CHAPTER 4

Structure of the Atom

◼ 4.1 The Atomic Models of Thomson and Rutherford
◼ 4.2 Rutherford Scattering
◼ 4.3 The Classic Atomic Model
◼ 4.4 The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
◼ 4.5 Successes and Failures of the Bohr Model
◼ 4.6 Characteristic X-Ray Spectra and Atomic Number
◼ 4.7 Atomic Excitation by Electrons
 4.1 The Atomic Models of Thomson and
Rutherford
Pieces of evidence that scientists had in 1900 to indicate that
the atom was not a fundamental unit:

1) There seemed to be too many kinds of atoms, each

belonging to a distinct chemical element.
2) Atoms and electromagnetic phenomena were intimately
related.
3) The problem of valence. Certain elements combine with
some elements but not with others, a characteristic that
hinted at an internal atomic structure.
4) The discoveries of radioactivity, of x rays, and of the
electron
 Thomson’s Atomic Model
(turned out to be not correct)
◼ Thomson’s “plum-pudding” model of the atom had the positive
charges spread uniformly throughout a sphere the size of the
atom with, the newly discovered “negative” electrons embedded
in the uniform background.

◼ In Thomson’s view, when the atom was heated, the electrons

could vibrate about their equilibrium positions, thus producing
electromagnetic radiation.

Alpha particles cannot be scattered through large angles in this model

Experiments of Geiger and Marsden
◼ Rutherford, Geiger, and Marsden
conceived a new technique for
investigating the structure of matter
by scattering a particles from atoms.

◼ Geiger showed that many a particles

were scattered from thin gold-leaf
targets at backward angles greater
than 90°.
Rutherford’s Atomic Model (correct)
◼ even if the α particle scattered from all 79 electrons in
each atom of gold

The experimental results were not consistent with Thomson’s

atomic model.

◼ Rutherford proposed that an atom has a positively charged core

(nucleus) surrounded by the negative electrons.
 Rutherford Scattering
◼ Scattering experiments help us study matter too small to be
observed directly.
◼ There is a relationship between the impact parameter b and the
scattering angle θ.

When b is small,
r gets small.
Coulomb force gets large.
θ can be large and the particle can be repelled backward.
 The Relationship Between the Impact Parameter b
and the Scattering Angle a

Figure 4.7 The relationship between the impact parameter b and scattering angle u.
Particles with small impact parameters approach the nucleus most closely (rmin) and
scatter to the largest angles. Particles within the range of impact parameters b will be
scattered within u.
 Rutherford Scattering Equation
◼ In actual experiment a detector is positioned from θ to θ + dθ that
corresponds to incident particles between b and b + db.

◼ The number of particles scattered per unit area is

 The Important Points
1. The scattering is proportional to the square of
the atomic number of both the incident particle
(Z1) and the target scatterer (Z2).
2. The number of scattered particles is inversely
proportional to the square of the kinetic energy
of the incident particle.
3. For the scattering angle  , the scattering is
proportional to 4th power of sin(  /2).
4. The Scattering is proportional to the target
thickness for thin
 targets.

The distance of closest approach is in a head-on collision
 Clicker - Questions
7) Indicate the true statement concerning Rutherford’s
model of the atom

a) The electrons are in the center forming a negative

nucleus with positive charges filling a larger volume.

b) All the positive charges are in the center forming a

positive nucleus, which can deflect α-particles through a large
angle.

c) α-particles scattering produces small angle scattering

from the nucleus.

d) α-particles are attracted by the positive nucleus.

4.3: The Classical Atomic Model
As suggested by the Rutherford Model the atom consisted of a
small, massive, positively charged nucleus surrounded by moving
electrons. This then suggested consideration of a planetary model
of the atom.
Let’s consider atoms as a planetary model.
◼ The force of attraction on the electron by the nucleus and Newton’s
2nd law give Radial acceleration
a=v^2 / r

where v is the tangential velocity of the electron.

◼ The total energy is

The Planetary Model is Doomed
◼ From classical E&M theory, an accelerated electric charge
radiates energy (electromagnetic radiation) which means total
energy must decrease. Radius r must decrease!!

Electron crashes into the nucleus!?

◼ Physics had reached a turning point in 1900 with Planck’s

hypothesis of the quantum behavior of radiation.
4.4: The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
Bohr’s dramatic general assumptions:
A. “Stationary” states or orbits must exist in atoms, i.e., orbiting
electrons do not radiate energy in these orbits. These orbits or
stationary states are of a fixed definite energy E.
B. The emission or absorption of electromagnetic radiation can occur
only in conjunction with a transition between two stationary states.
The frequency, f, of this radiation is proportional to the difference in
energy of the two stationary states:
C. E = E1 − E2 = hf
where h is Planck’s Constant
D. Classical laws of physics do not apply to transitions between
stationary states.
A. The mean kinetic energy of the electron-nucleus system is
K = nhforb/2, where forb is the frequency of rotation. This is equivalent


to the angular momentum of a stationary state to be an integral
multiple of h/2
L=mvr=nh/2 
Summary: Bohr’s model of the hydrogen atom
 Bohr Radius
◼ The diameter of the hydrogen atom for stationary states is

Where the Bohr radius is given by

◼ The smallest diameter of the hydrogen atom is

◼ n = 1 gives its lowest energy state (called the “ground” state)

 Chapter 4 quiz question

◼ In his calculations, Bohr came across a number now called

◼ the "Bohr radius". This number is 5.29 x 10-11 m and is

◼ a.The maximum radius of the hydrogen atom.

◼ b.The minimum radius of the hydrogen atom.
◼ c.The average radius of the hydrogen atom.
◼ d. The minimum radius of atoms of all elements.
◼ e.The maximum radius of atoms of all elements.
 Rydberg equation

Calculate the shortest

wavelength of the Li ++ ion
The Hydrogen Atom
◼ The energies of the stationary states

where E0 = 13.6 eV

◼ Emission of light occurs when the atom is

in an excited state and decays to a lower
energy state (nu → nℓ).

where f is the frequency of a photon.

R∞ is the Rydberg constant.

Transitions in the Hydrogen Atom
Lyman series
The atom will remain in the
excited state for a short time
before emitting a photon and
returning to a lower stationary
state. All hydrogen atoms exist
in n = 1 (invisible).
Balmer series
When sunlight passes through
the atmosphere, hydrogen
atoms in water vapor absorb
the wavelengths (visible).
Fine Structure Constant

◼ The electron’s velocity in the Bohr model:

◼ On the ground state,

v1 = 2.2 × 106 m/s ~ less than 1% of the speed of light

◼ The ratio of v1 to c is the fine structure constant.

 Clicker - Questions

1) Indicate in which atom the electron is most strongly

bound?

a) H

b) He+

c) Li++
 Clicker - Questions

4) The diameter of the stationary states of the H-atom is

increasing with n

a) Linearly

b) Quadratically

c) With the varying Bohr’s radius

d) Inversely
 Clicker - Questions

5) The Bohr radius is 0.5x10-10 m.What is the radius of the

stationary state with n=2 ?

a) 2x10-10 m

b) 1x10-10 m

c) 4.5x10-10 m

d) 0.25x10-10 m
The Correspondence Principle

Classical electrodynamics + Bohr’s atomic model

Determine the properties

of radiation

Need a principle to relate the new modern results with classical

ones.
In the limits where classical and quantum
Bohr’s correspondence
principle
theories should agree, the quantum
theory must reduce the classical result.
 Clicker - Questions
7) Indicate the true statement concerning Rutherford’s
model of the atom

a) The electrons are in the center forming a negative

nucleus with positive charges filling a larger volume.

b) All the positive charges are in the center forming a

positive nucleus, which candeflect α-particles through a large
angle.

c) α-particles scattering produces small angle scattering

from the nucleus.

d) α-particles are attracted by the positive nucleus.

4.5: Successes and Failures of the Bohr Model
◼ The electron and hydrogen nucleus actually revolved about their
mutual center of mass.

◼ The electron mass is replaced by its reduced mass.

◼ The Rydberg constant for infinite nuclear mass is replaced by R.

 Problem 4.36
Calculate the Rydberg constant for the single-
electron (hydrogen-like) ions of helium,
potassium, and uranium. Compare each of
them with R and determine the percentage
difference.

1. As mentioned in the text below Equation (4.38), if each atom can be treated as single-
electron atoms (and the problem states we can make this assumption), then
1
R= R where R = 1.0973731534 107 m−1 and m = 0.0005485799 u.
m
1+
M
4
He (M = 4.0026 u), R = 0.999863 R = 1.097223 107 m−1 (off by 0.14%).
39
K (M = 38.963708 u), R = 0.9999859 R = 1.097358 107 m−1 (off by 0.0014%)
238
U (M = 238.05078 u), R = 0.9999977 R = 1.097371107 m −1 (off by 0.00023%)
Positronium energy levels
Use reduced mass
Limitations of the Bohr Model

The Bohr model was a great step of the new quantum theory,
but it had its limitations.

1) Works only to single-electron atoms

2) Could not account for the intensities or the fine structure
of the spectral lines
3) Could not explain the binding of atoms into molecules
X-rays revisited

Bremsstrahlung=braking radiation has sharp lines in it

Inverse Photoelectric Effect (slide from Chapter3).
◼ Conservation of energy requires that the
electron kinetic energy equal the
maximum photon energy where we
neglect the work function because it is
normally so small compared to the
potential energy of the electron. This
yields the Duane-Hunt limit which was
first found experimentally. The photon
wavelength depends only on the
accelerating voltage and is the same for
all targets.
4.6: Characteristic X-Ray Spectra and
Atomic Number
◼ Shells have letter names:
K shell for n = 1
L shell for n = 2

◼ The atom is most stable in its ground state.

An electron from higher shells will fill the inner-
shell vacancy at lower energy.
◼ When it occurs in a heavy atom, the radiation emitted is an x ray.
◼ It has the energy E (x ray) = Eu − Eℓ.
◼ For this to happen an inner shell vacancy has to be produced(for
instance by a high energy electron collision) in Roentgen’s
discovery of X-rays
Atomic Number

L shell to K shell Kα x ray

M shell to K shell Kβ x ray

◼ Atomic number Z = number of protons in the nucleus

◼ Moseley found a relationship between the frequencies of the
characteristic x ray and Z.
This holds for the Kα x ray
Chapter4 quiz question

Characteristic x-ray spectra come from

a. bremsstrahlung processes for electrons close to

the nucleus.
b.electrons transitioning down from an outer shell
replace electrons ejected from an inner shell.
c.random excitations of electrons when atoms are
near room temperature.
d.photons scattering off of electrons, thereby losing
energy and emitting radiation.
 Clicker - Questions

9) The kα-xray comes from transition of an electron;

a) From the L-shell to a vacancy in the k-shell

b) From the M-shell to a vacancy in the k-shell

c) From the M-shell to a vacancy in the L-shell

d) From the U-shell to a vacancy in the k-shell

 Moseley’s Empirical Results

◼ The Kα x ray is produced from n = 2 to n = 1 transition.

◼ In general, the K series of x ray wavelengths are

An electron in the L shell feels the effective charge

Z-1 due +Ze of the nucleus and –e from the
remaining electron in the K shell electron

Moseley’s research clarified the importance of the electron shells

for all the elements, not just for hydrogen.
Mosely plot the atomic number Z is responsible for ordering the
periodic table
4.7: Atomic Excitation by Electrons
◼ Franck and Hertz studied the phenomenon of ionization.

Accelerating voltage is below 5 V

electrons did not lose energy
Accelerating voltage is above 5 V
sudden drop in the current
Atomic Excitation by Electrons
◼ Ground state has E0 to be zero.
First excited state has E1.
The energy difference E1 − 0 = E1 is the excitation energy.

◼ Hg has an excitation energy of

4.88 eV in the first excited state
◼ No energy can be transferred to
Hg below 4.88 eV because not
enough energy is available to
excite an electron to the next
energy level

◼ Above 4.88 eV, the current drops because scattered electrons no longer
reach the collector until the accelerating voltage reaches 9.8 eV and so on.
Problem 4.46 Why is the small negative potential
difference between grid and collector plate necessary??

◼ Without the negative potential an electron

with any energy, no matter how small, could
drift into the collector plate. As a result the
electron could give up its kinetic energy to a
Hg atom and still contribute to the plate
current. The Franck-Hertz curve would not
show the distinguishing periodic drops, but
rather would rise monotonically.
.
frFFr
 Clicker - Questions

2) In the Franck-Hertz experiment the electron loses energy

by

a) Ionization of a Hg atom

b) Excitation of a Hg atom to the first excited state

c) Excitation to the second excited state of a Hg

atom

d) By being captured by a Hg atom

 Clicker - Questions

3) In the Franck-Hertz experiment the electron collides

with a Hg atom in an

a) Elastic Collision

b) Inelastic Collision

c) Grazing Collision

d) Orbiting Collision
Problem 4.47
Determine Planck’s constant from the Frank Hertz experiment in Hg vapor

E ( 254 nm )( 4.88 eV )

Using E = hc /  we find h = = = 4.13  10 −15
eV  s
c 3.00 10 m/s
8