UNIT4

ELECTRIC TRACTION
The system that causes the propulsion of a vehicle in which that driving force or tractive force is
obtained from various devices such as electric motors, steam engine drives, , diesel engine
drives, etc. is known as traction system. Traction system may be broadly classified into two types.
They are electric traction systems, which use electrical energy, and non-electric traction system,
which does not use electrical energy for the propulsion of vehicle. Requirements of ideal traction
system Normally, no single traction system fulfills the requirements of ideal traction system, why
because each traction system has its merits and suffers from its own demerits, in the fields of
applications.
The requirements of ideal traction systems are:
o Ideal traction system should have the capability of developing high tractive effort in order to
have rapid acceleration.
o The speed control of the traction motors should be easy.
o Vehicles should be able to run on any route, without interruption.
o Equipment required for traction system should be minimum with high efficiency.
o It must be free from smoke, ash, durt, etc.
o Regenerative braking should be possible and braking should be in such a way to cause
minimum wear on the break shoe.
o Locomotive should be self-contained and it must be capable of withstanding overloads.
o Interference to the communication lines should be eliminated while the locomotive running
along the track.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Electric Traction
Electric traction system has many advantages compared to non-electric traction systems. The
following are the advantages of electric traction:
o Electric traction system is more clean and easy to handle.
o No need of storage of coal and water that in turn reduces the maintenance cost as well as the
saving of high-grade coal.
o Electric energy drawn from the supply distribution system is sufficient to maintain the
common necessities of locomotives such as fans and lights; therefore, there is no need of
providing additional generators.
o The maintenance and running costs are comparatively low.
o The speed control of the electric motor is easy.
o Regenerative braking is possible so that the energy can be fed back to the supply system during the braking
period.
o In electric traction system, in addition to the mechanical braking, electrical braking can also be
used that reduces the wear on the brake shoes, wheels, etc.
o Electrically operated vehicles can withstand for overloads, as the system is capable of
drawing more energy from the system.
In addition to the above advantages, the electric traction system suffers from the following
drawbacks:
o Electric traction system involves high erection cost of power system.
o Interference causes to the communication lines due to the overhead distribution
networks.
o The failure of power supply brings whole traction system to stand still.
o In an electric traction system, the electrically operated vehicles have to move only on the
electrified routes.
o Additional equipment should be needed for the provision of regenerative braking, it will
increase the overall cost of installation.
REVIEW OF EXISTING ELECTRIC TRACTION SYSTEM IN INDIA
In olden days, first traction system was introduced by Britain in 1890 (600-V DC track).
Electrification system was employed for the first traction vehicle. This traction system was
introduced in India in the year 1925 and the first traction system employed in India was from
Bombay VT to Igatpuri and Pune, with 1,500- V DC supply. This DC supply can be obtained
for traction from substations equipped with rotary converters. Development in the rectifiers
leads to the replacement of rotary converters by mercury arc rectifiers. But nowadays further
development in the technology of semiconductors, these mercury arc valves are replaced by
solid-state semiconductors devices due to fast traction system was introduced on 3,000-V DC.
Further development in research on traction system by French international railways was
suggested that, based on relative merits and demerits, it is advantageous to prefer to AC rather
than DC both financially and operationally. Thus, Indian railways was introduced on 52-kV,
50-Hz single-phase AC system in 1957; this system of track electrification leads to the
reduction of the cost of overhead, locomotive equipment, etc.
SYSTEM OF TRACTION
Traction system is normally classified into two types based on the type of energy given as input
to drive the system and they are:
1. Non-electric traction system
Traction system develops the necessary propelling torque, which do not involve the use of
electrical energy at any stage to drive the traction vehicle known as electric traction system. Ex:
Direct steam engine drive and direct internal combustion engine drive.
2. Electric traction system
Traction system develops the necessary propelling torque, which involves the use of electrical
energy at any stage to drive the traction vehicle, known as electric traction system. Based upon
the type of sources used to feed electric supply for traction system, electric traction may be
classified into two groups:
1. Self-contained locomotives.
2. Electric vehicle fed from the distribution networks.
Self-contained locomotives
In this type, the locomotives or vehicles themselves have a capability of generating electrical
energy for traction purpose. Examples for such type of locomotives are:
1. Steam electric drive
In steam electric locomotives, the steam turbine is employed for driving a generator used to
feed the electric motors. Such types of locomotives are not generally used for traction because
of some mechanical difficulties and maintenance problems.
2. Diesel electric trains
A few locomotives employing diesel engine coupled to DC generator used to feed the electric
motors producing necessary propelling torque. Diesel engine is a variable high-speed type that
feeds the self- or separately excited DC generator. The excitation for generator can be supplied
from any auxiliary devices and battery. Generally, this type of traction system is suggested in
the areas where coal and steam tractions are not available. The advantages and disadvantages of
the diesel engine drive are given below:
Advantages
o As these are no overhead distribution system, initial cost is low.
o Easy speed control is possible.
o Power loss in speed control is very low
 o Time taken to bring the locomotive into service is less.
o In this system, high acceleration and braking retardation can be obtained compared to steam
locomotives.
o The overall efficiency is high compared to steam locomotives.
Disadvantages
o The overloading capability of the diesel engine is less.
o The running and maintenance costs are high.
o The regenerative braking cannot be employed for the diesel engine drives.
Petrol electric traction
This system of traction is used in road vehicles such as heavy lorries and buses These vehicles
are capable of handling overloads. At the same time, this system provides fine and smooth
control so that they can run along roads without any jerking. Battery drives In this drive, the
locomotive consists of batteries used to supply power to DC motors employed for driving the
vehicle. This type of drives can be preferred for frequently operated services such as local
delivery goods traction in industrial works and mines, etc. This is due to the unreliability of
supply source to feed the electric motors. Electric vehicles fed from distribution network
Vehicles in electrical traction system that receives power from over head distribution network
fed or substations with suitable spacing. Based on the available supply, these groups of vehicles
are further subdivided into:
1. System operating with DC supply. Ex: tramways, trolley buses, and railways.
2. System operating with AC supply. Ex: railways.
Systems operating with DC supply
In case if the available supply is DC, then the necessary propelling power can be obtained for the vehicles
from DC system such as tram ways, trolley buses, and railway

Tramways: Tramways are similar to the ordinary buses and cars but only the difference is they are
able to run only along the track. Operating power supply for the tramways is 500-V DC tramways are
fed from single overhead conductor acts as positive polarity that is fed at suitable points from either
power station or substations and the track rail acts as return conductor. The equipment used in
tramways is similar to that used in railways but with small output not more than 40–50 kW. Usually,
the tramways are provided with two driving axels to control the speed of the vehicles from either
ends. The main drawback of tramways is they have to run along the
 guided routes only. Rehostatic and mechanical brakings can be applied to tramways.
Mechanical brakes can be applied at low speeds for providing better saturation where electric
braking is ineffective, during the normal service. The erection and maintenance costs of
tramways are high since the cost of overhead distribution structure is costlier and sometimes, it
may cause a source of danger to other road users.
Trolley buses: The main drawback of tramways is, running along the track is avoided in case of trolley buses. These
are electrically operated vehicles, and are fed usually 600-V DC from two overhead conductors, by means of two
collectors. Even though overhead distribution structure is costlier, the trolley buses are advantageous because, they
eliminate the necessity of track in the roadways. In case of trolley buses, rehostatic braking is employed, due to high
adhesion between roads and rubber types. A DC compound motor is employed in trolley buses.
SYSTEM OF TRACK ELECTRIFICATION
Now a day, based on the available supply, the track electrification system are categorized into.
1. DC system.
2. Single-phase AC system.
3. Three-phase AC system.
4. Composite system.
1. DC system:

In this system of traction, the electric motors employed for getting necessary propelling torque
should be selected in such a way that they should be able to operate on DC supply. Examples
 for such vehicles operating based on DC system are tramways and trolley buses. Usually, DC
series motors are preferred for tramways and trolley buses even though DC compound motors
are available where regenerative braking is desired. The operating voltages of vehicles for DC
track
electrification system are 600, 750, 1,500, and 3,000 V. Direct current at 600–750 V is
universally employed for tramways in the urban areas and for many suburban and main line
railways, 1,500–3,000 V is used. In some cases, DC supply for traction motor can be obtained
from substations equipped with rotary converters to convert AC power to DC. These
substations receive AC power from 3-φ high voltage line or single-phase overhead distribution
network. The operating voltage for traction purpose can be justified by the spacing between
stations and the type of traction motors available. Theses substations are usually automatic and

remote controlled and they are so costlier since they involve rotary converting equipment. The
DC system is preferred for suburban services and road transport where stops are frequent and
distance between the stops is small.
2 .Single-phase AC system:

In this system of track electrification, usually AC series motors are used for getting the
necessary propelling power. The distribution network employed for such traction systems is
normally 15–25 kV at reduced frequency of 163∴ Hz or 25 Hz. The main reason of operating at
reduced frequencies is AC series motors that are more efficient and show better performance at
low frequency. These high voltages are stepped down to suitable low voltage of 300–400 V by
means of step-down transformer. Low frequency can be obtained from normal supply
frequency with the help of frequency converter. Low-frequency operation of overhead
transmission line reduces the line reactance and hence the voltage drops directly and single-
phase AC system is mainly preferred for main line services where the cost of overhead structure
is not much importance moreover rapid acceleration and retardation is not required for
suburban services.
3 .Three-phase AC system
In this system of track electrification, 3-φ induction motors are employed for getting the
necessary propelling power. The operating voltage of induction motors is normally 3,000–
3,600-V AC at either normal supply frequency or 16∴-Hz frequency. Usually 3-φ induction
motors are preferable because they have simple and robust construction, high operating
efficiency, provision of regenerative braking without placing any additional equipment, and
better performance at both normal and seduced frequencies. In addition to the above
advantages, the induction motors

suffer from some drawbacks; they are low-starting torque, high-starting current, and the
absence of speed control. The main disadvantage of such track electrification system is high
cost of overhead distribution structure. This distribution system consists of two overhead wires
and track rail for the third phase and receives power either directly from the generating station
or through transformer substation. Three-phase AC system is mainly adopted for the services
where the output power required is high and regeneration of electrical energy is possible.
4 .Composite system
Single-phase to DC system

In this system, the advantages of both 1-φ and DC systems are combined to get high voltage for
distribution in order to reduce the losses that can be achieved with 1-φ distribution networks,
and DC series motor is employed for producing the necessary propelling torque. Finally, 1-φ
AC distribution network results minimum cost with high transmission efficiency and DC series
motor is ideally suited for traction purpose. Normal operating voltage employed of distribution
is 25 kV at normal frequency of 50 Hz. This track electrification is employed in India. Single-
phase to 3-φ system or kando system In this system, 1-φ AC system is preferred for distribution
network. Since single phase overhead distribution system is cheap and 3-φ induction motors are
employed as traction motor because of their simple, robust construction, and the provision of
automatic regenerative braking. The voltage used for the distribution network is about 15–25
kV at 50 Hz. This 1-φ supply is converted to 3-φ supply through the help of the phase
converters and high voltage is stepped down transformers to feed the 3-φ induction motors.
Frequency converters are also employed to get high-starting torque and to achieve better speed
control with the variable supply frequency.

Single-phase to Three-phase (Kando System):

 SPECIAL FEATURES OF TRACTION MOTORS
The general features of the electric motors used for traction purpose are:
1. Mechanical
2. Electrical features.

Mechanical features
1. A traction motor must be mechanically strong and robust and it should be capable of
withstanding severe mechanical vibrations.
2. The traction motor should be completely enclosed type when placed beneath the locomotive
to protect against dirt, dust, mud, etc.
3. In overall dimensions, the traction motor must have small diameter, to arrange easily beneath
the motor coach.
4. A traction motor must have minimum weight so the weight of locomotive will decrease.
Hence, the load carrying capability of the motor will increase.

Electrical features
High-starting torque
A traction motor must have high-starting torque, which is required to start the motor on load
during the starting conditions in urban and suburban services.
Speed control
The speed control of the traction motor must be simple and easy. This is necessary for the
frequent starting and stopping of the motor in traction purpose.
Dynamic and regenerative braking
Traction motors should be able to provide easy simple rehostatic and regenerative braking
subjected to higher voltages so that system must have the capability of withstanding voltage
fluctuations.
Temperature
The traction motor should have the capability of withstanding high temperatures during
transient conditions.
Overload capacity
The traction motor should have the capability of handling excessecive overloads.
Parallel running
In traction work, more number of motors need to run in parallel to carry more load. Therefore,
the traction motor should have such speed–torque and current–torque characteristics and those
motors may share the total load almost equally.
 Commutation
Traction motor should have the feature of better commutation, to avoid the sparking at the
brushes and commutator segments.

TRACTION MOTORS:
No single motor can have all the electrical operating features required for traction. In earlier
days, DC motor is suited for traction because of the high-starting torque and having the
capability of handling overloads. In addition to the above characteristics, the speed control of
the DC motor is very complicated through semiconductor switches. So that, the motor must be
designed for high base speed initially by reducing the number of turns in the field winding. But
this will decrease the torque developed per ampere at the time of staring. And regenerative
braking is also complicated in DC series motor; so that, the separately excited motors can be
preferred over the series motor because their speed control is possible through semi-controlled
converters. And also dynamic and regenerative braking in separately excited DC motor is

simple and efficient. DC compound motors are also preferred for traction applications since it is
having advantageous features than series and separately excited motors. But nowadays squirrel
cage induction and synchronous motors are widely used for traction because of the availability
of reliable variable frequency semiconductor inverters. The squirrel cage induction motor has
several advantages over the DC motors.
They are:
1. Robust construction.
2. Highly reliable.
3. Low maintenance and low cost.
4. High efficiency.
Synchronous motor features lie in between the squirrel cage induction motor and the DC motor.
The main advantages of the synchronous motor over the squirrel cage induction motor are:
1. The synchronous motors can be operated at leading power by varying the field excitation.
2. Load commutated thyristor inverter is used in synchronous motors as compared to forced
commutation thyristor inverter in squirrel cage induction motors. Even though such forced
commutation reduces the weight and volume of induction motor, the synchronous motor is less
expensive.
1. DC series motor
From the construction and operating characteristics of the DC series motor, it is widely suitable for traction purpose.
Following features of series motor make it suitable for traction

1. DC series motor is having high-starting torque and having the capability of handling
overloads that is essential for traction drives.
2. These motors are having simple and robust construction.
3. The speed control of the series motor is easy by series parallel control.
4. Sparkless commutation is possible, because the increase in armature current increases the
load torque and decreases the speed so that the emf induced in the coils undergoing
commutation.
5. Series motor flux is proportional to armature current and torque. But armature current is
independent of voltage fluctuations. Hence, the motor is unaffected by the variations in supply
voltage.
6. If more than one motor are to be run in parallel, their speed–torque and current–torque
characteristics must not have wide variation, which may result in the unequal wear of driving
wheels.

2. AC series motor
Practically, AC series motor is best suited for the traction purpose due to high starting torque
(Fig. 9.1). When DC series motor is fed from AC supply, it works but not satisfactorily due to
some of the following reasons:
1. If DC series motor is fed from AC supply, both the field and the armature currents reverse for
every half cycle. Hence, unidirectional torque is developed at double frequency.
2. Alternating flux developed by the field winding causes excessive eddy current loss, which
will cause the heating of the motor. Hence, the operating efficiency of the motor will decrease.
3. Field winding inductance will result abnormal voltage drop and low power factor that leads
to the poor performance of the motor.
Induced emf and currents flowing through the armature coils undergoing commutation will cause
sparking at the brushes and commutator segments

Fig. AC series motor

Hence, some modifications are necessary for the satisfactory operation of the DC series motor
on the AC supply and they are as follows:
1. In order to reduce the inductive reactance of the series field, the field winding of AC series
motor must be designed for few turns.
2. The decrease in the number of turns of the field winding reduces the load torque, i.e., if field
turns decrease, its mmf decrease and then flux, which will increase the speed, and hence the
torque will decrease. But in order to maintain constant load torque, it is necessary to increase
the armature turns proportionately.
3. If the armature turns increase, the inductive reactance of the armature would increase, which
can be neutralized by providing the compensating winding.
 4. Magnetic circuit of an AC series motor should be laminated to reduce eddy current losses.
5. Series motor should be operating at low voltage because high voltage low current supply
would require large number of turns to produce given flux.
6. Motor should be operating at low frequency, because inductive reactance is proportional to
the frequency. So, at low frequency, the inductive reactance of the field winding decreases. The
operating characteristics of the AC series motor are similar to the DC series motor. Weight of an AC
series motor is one and a half to two times that of a DC series motor. And operating voltage is limited
to 300 V. They can be built up to the size of several hundred kW for traction work. At the time of
starting operation, the power factor is low; so that, for a given current, the torque developed by the AC
motor is less compared to the DC motor. Thus, the AC series motor is not suitable for suburban
services with frequent stops and preferred for main line service where high acceleration is not
required.
Three-phase induction motor

The three-phase induction motors are generally preferred for traction purpose due to the
following advantages.
1. Simple and robust construction.
2. Trouble-free operation.
3. The absence of commutator.
4. Less maintenance.
5. Simple and automatic regeneration.
6. High efficiency.
Three-phase induction motor also suffer from the following drawbacks.
1. Low-starting torque.
2. High-starting current and complicated speed control system.
3. It is difficult to employ three-phase induction motor for a multiple-unit system used for
propelling a heavy train.

Three-phase induction motor draws less current when the motor is started at low frequencies.
When a three-phase induction motor is used, the cost of overhead distribution system increases
and it consists of two overhead conductors and track rail for the third phase to feed power to
locomotive, which is a complicated overhead structure and if any person comes in contact with
the third rail, it may cause danger to him or her. This drawback can be overcome by employing
kando system. In this system, 1- φ supply from the overhead distribution structure is converted
to 3-φ supply by using phase converters and is fed to 3- φinduction motor. The speed controller
of induction motor becomes smooth and easy with the use of thyristorized inverter circuits to
get variable frequency supply that can be used to control the speed of three-phase induction
motor. Nowadays, by overcoming the drawbacks of three- phase induction motor, it can be used
for traction purpose.
Train Movement:
The movement of trains and their energy consumption can be most conveniently studied by
means of the speed–distance and the speed–time curves. The motion of any vehicle may be at
constant speed or it may consist of periodic acceleration and retardation. The speed–time curves
have significant importance in traction. If the frictional resistance to the motion is known value,
the energy required for motion of the vehicle can be determined from it. Moreover, this curve
gives the speed at various time instants after the start of run directly.
TYPES OF SERVICES
There are mainly three types of passenger services, by which the type of traction
system has to be selected, namely:
1. Main line service.
2. Urban or city service.
3. Suburban service.
Main line services
In the main line service, the distance between two stops is usually more than 10 km. High
balancing speeds should be required. Acceleration and retardation are not so important.
Urban service
In the urban service, the distance between two stops is very less and it is less than 1 km. It
requires high average speed for frequent starting and stopping.
Suburban service
In the suburban service, the distance between two stations is between 1 and 8 km. This service
requires rapid acceleration and retardation as frequent starting and stopping is required.
SPEED–TIME AND SPEED–DISTANCE CURVES FOR DIFFERENT SERVICES
The curve that shows the instantaneous speed of train in kmph along the ordinate and time in
seconds along the abscissa is known as ‘speed–time’ curve. The curve that shows the distance
between two stations in km along the ordinate and time in seconds along the abscissa is known
as ‘speed–distance’ curve. The area under the speed–time curve gives the distance travelled
during, given time internal and slope at any point on the curve toward abscissa gives the
acceleration and retardation at the instance, out of the two speed–time curve is more important.

speed–time curve for main line service Typical speed–time curve of a train running on main
line service is shown in Fig. 10.1. It mainly consists of the following time periods:
1. Constant accelerating period.
2. Acceleration on speed curve.
3. Free-running period.
4. Coasting period.
5. Braking period.

Fig. 10.1 Speed–time curve for mainline service

Constant acceleration
During this period, the traction motor accelerate from rest. The curve ‘OA’ represents the
constant accelerating period. During the instant 0 to T1, the current is maintained approximately
constant and the voltage across the motor is gradually increased by cutting out the starting
resistance slowly moving from one notch to the other. Thus, current taken by the motor and the
tractive efforts are practically constant and therefore acceleration remains constant during this
period. Hence, this period is also called as notch up accelerating period or rehostatic
accelerating
period. Typical value of acceleration lies between 0.5 and 1 kmph. Acceleration is denoted with
the symbol ‘α’.
Acceleration on speed-curve
During the running period from T1 to T2, the voltage across the motor remains constant and the
current starts decreasing, this is because cut out at the instant ‘T1’. According to the
characteristics of motor, its speed increases with the decrease in the current and finally the
current taken by the motor remains constant. But, at the same time, even though train
accelerates, the acceleration decreases with the increase in speed. Finally, the acceleration
reaches to zero for certain speed, at which the tractive effort excreted by the motor is exactly
equals to the train
resistance. This is also known as decreasing accelerating period. This period is shown by the
curve ‘AB’.
Free-running or constant-speed period
The train runs freely during the period T2 to T3 at the speed attained by the train at the instant
‘T2’. During this speed, the motor draws constant power from the supply lines. This period is
shown by the curve BC.
Coasting period
This period is from T3 to T4, i.e., from C to D. At the instant ‘T3’ power supply to the traction,
the motor will be cut off and the speed falls on account of friction, windage resistance, etc.
During this period, the train runs due to the momentum attained at that particular instant. The
rate of the decrease of the speed during coasting period is known as coasting retardation.
Usually, it is denoted with the symbol ‘βc’.
Braking period
Braking period is from T4 to T5, i.e., from D to E. At the end of the coasting period, i.e., at ‘T4’
brakes are applied to bring the train to rest. During this period, the speed of the train decreases
rapidly and finally reduces to zero. In main line service, the free-running period will be more,
the starting and braking periods are very negligible, since the distance between the stops for the
main line service is more than 10 km. Speed–time curve for suburban service In suburban
service, the distance between two adjacent stops for electric train is lying between 1 and 8 km.
In this service, the distance between stops is more than the urban service and smaller than the
main line service. The typical speed–time curve for suburban service is shown in Fig. 10.2.

The speed–time curve for urban service consists of three distinct periods. They are:
1. Acceleration.
2. Coasting.
3. Retardation.
Fig. 10.2 Typical speed–time curve for suburban service
For this service, there is no free-running period. The coasting period is comparatively longer
since the distance between two stops is more. Braking or retardation period is comparatively
small. It requires relatively high values of acceleration and retardation. Typical acceleration and
retardation values are lying between 1.5 and 4 kmphp and 3 and 4 kmphp, respectively. Speed–
time curve for urban or city service The speed–time curve urban or city service is almost similar
to suburban service and is shown in Fig. 10.3.

Fig. 10.3 Typical speed–time curve for urban service

In this service also, there is no free-running period. The distance between two stop is less about
1 km. Hence, relatively short coasting and longer braking period is required. The relative values
of acceleration and retardation are high to achieve moderately high average between the stops.
Here, the small coasting period is included to save the energy consumption. The acceleration
for the urban service lies between 1.6 and 4 kmphp. The coasting retardation is about 0.15
kmphp and the braking retardation is lying between 3 and 5 kmphp. Some typical values of
various services are shown in Table. 10.1. Types of services
 SOME DEFINITIONS
Crest speed
The maximum speed attained by the train during run is known as crest speed. It is denoted with
‘Vm’.
Average speed
It is the mean of the speeds attained by the train from start to stop, i.e., it is defined as the ratio
of the distance covered by the train between two stops to the total time of rum. It is denoted

with ‘Va’.

where Va is the average speed of train in kmph, D is the distance between stops in km, and T is
the actual time of run in hours.
Schedule speed
The ratio of the distance covered between two stops to the total time of the run including the
time for stop is known as schedule speed. It is denoted with the symbol ‘Vs’.
where Ts is the schedule time in hours.
Schedule time
It is defined as the sum of time required for actual run and the time required for stop. i.e.,
Ts = Trun + Tstop.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE SCHEDULE SPEED OF A TRAIN
The factors that affect the schedule speed of a train are:
1. Crest speed.
2. The duration of stops.
3. The distance between the stops.
4. Acceleration.
 SIMPLIFIED TRAPEZOIDAL AND QUADRILATERAL SPEED TIME CURVES
Simplified speed–time curves gives the relationship between acceleration, retardation average
speed, and the distance between the stop, which are needed to estimate the performance of a
service at different schedule speeds. So that, the actual speed–time curves for the main line,
urban, and suburban services are approximated to some from of the simplified curves. These
curves may be of either trapezoidal or quadrilateral shape.

Analysis of trapezoidal speed–time

Trapezoidal speed–time curve can be approximated from the actual speed–time curves of different
services by assuming that:
o The acceleration and retardation periods of the simplified curve is kept same as to that of the
actual curve.
o The running and coasting periods of the actual speed–time curve are replaced by the constant
periods.
This known as trapezoidal approximation, a simplified trapezoidal speed–time curve is shown
in fig,
 Calculations from the trapezoidal speed–time curve:

The speed-time curve of a main line service is best and most easily replaced by trapezoid. The figure shows
the simplified trapezoidal speed-time curve for the main line service.
Analysis of quadrilateral speed–time curve:
For urban and suburban services, the simplified quadrilateral speed-time curve of electric traction
is shown in the figure.
TRACTIVE EEFFORT (FT):
It is the effective force acting on the wheel of locomotive, necessary to propel the train is
known as ‘tractive effort’. It is denoted with the symbol Ft. The tractive effort is a vector
quantity always acting tangential to the wheel of a locomotive. It is measured in newton. The
net effective force or the total tractive effort (Ft) on the wheel of a locomotive or a train to run
on the track is equals to the sum of tractive effort:
1. Required for linear and angular acceleration (Fa).
2. To overcome the effect of gravity (Fg).
3. To overcome the frictional resistance to the motion of the train (Fr).