The Strategic Context of Projects
The Strategic Context of Projects
The Strategic Context of Projects
SECTION 4
THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT
OF PROJECTS
4.1.1 Introduction
4.1
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THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT OF PROJECTS
Senior leaders are concerned with and conduct strategic planning that
is far removed from the operating level. Strategic planning, however, uses
the historical, tactical information from these operating level systems. In-
formation flow is piecemeal and inadequate for setting the strategic direc-
tion and future of the organizations.
Currently, senior leaders seek solutions through improved communi-
cation of information and tools to measure performance. What is needed
is a management strategy that uses operating units to perform the work
and measure performance, analyze the effectiveness of the work being
performed, and generate information for senior leaders. Project manage-
ment does all this and is the choice of many senior leaders today for
intensively managing critical aspects of the business.
Current management systems are not delivering the desired results and
the communication of strategic goals from senior leaders to operating lev-
els is weak. The layers of management between the senior leaders and
operating levels preclude effective information flow down and the required
performance flow back to the top.
One perceived solution to the communication breakdown is to buy new
tools. Better information systems are seen as the need while the efficiency
and effectiveness of the operating unit has not changed. More timely and
accurate reporting of the performance data is only one part of the chal-
lenge to senior leaders.
The management system and operating units retain the same structure
and there is little or no improvement in productivity or meeting customer
needs.
• Balance competing demands and prioritize the work that provides the
most advantage to the organization
• Positive control over work progress through a tracking and control func-
tion
• Positive communication of needs to project team and frequent feedback
to the customer on progress
• Estimates of future resource needs through the life cycle of the project
• Early identification of problems, issues, and risks to project work
• Early understanding of scope of work
• Goals and measures of success for each project
• An integral performance measurement capability to compare planned to
actual progress
Project
Operations
Management
Line management with span of control on Flexible work force with temporary help,
1. When existing systems do not meet the needs of senior leaders, how
can project management be sold as the solution?
2. If strategic goals are not being met by existing systems, how can project
management fill the gap especially in the area of communication of
information upward?
3. How can projects be linked to strategic goals and what is that process?
4. What are some of the inherent benefits of project management when
an organization has rapidly changing products, both in features and in
different products?
5. How can senior management take immediate advantage of project man-
agement to fill the need for continuous improvement?
4.1.9 Summary
4.2.1 Introduction
Relationship
& binding Description of possible
documentation working arrangements Remarks
There are many examples of project partnering that demonstrate the con-
cept and the future of this type of business relationship. Figure 4.4 shows
several examples of project partnering.
Licensing to obtain
technology
----
FIGURE 4.4 Examples of project partnering.
technology. Technology was the driving force for partnering. The com-
bination of companies could not solve the technical problems and the
project was cancelled when the cost was estimated to exceed nearly $7
billion.
• Three small companies combined their capabilities to bid and win a
project requiring expertise in computer technology, computer network
operations, and procurement knowledge. The project, although relatively
small, combined the talents from all three companies to perform the
required tasks.
• Licensing of intellectual property of a professional association to a com-
pany to build software products is a current project. The association’s
standards were licensed to a company for the specific purpose of ex-
panding the distribution of knowledge in the standards and to generate
a modest profit for the association. This is partnering in that the profes-
sional association retains review over the products developed by the
company.
Customers are concerned with the management of the project work and
who will be responsible for such items as reports, corrective actions,
changes to the project, and overall project direction. Strong management
capability builds confidence with the customer, while a weak or vague
project management structure erodes confidence.
Figure 4.5 shows typical types of arrangements for managing partnered
projects. A detailed discussion follows.
Some management structures for partnered projects are:
Steering Committee
Co-Project Managers
Project Manager
----
committee while small projects would only require a single project man-
ager. The management structure must meet the needs of both the project
and the customer.
1. What are some of the reasons that an organization would want to par-
ticipate in a partnered project?
2. Why would an organization loan people to another organization for a
cooperative effort in partnering a project?
3. What are the major management structures for guiding a partnered
project at the top level?
4. When would it be appropriate to have someone other than the project
manager be the customer liaison in a partnered project?
5. In a major project, who would the project manager report to and why?
4.2.8 Summary
Project partnering takes on many forms based on the desires and creativity
of the partners. The arrangements will vary according to the project and
the visibility of organizations may be more or less, depending upon the
needs for the partnered project. Organizations, public and private, for-
profit and not-for-profit, can create partnerships to meet the needs of a
small, medium, or large project.
Managing a partnered project is typically driven by the desires of the
customer. Customer confidence and visibility into the project dictate the
management structure as well as the size of the project. It is not uncom-
mon to have a two tier management structure, a project manager and a
steering committee to which the project manager reports.
Many benefits are derived from partnered projects. These include learn-
ing from other organizations’ management and technical processes, ob-
taining technical knowledge about project management methodologies and
processes, acquiring improved work methods from others, and large profit
shares through improved productivity. The benefits may have immediate
use or they may contribute to the long-term growth of an organization.
There are four key phases involved in the management of strategic issues
for a project. These phases are portrayed in Fig. 4.6, (David I. Cleland,
Identification Phase
(of the issues involved)
(1)
Analysis Phase
(of the action required)
(3)
FIGURE 4.6 Key phases for managing strategic issues for a project.
4.3.3 Summary
A strategic issue in a project is a condition or pressure that has the po-
tential to have a significant impact on the project. Strategic issues can
arise from within the organization, and from outside, such as major con-
cerns or forces that the project stakeholders consider of importance to the
project. In this section a few ideas were presented on how a project team
could better manage the strategic issues that their project faces. Strategic
issues can arise at any stage in the life cycle of the project. The project
manager should be aware of the concept of project strategic issues, and
provide proactive leadership in dealing with the strategic issues that are
likely to impact the project.
2. On the James Bay Project in Canada, special effort was made to stay
sensitive to social, economic, and ecological issues coming from vested
stakeholder interests on that project.
3. Proactive action by environmentalists, tourists, and government agen-
cies motivated the project team to take special care to protect and
preserve the scenic well-being of an area during the construction of a
highway through Glenwood Canyon in Colorado.
4. Stakeholder action caused the rerouting of a major highway in Pitts-
burgh, PA to preclude the razing of an old church that had historical
value to the community.
5. Failure on the part of the project team to manage the political interests
of key US congressmen and environmental groups who developed such
organized opposition to the US Supersonic Transport Program that it
was cancelled by lawmakers, even though the technological feasibility
of the aircraft had been demonstrated.
have, or believe that they have, a stake in the project or its outcome. Figure
4.8 is a model of these stakeholders.
The key authority and responsibility of the primary stakeholders in-
clude:
• Providing leadership to the project team
• Allocating resources for use in the design, development and construction
(production) of the project results
• Building and maintaining relationships with all stakeholders
FIGURE 4.8 The project stakeholders. (Source: Cleland, David I., ‘‘Stakeholder
Management,’’ Chapter 4 in Jeffrey K. Pinto, Editor, Project Management Handbook,
Project Management Institute and Jossey-Bass, Inc., Publishers, 1998, p. 61)
• Suppliers
• Trade associations
• Local and trade press
• Annual corporate reports
• Articles and papers presented at professional meetings
• Public meetings
• Government sources
• Internet
• Be sure that the key managers and professionals appreciate the impact
that both supportive and non-supportive stakeholders may have on the
project outcome.
• Manage the project review meetings so that the stakeholder assessment
is an essential part of deciding the project status.
• Keep in touch with key external stakeholders to improve the chances of
determining stakeholders’ understanding of the project and its strategies.
• Ensure a clear evaluation of possible stakeholder response to major proj-
ect decisions.
• Provide ongoing, current reports on stakeholder status to key managers
and professionals for use in developing and implementing project strat-
egy.
• Provide a proper security system to protect sensitive project information
that might be used by adverse stakeholders to impact the project’s suc-
cess.
4.4.5 Summary
The management of project stakeholders is a vital ‘‘work package’’ in
planning for and implementing the use of resources on the project. An
Strategic
Effectiveness
Operational Functional
Competence Competence
FIGURE 4.9 Balance between strategic
management challenges. (Source: David I.
Cleland, Strategic Management of Teams
(New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, 1996),
p. 5)
• Crisis management teams that serve as a focus for any crises that might
arise in the organization’s activities.
• Product / process development teams which provide for the concurrent
design and development of products, services, and organizational pro-
cesses. Effective use of such teams result in higher quality products,
services, and organizational processes, developed at a lower cost and
leading to earlier commercialization and greater profitability
• Self-directed production teams which manage themselves and when
team members are adequately prepared and used can result in greater
efficiency and effectiveness in the manufacturing or production activity
of the organization
• Task forces which are ad hoc groups to solve short-term organizational
problems or exploit opportunities to support the operational and strategic
well-being of the organization
• Benchmarking teams used to measure the organization against the most
formidable competitors and industry leaders. When properly used the
results of the work of these teams can be improved operational and
strategic performance
• Facilities construction teams which design, develop, and construct cap-
ital improvements for the organization. This is the ‘‘traditional’’ use of
project teams which have reached considerable maturity in industries
such as construction, defense, engineering, research, and in government,
educational, health systems, and economic development agencies
The use of alternative project teams has been necessary in part because
of the way that jobs and strategies are changing in contemporary times.
• An ability of the different teams to work with each other and to respect
each other’s territory
• Recognition of the high degree of interdependence among the members
of the team, and how that interdependence can be used as a strength for
integrated team results
• A willingness of the team members to share their information and work
with each other, leading to a high degree of collaboration among team
members
• Recognition of the deliberate conflict usually found in team work—a
conflict, often stemming from different backgrounds, which exists be-
cause of substantive issues and not interpersonal strife
• A more efficient way for team members to proactively seek ways to
work out problems and opportunities through team members to reach a
result in which each member sees part of his or her work in the solution
• A better understanding of the culture of the team, its thought and work
processes, and greater willingness to give unselfish support to the team’s
objectives and goals
• Enhanced communication among the team members about their individ-
ual and collective work on the team
• Better understanding of the purpose of the team, its relationship with
the work of other teams, and how everything comes together to support
the mission, objectives, and goals of the enterprise
• Greater opportunity for a higher degree of esprit de corps, a sense of
belonging on the part of the members, and pride in working together to
accomplish desired ends
The responsibilities with which the members of the design and imple-
mentation team are charged for the design and implementation of a team-
driven strategy in the organization include the following:
• Providing for the transfer of the organization’s vision and values to the
teams
• Developing documentation for the teams, including a supporting charter,
authority-accountability-responsibility relations, work redesign, and gen-
eral cultural support
• Providing both conceptual and work linkages between the teams and
the other organizational elements
• Evaluating existing reward systems for compatibility with the team or-
ganizational design
• Becoming the champion for the transformation of the organization from
its traditional configuration to one characterized by team modes, values,
and processes
1. What are the likely advantages to the organization from the use of
alternative teams described in this section?
2. Do the members of the organization understand and accept what alter-
native teams can do for the organization?
3. Has a specific strategy been developed to prepare the members of the
organization for the use of teams and their likely individual and col-
lective roles while serving on such teams?
4. Do the members of the organization understand the things in the or-
ganization that need to be changed to use teams effectively?
5. Do the members in the organization understand the meaning and prob-
able use of teams to contribute to the organization’s operational effi-
ciency, strategic effectiveness, and functional excellence.
4.5.6 Summary
• Not providing resources that are needed to support the projects, as well
as failing to understand and articulate how the organization’s projects
are linked to functional and other organizational units in the organization
• Not requiring that all projects in the organization should be reviewed
on a regular basis following the model for monitoring, evaluation, and
control suggested in Section 7 of this Handbook
• Not providing suitable recognition of project efforts
• Not understanding, and thus likely not appreciating, the impact that proj-
ect stakeholders can have on in-house projects
• Neglecting the commitment of resources to train project teams in the
management of projects
• Not being a role model for how prudent and effective management can
be carried out in the organization
• Giving the project manager and the project team the freedom to manage
the project without interference from other managers
• Providing oversight of the project’s cost, schedule, and technical per-
formance progress followed by appropriate feedback to the project man-
ager and project team
• Maintaining contact with key stakeholders such as project customers,
suppliers, and regulatory agencies
• Ensuring that other managers in the organization are committed to sup-
porting the project through the allocation of needed resources
• Allowing the project manager and team members enough freedom to
follow their muse in finding innovative and creative solutions to prob-
lems and opportunities
• Providing a buffer to guard the project against the inevitable politics that
come up in any organization and its stakeholders
• Providing suitable rewards and inducements to bring out the best per-
formance in the people supporting the project
• Determining if a project audit review would make sense
Post-Project Phase is the phase when the project’s results are being inte-
grated into the operational and strategic business of the organization. Ma-
jor responsibilities during this phase include:
• Ensuring the successful strategic fit of the project into the affairs of the
organization
• Ensuring that appropriate measures have been taken for the after-sales
support of the project results
• Doing a post-project review to gather information on how well the proj-
ect was managed to include a collection of ‘‘lessons learned’’ that can
be passed on to other project management initiatives
• Examining the rationale for the project to support organizational pur-
poses
1. Do the senior managers understand the key role that they have in the
management of projects in the organization?
2. Do the senior managers recognize that projects are building blocks in
dealing with product, service, and organizational process change.
3. Given such recognition, have these managers developed a philosophy
and protocol for the ongoing regular review of projects?
4. Senior managers are vital links between the enterprise projects and the
organization’s board of directors. Have these managers provided infor-
mation and a protocol on how the board should carry out its respon-
sibility in maintaining oversight of the planning and execution of proj-
ects.
5. Have provisions been provided for the post-project reviews to help the
organization do a better job of managing projects in its future?
4.6.6 Summary
In this section, the role of senior managers in maintaining oversight of the
planning for and execution of projects was presented. Such managers have
key responsibilities in the planning for projects to include an assessment
of what the likely strategic fit of the project will be. The role of these
managers was described in the three key phases of a project, with appro-
priate oversight responsibilities that senior managers should carry out dur-
ing these phases.
Light Company where ongoing surveillance was conducted over the plan-
ning and construction of the Susquehanna nuclear plant project.
• Set an example for the ongoing review of projects that support organ-
izational purposes.
• Provide senior managers guidance in the strategic management of the
organization as if its future mattered.
• Assure the strategic fit of ongoing projects with the strategic direction
of the organization.
• Ensure that projects are recognized as building blocks in the design and
execution of strategies, and that the linkages of projects with other ini-
tiatives in the organization are carried to help ensure the organization’s
future.
• Maintain ongoing and regular review of major projects, and through
doing this, help to motivate the general managers and project managers
to do the same with respect to their projects.
• Be available to meet with key project stakeholders, such as project cus-
tomers, should the need arise during the life of the projects.
• Review the key elements of the plan for major projects.
• Require formal BOD briefings or the status of the project at key points
in the project’s life cycle.
• Visit the construction site on major projects. By so doing, an important
message will be sent to the project team, and to other stakeholders on
the project.
• Direct that the necessary independent audits are carried out for the proj-
ects that need such audits to determine their status and progress.
To carry out their responsibilities, the BOD members need certain infor-
mation that is provided in an orderly and regular fashion. Examples of
this information follows:
4.7.5 Summary
In this section, the role of the BOD with respect to major projects in the
organization was presented. A case was made that an ongoing surveillance
over the planning and execution of projects would provide the BOD mem-
bers insight into the effectiveness with which the organization is preparing
for its future. Suggestions were made concerning how the role of the BOD
regarding projects could be strengthened.