UNIT-2

SIGNAL ANALYZERS:
AF Wave analyzer

The wave analyzer consists of a very narrow pass-band filter section which can be
tuned to a particular frequency within the audible frequency range (20Hz to 20 KHz)). The
block diagram of a wave analyzer is as shown in fig 2.1.

Fig 2.1: Frequency wave analyzer

The complex wave to be analyzed is passed through an adjustable attenuator which

serves as a range multiplier and permits a large range of signal amplitudes to be analyzed
without loading the amplifier.
The output of the attenuator is then fed to a selective amplifier, which amplifies the
selected frequency. The driver amplifier applies the attenuated input signal to a high-Q active
filter. This high-Q filter is a low pass filter which allows the frequency which is selected to pass
and reject all others. The magnitude of this selected frequency is indicated by the meter and
the filter section identifies the frequency of the component. The filter circuit consists of a
cascaded RC resonant circuit and amplifiers. For selecting the frequency range, the capacitors
generally used are of the closed tolerance polystyrene type and the resistances used are
precision potentiometers. The capacitors are used for range changing and the potentiometer
is used to change the frequency within the selected pass-band, hence this wave analyzer is
also called a Frequency selective voltmeter. The entire AF range is covered in decade steps by
switching capacitors in the RC section.
The selected signal output from the final amplifier stage is applied to the meter circuit
and to an unturned buffer amplifier. The main function of the buffer amplifier is to drive
output devices, such as recorders or electronics counters.

The meter has several voltage ranges as well as decibel scales marked on it. It is driven
by an average reading rectifier type detector. The wave analyzer must have extremely low
input distortion, undetectable by the analyzer itself. The band width of the instrument is very
narrow typically about 1% of the selective band given by the following response characteristics
shows in fig.2.2

Application of wave analyzer:

1. Electrical measurements 2. Sound measurements 3. Vibration measurements.
In industries there are heavy machineries which produce a lot of sound and vibrations,
it is very important to determine the amount of sound and vibrations because if it exceeds the
permissible level it would create a number of problems. The source of noise and vibrations is
first identified by wave analyzer and then it is reduced by further circuitry.

High-Frequency Wave Analyzer:

Frequency Mixers: In a super heterodyne receiver, the input amplitude modulated (AM) and
radio frequency (RF) signal carriers have to be combined with a locally generated RF signal in
order to produce a signal at a new carrier frequency (IF). The block diagram in as shown in
figures
Two methods are available:
1. Multiplication type in a wave device. 2. Addition type in a non-wave device.
Untuned 30MHz 1055 Hz range adjustment
Amplifier IF amplr.
attenuator First Mixer Second Active Meter
Mixer Filter

30MHz Local Crystal

Frequency range
Oscillator Oscillator
Frequency tuning
Figure: Block diagram for a high frequency wave analyzer

RF Amplr. Mixer IF amplr

Figure2.3: Simplified block diagram

Local
Oscillator
r
Consider the second one. Let the local oscillator voltage be Vo coswot. Using a device with a square law
characteristic Ec = E Vb2 where Ec is the collector voltage and Vb the base voltage.
Vo = Vo cos wot + Vc (1+ma cos wmt) cos wct
An amplitude modified AM wave is the input to an RF amplifier.
The output of the device will give a large number of RF components including (wo-wc), the only significant
voltage across is given by
It = KVcVo(cos(w0-wc)t wo/2 cos(wo-wc+wp)t)

Heterodyne wave analyzer

A wave analyzer, in fact, is an instrument designed to measure relative amplitudes of
single frequency components in a complex waveform. Basically, the instrument acts as a
frequency selective voltmeter which is used to the frequency of one signal while rejecting all
other signal components. The desired frequency is selected by a frequency calibrated dial to
the point of maximum amplitude. The amplitude is indicated either by a suitable voltmeter or
CRO. This instrument is used in the MHz range. The input signal to be analyzed is heterodyned
to a higher IF by an internal local oscillator. Tuning the local oscillator shifts various signal
frequency components into the pass band of the IF amplifier. The output of the IF amplifier is
rectified and is applied to the metering circuit. The instrument using the heterodyning
principle is called a heterodyning tuned voltmeter.

The block schematic of the wave analyzer using the heterodyning principle is shown in figure 2.4
above. The operating frequency range of this instrument is from 10 kHz to 18 MHz in 18 overlapping
bands selected by the frequency range control of the local oscillator. The bandwidth is controlled by an
active filter and can be selected at 200, 1000, and 3000 Hz.
Wave analyzers have very important applications in the following fields:
1) Electrical measurements
2) Sound measurements and
3) Vibration measurements.
The wave analyzers are applied industrially in the field of reduction of sound and
vibrations generated by rotating electrical machines and apparatus. The source of noise and
vibrations is first identified by wave analyzers before it can be reduced or eliminated. A fine
 spectrum analysis with the wave analyzer shows various discrete frequencies and
resonances that can be related to the motion of machines. Once, these sources of sound and
vibrations are detected with the help of wave analyzers, ways and means can be found to
eliminate them.

Harmonic Distortion :
The total harmonic distortion (THD) is a measurement of the harmonic distortion present in
a signal and is defined as the ratio of the sum of the powers of all harmonic components to
the power of the fundamental frequency. Distortion factor, a closely related term, is
sometimes used as a synonym.
In audio systems, lower distortion means the components in a loudspeaker, amplifier or
microphone or other equipment produce a more accurate reproduction of an audio
recording.
To understand a system with an input and an output, such as an audio amplifier, we start
with an ideal system where the transfer function is linear and time-invariant. When a signal
passes through a non-ideal, non-linear device, additional content is added at the harmonics
of the original frequencies. THD is a measurement of the extent of that distortion.
When the main performance criterion is the ″purity″ of the original sine wave (in other
words, the contribution of the original frequency with respect to its harmonics), the
measurement is most commonly defined as the ratio of the RMS amplitude of a set of
higher harmonic frequencies to the RMS amplitude of the first harmonic, or fundamental,
frequency

where Vn is the RMS voltage of the nth harmonic and n = 1 is the fundamental frequency.

Spectrum Analyzer
The modern spectrum analyzers use a narrow band super heterodyne receiver. Super
entrodyne is nothing but mixing of frequencies in the super above audio range. The
functional block diagram of super heterodyne spectrum analyzer or RF spectrum analyzer as
shown in the Figure 2.5

The RF input to be analyzed is applied to the input attenuator. After attenuating, the signal is fed to
low pass filter. The low pass filter suppresses high frequency components and allows low frequency
components to pass through it. The output of the low pass filter is given to the mixer, where this signal
is fixed with the signal coming from voltage controlled or voltage tuned oscillator.

This oscillator is tuned over 2 to 3 GHz range. The output of the mixer includes two
signals whose amplitudes are proportional to the input signal but their frequencies are the
sum and difference of the input signal and the frequency of the local oscillator.
Since the frequency range of the oscillator is tuned over 2 to 3 GHz, the IF amplifier is
tuned to a narrow band of frequencies of about 2 GHz. Therefore only those signals which
are separated from the oscillator frequency by 2 GHz are converted to Intermediate
Frequency (IF) band. This IF signal is amplified by IF amplifier and then rectified by the
detector. After completing amplification and rectification the signal is applied to vertical
plates of CRO to produce a vertical deflection on the CRT screen. Thus, when the saw tooth
signal sweeps, the oscillator also sweeps linearly from minimum to maximum frequency
range i.e., from 2 to 3 GHz.
Here the saw tooth signal is applied not only to the oscillator (to tune the oscillator)
but also to the horizontal plates of the CRO to get the frequency axis or horizontal deflection
on the CRT screen. On the CRT screen the vertical axis is calibrated in amplitude and the
horizontal axis is calibrated in frequency.

Power Analyzer:

These instruments are used for

1. Testing and verifying correct operation of motors.
2. Checking transformer efficiency.
3. Verifying power-supply performance.
4. Measuring the effect of neutral current.
These features include harmonic analysis, power measurements and Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
motor drive triggering. These instruments can also be used as oscilloscopes, which enable troubleshooting and
verification of complicated electronic control circuits control circuits controlling the high-voltage power
electronic circuits.
The bandwidth of the oscilloscopes will be about 100 M Hz. The sampling rate per channel is typically 500
samples/sec. These instruments can also be used as digital multi-meters with a data logger. Some models in this
category can measure harmonics up to the thirty-first harmonic with a fundamental frequency ranging from 30
to 450 Hz.

CAPACITANCE-VLOLTAGE ANALYZERS:
Capacitance-voltage analyzers measure and give capacitance versus voltage and capacitance versus time
characteristics of semiconductor devices. A high-frequency signal of 100 kHz or 1 MHz is applied to test the p-n
or Scottie junction and mental insulator semiconductor devices for device characterization and process control.
C-V results are highly correlated with performance parameters of functional devices such as field-effect
transistors, memory cells, charge-coupled devices (CCDs) and isolation structures.
The instrument provides:
∙ 0.1 femto farads (0.1 x 10-18 F ) typically sensitive to test small devices.
∙ Ranges up to 20 mF (at – 100kHz)to test large, leaky or forward-biased devices.
∙ Test signal Voltage of 15 mV RMS.
∙ Measurement rates of 1-1000 readings per second can be selected. Speed/resolution trade-offs can be
optimized.
∙ Correction can be made for transmission line errors because of connections.
C-V and C-t (capacitance V and time) data are used to determine important characteristics such as
semiconductor doping profiles, threshold voltage, oxide characteristics, mobile ion density, interface trap
density, and minority carrier lifetime. The internal voltage source can supply up to 50 mA from -20V to +20V
with a 5mV resolution. The voltages can be applied in the form of a DC staircase, dual staircase, and pulse form.
There is provision to apply up to 200V using an eternal source.
1. The sensitivity for capacitance is typically 0.1fF (0.1 x 10-15 F).
2. The sensitivity for time parameter is typically 0.1 mS.
3. The measurement range for capacitance is typically 20 nF.
4. The measurement range for time is typically 20ms.
5. Usually a 15 mV RMS test signal is used for testing the devices. Testing semiconductor devices with large
test signals can cause a curve shape distortion and loss of detail.

A 1 MHz test frequency specified in a C-V test procedure is considered high frequency. Testing at- 1 MHz reduces
errors because of cabling or device series resistance. The display and bias reading are adjusted to compensate
for transmission line error.
The filter circuit in a 1-pole analog, at -37Hz, filters both capacitance and conductance signals. Digital plotter
output controls are available through IEEE-488 bias for real-time plotting of all measurements as well as results
of mathematical computations.

Oscillators: Signal sources are described by several names:

1. Oscillators
2. 2. Test oscillators
3. 3. Signal generators

SIGNAL GENERATORS:-
A standard signal generator produces known and controllable voltages. It is used as
power source for the measurement of gain, signal to noise ratio (SN), bandwidth standing
wave ratio and other properties.
It is extensively used in the measuring of radio receivers and transmitter instrument
is provided with means of modulating the carrier frequency, which is indicated by the dial
setting on the front panel.
The modulation is indicated by a meter. The output signal can be Amplitude Modulated
(AM) or Frequency Modulated (FM). Modulation may be done by a sine wave, Square,
rectangular, or a pulse wave.

The elements of conventional signal generators are:

1) RF Oscillator 2) Wide band amplifier 3) External Oscillator 4) Modulation Oscillator and
(5) Out put attenuator.
The carrier frequency is generated by a very stable RF oscillator using an LC tank
circuit, having a constant output over any frequency range. The frequency of oscillations is
indicated by the frequency range control and the venire dial setting. AM is provided by an
internal sine wave generator or from an external source.
The signal generator is called an oscillator. A Wien bridge oscillator is used in this
generator. The Wien bridge oscillator is the best of the audio frequency range. The
frequency of oscillations can be changed by varying the capacitance in the oscillator.
The frequency can also be changed in steps by switching the resistors of different values.
The output of the Wien bridge oscillator goes to the function switch.
The function switch directs the oscillator output either to the sine wave amplifier or
to the square wave shaper. At the output, we get either a square or sine wave. The output is
varied by means of an attenuator.
The instrument generates a frequency ranging from 10 Hz to 1 MHz continuously vV
(rms).The output is taker through a push-pull amplifier. For low output, the impedance is
6000. The square wave amplitudes can be varied from 0 - 20 v (peak). It is possible to adjust
the symmetry of the square wave from 30 -70%. The instrument requires only 7W of power
at 220V 50Hz.

The front panel of a signal generator consists of the following.

l. Frequency selector: It selects the frequency in different ranges and varies it
continuously in a ratio of 1: 11. The scale is non-linear.
2. Frequency multiplier: It selects the frequency range over 5 decades from 10 Hz to 7 MHz
3. Amplitude multiplier: It attenuates the sine wave in 3 decades, x l x 0.1 and x 0.01.
4. Variable amplitude: It attenuates the sine wave amplitude continuously
5. Symmetry control: It varies the symmetry of the square wave from 30% to 70%.
6. Amplitude: It attenuates the square wave output continuously.
7. Function switch: It selects either sine wave or square output.
8. Output available: This provides sine wave or square wave output.
9. Sync: This terminal is used to provide synchronization of the internal signal with an external
signal.
10. On-Off Switch

Sweep Generator:
It provides a sinusoidal output voltage whose frequency varies smoothly and
continuously over an entire frequency band, usually at an audio rate. The process of
frequency modulation may be accomplished electronically or mechanically. It is done
electronically by using the modulating voltage to vary the reactance of the oscillator tank
circuit component, and mechanically by means of a motor driven capacitor, as provided for
in a modern laboratory type signal generator. Figure shows a basic block diagram of a sweep
generator. The frequency sweeper provides a variable modulating voltage which causes the
capacitance of the master oscillator to vary. A representative sweep rate could be the order
of 20 sweeps /second. A manual control allows independent adjustment of the oscillator
resonant frequency. The frequency sweeper provides a varying sweep voltage
synchronization to drive the horizontal deflection plates of the CRO.
Thus the amplitude of the response of a test device will be locked and displayed on the screen.

To identify a frequency interval, a marker generator provides half sinusoidal waveforms at

any frequency within the sweep range. The marker voltage can be added to the sweep
voltage of the CRO during alternate cycles of the sweep voltage, and appears superimposed
on the response curve.
The automatic level control circuit is a closed loop feedback system which monitors the RF
level at some point in the measurement system. This circuit holds the power delivered to
the load or test circuit constant and independent o frequency and impedance changes. A
constant power level prevents any source mismatch and also provides a constant readout
calibration with frequency.

SQUARE AND PULSE GENERATOR:-

These generators are used as measuring devices in combination with a CRO. They provide
both quantitative and qualitative information of the system under test. They are made use
of in Transient response testing of amplifiers. The fundamental difference between a pulse
generator and a square wave generator is in the duty cycle.
Duty cycle = A square wave generator has a 500/o duty cycle.

Requirements of a Pulse
1. The pulse should have minimum distortion, so that any distortion, in the display is solely
due to the circuit under test.
2. The basic characteristics of the pulse are rise time, overshoot, ringing, sag, and undershoot.
3. The pulse should have sufficient maximum amplitude, if appreciable output power is
required by the test circuit, e.g. for magnetic core memory. At the same time, the
attenuation range should be adequate to produce small amplitude pulses to prevent over
driving of some test circuit.
4. The range of frequency control of the pulse repetition rate (PRR) should meet the
needs of thee experiment. For example, a repetition frequency of 100 MHz is required
for testing fast circuits. Other generators have a pulse-burst feature which allows a train
of pulses rather than a continuous output.
5. Some pulse generators can be triggered by an externally applied trigger signal;
conversely, pulse generators can be used to produce trigger signals, when this output is
passed through a differentiator circuit.
6. The output impedance of the pulse generator is another important consideration. In a
fast pulse system, the generator should be matched to the cable and the cable to the
test circuit. A mismatch would cause energy to be reflected back to the generator by the
test circuit, and this may be re-reflected by the generator, causing distortion of the
pulses.
7. DC coupling of the output circuit is needed, when dc bias level is to be
maintained. The basic circuit for pulse generation is the asymmetrical multi-
vibrator.

A laboratory type square wave and pulse generator is shown in Fig 6.1
 The frequency range of the instrument is covered in seven decade steps from 1Hz to
10 MHz, with a linearly calibrated dial for continuous adjustment on all ranges.
The duty cycle can be varied from 25 - 75%. Two independent outputs are available, a
50Ω source that supplies pulses with a rise and fall time of 5 ns at 5V peak amplitude and a
600Ω source which supplies pulses with a rise and fall time of 70 ns at 30 V peak amplitude.
The instrument can be operated as a free running generator or, it can be synchronized with
external signals.
The basic generating loop consists of the current sources, the ramp capacitor, the
Schmitt trigger and the current switching circuit as shown in the fig

The upper current source supplies a constant current to the capacitor and the
capacitor voltage increases linearly. When the positive slope of the ramp voltage reaches
the upper limit set by the internal circuit components, the Schmitt trigger changes state. The
trigger circuit output becomes negative and reverses the condition of the current switch.
The capacitor discharges linearly, controlled by the lower current source.
When the negative ramp reaches a predetermined lower level, the Schmitt trigger
switches back to its original state. The entire process is then repeated.
The ratio i1/i2 determines the duty cycle, and is controlled by symmetry control. The
sum of i1 and i2 determines the frequency. The size of the capacitor is selected by the
multiplier switch. The unit is powered by an internal supply that provides regulated voltages
for all stages of the instrument.
The precautionary measures to be taken in a signal generator application:-
A signal generator is an instrument, which can produce various types of wave forms
such as sine wave, square wave, triangular wave, saw tooth wave, pulse trains etc. As it can
generate a variety of waveforms it is widely used in applications like electronic
troubleshooting anti development, testing the performance of electronic equipments etc. In
such applications a signal generator is used to provide known test conditions (i.e., desired
signals of known amplitude and frequency
Hence, the following precautionary measures should be taken while using a signal
generator for an application.
1. The amplitude and frequency of the output of the signal generator should be made
stable and well known.
2. There should be provision for controlling the amplitude of signal generator output
from very small to relatively large values.
3. The output signal of generator should not contain any distortion and thus, it should
possess very low harmonic contents.
4. Also, the output of the signal generator should be less spurious.

FUNCTION GENERATOR
A function generator produces different waveforms of adjustable frequency. The
common output waveforms are the sine, square, triangular and saw tooth waves. The
frequency may be adjusted, from a fraction of a Hertz to several hundred kHz lie various
outputs of the generator can be made available at the same time. For example, the
generator can provide a square wave to test the linearity of a rectifier and simultaneously
provide a saw tooth to drive the horizontal deflection amplifier of the CRO to provide a
visual display.
Capability of Phase Lock the function generator can be phase locked to an external
source. One function generator can be used to lock a second function generator, and the
two output signals can be displaced in phase by adjustable amount. In addition, the
fundamental frequency of one generator can be phase locked to a harmonic of another
generator, by adjusting the amplitude and phase of the harmonic; almost any waveform can
be generated by addition.
The function generator can also be phase locked to a frequency standard and its
output waveforms will then have the same accuracy and stability as the standard source.
The block diagram of a function generator:

The block diagram of a function generator is illustrated in fig. Usually the frequency is
controlled by varying the capacitor in the LC or RC circuit. In the instrument the frequency is
controlled by varying the magnitude of current which drives the integrator. The instrument
produces sine, triangular and square waves with a frequency range of 0.01 Hz to 100 kHz.

The frequency controlled voltage regulates two current sources. The upper current
source supplies constant current to the integrator whose output voltage increases linearly
with time, according to the equation of the output signal voltage. An increase or decrease in
the current increases or decreases the slope of the output voltage and hence controls the
frequency. The voltage comparator multi-vibrator changes states at a pre-determined-
maximum level of the integrator output voltage. This change cuts off the upper current -
supply and switches on the lower current supply. The lower current source supplies a
reverse current to the integrator, so that its output decreases linearly with time. When the
output reaches a pre-determined minimum level, the voltage comparator again changes
state and switches on the Lower current source. The output of the integrator is a triangular
waveform whose frequency is determined by the magnitude of the current supplied by the
constant current sources. The comparator output delivers a square wave voltage of the
same frequency.
e = - 1/C ∫ idt
The resistance diode network alters the slope of the triangular wave as its amplitude
changes and produces a sine wave with less than 1% distortion.

Arbitrary Waveform Generator, AWG

The waveforms produced by arbitrary waveform generators, AWGs can be either
repetitive or sometimes just a single-shot. If the AWG waveform is only a single shot, then a
triggering mechanism is needed to trigger the AWG and possibly the measuring instrument.
The AWG is able to generate an arbitrary waveform defined by a set of values, i.e.
"waypoints" entered to set the value of the waveform at specific times. They can make up a
digital or even an analogue waveform.
As a result an arbitrary waveform generator is a form of test equipment that is able to
produce virtually any waveshape that is required.
Arbitrary Waveform Generator techniques
There are a number of ways of designing arbitrary waveform generators. They are
based around digital techniques, and their design falls into one of two main categories:

• Direct Digital Synthesis, DDS: This type of arbitrary waveform generator is based
around the DDS types of frequency synthesizer, and sometimes it may be referred to as
an Arbitrary Function Generator, AFG.
• Variable-clock arbitrary waveform generator: The variable clock arbitrary function
generator is the more flexible form of arbitrary waveform generator. These arbitrary
waveform generators are generally more flexible, although they do have some limitations
not possessed by the DDS versions. Sometimes these generators are referred to as just
arbitrary waveform generators, AWGs rather than arbitrary function generators.
• Combined arbitrary waveform generator This format of AWG combines both of the
other forms including the DDS and variable clock techniques. In this way the advantages
of both systems can be realized within a single item of test equipment.

Arbitrary waveform generator resolution and speed:

Two of the main specifications for an arbitrary waveform generator are their resolution
and also the speed. These two parameters determine the precision with which the waveform
can be reproduced. They are governed by different elements within the arbitrary waveform
generator circuit.
The amplitude resolution is governed by the resolution of the digital to analogue
converter (D/A or D2A). This is described in terms of the number of bits. A 12 bit resolution
provides 4096 amplitude steps.
The speed of the arbitrary waveform generator is also very important. The maximum
repetition rate for the waveform is governed by two factors: the length of the waveform in
terms of the number of samples required to simulate the waveform and the maximum clock
frequency. For example if the arbitrary waveform generator had a maximum clock frequency
of 25 MHz and the waveform had 1000 points, then the maximum repetition rate would be 25
kHz. If a higher repetition rate was required, then it would be necessary to decrease the
number of samples as it would not be possible to increase the clock frequency in the arbitrary
waveform generator!
Arbitrary waveform generator applications:

AWGs are used in many applications where specialized waveforms are required.
These can be within a whole variety of sectors of the electronics industry.
To give a view of some of the AWG applications, it is possible for DDS - based
arbitrary waveform generators is to create signals with precisely controlled phase offsets or
ratio-related frequencies. This enables the generation of signals like poly phase sine waves, I-
Q constellations, or simulation of signals from geared mechanical systems such as jet engines.
Complex channel- channel modulations are also possible.
The arbitrary waveform generator may not be the most widely used of items of test
instrumentation, but they can be immensely useful in a variety of applications. Modern
arbitrary waveform generators are very flexible and can be used to create very specific
waveforms for use in testing a variety of applications.
Direct digital synthesizer, DDS technology lends itself to being used within arbitrary
waveform generators, AWGs. Those AWGs that use DDS technology are often referred to as
arbitrary function generators, or AFGs.
The reason for being called arbitrary function generators is that they often appear as an
extension of the function generator test instruments that are available.
Arbitrary waveform generators using direct digital synthesis technology are
able to benefit from the technology, while not adding unwanted additional complexity and
cost. DDS technology has developed considerably in recent years and this makes them a very
attractive option to form the basis of a waveform generator. As a result arbitrary function
generators are relatively widely used.
Arbitrary function generator basics:
As mentioned, this type of arbitrary waveform generator is based around the DDS
types of frequency synthesizer, and sometimes it may be referred to as an Arbitrary Function
generator, AFG.

The arbitrary function generator uses integrated circuits intended for direct digital
frequency synthesizers, but enables an arbitrary waveform generator circuit to be created
relatively easily and for an economic price.

To look at how an arbitrary function generator works, it is necessary to look at the

operation of a direct digital synthesizer.

This circuit operates by storing the points of a waveform in digital format, and then
recalling them to generate the waveform. These points can be on any form of repetitive
waveform that is required. The rate at which the DDS completes one waveform governs the
frequency.
The basic block diagram of the DDS based arbitrary waveform generator is shown below.

The operation of the DDS within the arbitrary function generator can be envisaged by
looking at the way that phases progresses over the course of one cycle of the waveform.
The phase is often depicted as a line of phasor rotating around a circle. As the phase
advances around the circle, this corresponds to advances in the waveform. The faster is
progresses, the sooner it completes a cycle and the hence the higher the frequency.

The direct digital synthesizer operates by storing various points of the required
waveform in digital format in a memory. These can then be recalled to generate the waveform
as they are required.
To simulate the phase advances a phase accumulator is used. This takes in phase
increment information, and clock pulses from a clock. For each clock pulse, the phase will
advance a certain amount. The greater the increment, the larger the phase advance, and hence
the higher the frequency generated.
At each clock pulse the phase information is presented to the memory and the relevant
location is accessed, proving the waveform information for that particular phase angle.
It can be seen that any waveform can be loaded into the memory; although a sine wave
is shown on the diagram, the actual waveform could be anything.
While it is possible to load certain preset waveforms into the memory, it is also
possible to load user generated ones in as well. These make the test instrument an arbitrary
waveform generator or arbitrary function generator rather than a standard function generator.
Advantages and disadvantages of AFG:

While the arbitrary function generator or DDS based version of the arbitrary waveform
generator, has many advantages, there are also some disadvantages that should also be taken
into account when choosing what type of signal generator to use.
Arbitrary function generator advantages
• Sub Hz frequency resolution: By using a long word length phase accumulator in the
phase accumulator of the DDS, it is possible to achieve sub-Hertz frequency resolution
levels.
• Down sampling: Waveforms are automatically truncated by sampling to allow
repetition rates above the clock frequency.
• Digital modulation: It is possible to add digital modulation words to the phase
accumulator to provide a means of providing digital modulation.

Arbitrary function generator disadvantages

• Waveform jitter: Waveform jitter is an issue with arbitrary function generators

because frequencies are up-sampled or down-sampled and this results in missing samples
and hence jitter. Only frequencies equal to the clock frequency divided by the waveform
length and its sub multiples are not sampled and therefore they do not suffer from this
problem
• Single waveform capability: It is only possible to generate a single waveform at a
time because memory segmentation and waveform sequencing is not possible using a
DDS arbitrary function generator
The arbitrary function generator is the ideal instrument where a variety of
programmed waveforms are required without the added flexibility and complexity of the
more expensive variable clock arbitrary waveform generator. For most laboratory
applications, the arbitrary function generator is an ideal choice.

AUDIO AND VIDEO SIGNAL GENERATORS AUDIO SIGNAL GENERATORS produce

stable af signals used for testing audio equipment. VIDEO SIGNAL GENERATORS produce
signals that include the audio range and extend into the rf range. These signal generators are
used to test video amplifiers and other wideband circuits. In both audio and video signal
generators (figure 5-5), major components include a POWER SUPPLY, an OSCILLATOR (or
oscillators), one or more AMPLIFIERS, and an OUTPUT CONTROL.

Output
Meter

Oscillator Amplifier Output

Output
section Control

Power
supply
Figure 5-5.—Af and video signal generator block diagram.
Specifications of signal generators:
What is the function of signal generator?
A function generator is usually a piece of electronic test equipment or software used to generate
different types of electrical waveforms over a wide range of frequencies. Some of the most common
waveforms produced by the function generator are the sine wave, square wave, triangular wave and
saw tooth shapes.

How do signal generators work?

Function generators, which produce repeating sine waves, are simpler in design than waveform
generators. Commonly used to design and repair electronic equipment, function generators measure
the output signal by sending signals to test a specific circuit that is connected to an oscilloscope

How do signal generators work?

Function generators, which produce repeating sine waves, are simpler in design than waveform
generators. Commonly used to design and repair electronic equipment, function generators measure
the output signal by sending signals to test a specific circuit that is connected to an oscilloscope
How do you use a frequency generator?
This is how to use a function generator to test a circuit's behavior:
1. Power on the generator and select the desired output signal: square wave, sine wave or triangle
wave.
2. Connect the output leads to an oscilloscope to visualize the output signal and set its parameters
using the amplitude and frequency controls.
Questions:
1. Explain about AF & HF wave analyzers.
2. Explain about Harmonic & Heterodyne wave analyzers.
3. A) What is spectrum analyzer?
B) Explain about capacitance voltage meters.
4. Explain more about AF signal Generators.
5. What is pulse & Square wave Generators? Explain more about them.
Fill in the blanks:
1. Attenuator of a signal in dB is _________
2. Application of wave analyzers are _________________
3. The combination of amplitude modulation & radio frequency is ___________
4. The types of harmonic distortion circuits are ________________
5. The type of spectrum analyzers are _____________
Answers: 1. Negative 2, Electronic & sound analysis of machines 3. Heterodyne Receiver
4. Tune able selective circuit, Heterodyne type 5. Low frequency & High Frequency
Multiple bit questions:
1. The wave analyzers are
a) Audio frequency b) Radio frequency c) High frequency d) All others
2. Signal generators are used as power source for the measurement
a) Gain ratio b) Signal to noise ratio c) Gain & signal to noise ratio d) None of them
3. The elements of conventional signal generators are
a) RF Oscillator b) Modulation oscillator c) RF & Modulation oscillator d) none of them
4. Function generators consists of
a) Sine wave b) square wave c) triangular wave d) all of them
5. The type of spectrum analyzers are
a) Low Frequency b) High Frequency c) Low & High frequency d) Audible Frequency
Answers: 1) d 2) c 3) c 4) d 5) c