation is the process by which a low frequency implies larger wavelength so the size
frequency is superimposed on a high frequency of antenna is not achievable.
carrier signal so that the low frequency can be  There are 4 types of modulation: Amplitude
transmitted to long distance. modulation, Frequency modulation, Pulse
• Demodulation: The reverse process of modulation and Phase modulation
modulation is called as demodulation in which • Amplitude Modulation: The alteration of the
the information from the carrier wave is retrieved amplitude of the carrier in accordance with the
at the receiver. information signal is amplitude modulation.
• Need of Modulation: The following expression represent the AM of a
 As there is a need of a very large antenna for low carrier wave having amplitude and frequency fc:
frequency signals, signals from different stations µ Ac µ Ac
C m ( t ) = Ac A sin ωct + cos( ωc − ω m )t − cos( ωc + ω m )t
mixes up and the attenuation is large, so the 2 2
modulation is needed.
The amplitude of the modulating wave is Am and
the frequency is fm.
Am
=
Modulation index µ ; µ ≤ 1.
Ac

Ac

Ac
2

(c – m) e (c + m)  in radians

• Production of AM wave: The following block diagram shows the production of AM wave:

m(t) BANDPASS AM wave

x(t) y(t)
+ SQUARE FILTER
LAW DEVICE CENTRED
Am sin mt AT c
(Modulating 2
Bx(t) + Cx(t)
Signal) c(t)
Ac sin ct
(carrier)
CHAPTER 15 : Communication System 259

The block of transmitter is as follows:

TRANSMITTING
ANTENNA

m(t)
AMPLITUDE POWER
MODULATOR AMPLIFIER
Message signal

Carrier
• Detection of AM wave: Detected signals need modification as they may not be strong enough to use. The
block diagram of receiver is given below:
Receiving Antenna

Receiving Output
Amplifier IF Stage Detector Amplifier

Signal

3. The carrier wave is given by C(t) = 2 sin (wt)

PREVIOUS YEARS’ volt. The modulating signal is a square wave as

shown. Find modulation index.
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
TOPIC 2
1 Mark Questions 2
1. The carrier wave is represented by C (t) = 5 sin
in (t) in volt

(10pt)V . A modulating signal is a square wave

as shown.
1 2
m(t) in vol

1 t in second

1 2 t in second

Determine modulation index. [CBSE 2014] [CBSE 2014]

2. The carrier, wave of a signal is given by C(t) = 3
sin (8πt) volt. The modulating signal is a square
wave as shown. Find its modulation index. 2 Marks Questions
4. (i) Define modulation index.
(ii) Why is the amplitude of modulating signal
kept less than the amplitude of carrier
wave? [CBSE 2011]
1.5
5. In the block diagram of a simple modulator for
m(t) in volt

obtaining an AM signal, shown in the figure,

identify the boxes A and B. Write their functions.
1 2 x(t) y(t) AM
+ A B
t in second modulating Wave
signal

carrier
wave
[CBSE 2014] [CBSE 2012]