TRITON INTERNATIONAL SS &

COLLEGE
Balkumari, Kathmandu

Computer science
REPORT

NAME: Sushant karki

Sec:CBM ‘1’ Room No:503
Introduction:
This report includes:
Introduction to computer with its historical background
and generation.

Architecture of computer
Application packages, focusing on word processors,
presentation tools.

Logic gates and it’s types, Boolean algebra and its

practical implication
Report: Introduction to Computers, Their Historical
Background, Generations, and Architecture

1. Introduction to Computers
A computer is an electronic device that processes data and performs tasks according to a set
of instructions or programs. These tasks can range from simple calculations to complex
operations such as running software applications, managing data, or supporting
communication networks. Computers have revolutionized nearly every aspect of human life,
from business and healthcare to entertainment and communication.
The primary functions of a computer are:
• Input: Receiving data (e.g., from a keyboard, mouse, or sensor).
• Processing: Performing computations or actions based on input data.
• Storage: Retaining data for future use (e.g., on hard drives or SSDs).
• Output: Providing results or information to the user (e.g., through a monitor or
printer).
Computers are essential tools in the modern world, enabling productivity, creativity,
communication, and innovation.

2. Historical Background of Computers

The history of computers spans thousands of years, with significant
advancements at each stage. Below is a brief overview of the key
milestones in computer history:
1. Early Beginnings (Pre-20th Century):
• The abacus (c. 2300 BC) is one of the earliest tools used for
computation.
• Charles Babbage, an English mathematician, is often referred to as the "father
of the computer" for his design of the Analytical Engine in the 1830s. Although it
was never completed, it was the first conceptual design for a general-purpose
programmable computer.
2. The First Mechanical Computers:
• In the 19th century, Ada Lovelace, an associate of Babbage, became the first person
to recognize that computers could be programmed to perform more than simple
calculations. She is credited with writing the first algorithm intended for a machine.

3. Early 20th Century:

• In 1937, Alan Turing proposed the concept of a universal machine, which laid the
theoretical foundation for modern computers. Turing's work during World War II on
the Enigma code helped break German communications and marked an important
step in the development of computing.

4. The Electronic Era (1940s-1950s):

• The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), completed in 1945,
is considered one of the first general-purpose electronic digital computers.

• During this period, vacuum tubes were used for computing.

5. The Rise of Transistors (1950s-1960s):

• In the 1950s, transistors replaced vacuum tubes, allowing computers to become
smaller, faster, and more reliable.

• The IBM 1401 became one of the most widely used computers of the era.
6. Integrated Circuits and Microprocessors (1970s-1980s):
• The development of integrated circuits (ICs) in the 1960s allowed for the
miniaturization of components, making computers even smaller and cheaper.
• The 1970s saw the advent of microprocessors, leading to the creation of personal
computers (PCs).
• Apple, IBM, and Compaq played key roles in popularizing personal computers.

7. The Modern Era (1990s-Present):

• The 1990s and 2000s brought the development of the internet, laptops,
smartphones, and other mobile computing devices.
• Advancements in artificial intelligence (AI), cloud computing, and big data have
dramatically expanded the capabilities of computers.

3. Generations of Computers
they offer. The commonly accepted classification includes five
generations: on the technology used in their construction and the
capabilities Computers are often classified into different generations
based
1st Generation (1940-1956): Vacuum Tubes
• The first-generation computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry
and magnetic drums for memory. These computers were large,
slow, and consumed a lot of power.
• Examples: ENIAC, UNIVAC I.
2nd Generation (1956-1963): Transistors
• The introduction of transistors replaced vacuum tubes, leading
to smaller, more reliable, and energy-efficient computers.
• They also introduced magnetic core memory and early
programming languages like COBOL and FORTRAN.
• Examples: IBM 1401, IBM 7090.
3rd Generation (1964-1971): Integrated Circuits
• The use of integrated circuits (ICs) allowed for the development of smaller, faster,
and more affordable computers.
• This generation also saw the introduction of operating systems and the first personal
computers.
• Examples: IBM System/360, DEC PDP-8.

4th Generation (1971-Present): Microprocessors

• The invention of the microprocessor in the 1970s marked a major milestone in the
development of computers. These chips integrated thousands of transistors on a single
chip, enabling the creation of personal computers.
• The development of graphical user interfaces (GUIs) and networking technologies
transformed how people interacted with computers.
• Examples: Apple II, IBM PC.

5th Generation (Present and Beyond): Artificial Intelligence

 • This generation is focused on advancing artificial intelligence (AI), quantum
computing, and parallel processing to create smarter, more autonomous systems.
• The goal of the fifth generation is to enable machines to learn, reason, and make
decisions like humans.
• Examples: AI-powered systems, quantum computers.

4. Architecture of Computers
Computer architecture refers to the design and organization of a computer system, including
its components and how they interact. The key components of computer architecture are:

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU):

The CPU is often referred to as the "brain" of the computer. It carries out instructions from
programs through two main units:

o Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs arithmetic and logical

operations.
o Control Unit (CU): Directs the operation of the processor by
interpreting instructions.

2. Memory:Memory stores data and instructions temporarily or permanently. It is

classified into:

Primary memory (RAM): Volatile memory used to store data currently in use.
Secondary memory (Hard drives, SSDs): Non-volatile storage used for long-
term data storage.

3. Input Devices:
• Input devices allow users to provide data to the computer. Common input devices
include the keyboard, mouse, scanner, and microphone.

4. Output Devices:
• Output devices display the results of computer processes. Examples include monitors,
printers, and speakers.

5. Bus System:
• The bus is a communication system that transfers data between the CPU, memory,
and other components. It includes the data bus, address bus, and control bus.
6. Storage:
• Storage devices are responsible for saving data. Primary storage (RAM) is
temporary, while secondary storage (hard drives, SSDs) provides long-term data
retention.

Conclusion
The evolution of computers has been marked by significant technological advancements,
from the early mechanical devices to today's powerful AI and quantum computing systems.
Understanding the historical background, generations, and architecture of computers
provides a deeper appreciation of how they have transformed society and continue to shape
the future. As computing technology advances, new innovations will continue to push the
boundaries of what computers can achieve, bringing us closer to achieving increasingly
sophisticated and intelligent systems.

Report: Application Packages – Word Processors and

Presentation Tools

1. Introduction to Application Packages

An application package is a suite of software programs designed to perform specific tasks
that assist users in managing data, creating documents, performing calculations, or presenting
information. Two common types of application packages are word processors and
presentation tools.
• Word Processors are used primarily for creating, editing, and formatting text
documents.
• Presentation Tools are used for creating slideshows and visual presentations, often in
professional or academic settings.
These applications play a significant role in modern productivity by making it easier to create
documents and presentations for a variety of purposes.

2. Word Processors
Word processors are software applications that enable users to create, edit, format, and print
documents. They are widely used for writing essays, reports, letters, and many other types of
written content. The most popular word processors include Microsoft Word, Google Docs,
and LibreOffice Writer.
Key Features of Word Processors
• Text Formatting: Options for adjusting font type, size, color, and style (bold, italic,
underline).
• Page Layout: Control over margins, page orientation, and indentation.
• Spell and Grammar Check: Automatic identification and correction of spelling and
grammatical errors.
• Tables and Lists: Ability to create tables, numbered or bulleted lists, and other types
of structured data.
• Track Changes and Comments: Collaborative features that allow users to track
changes and leave comments.
• Insert Media: Options for inserting images, graphs, charts, hyperlinks, and other
multimedia elements.
• Templates: Pre-designed document layouts for letters, resumes, reports, etc.

Applications of Word Processors

• Business Documents: Reports, letters, proposals, contracts, and memos.
• Academic Writing: Essays, research papers, and dissertations.
• Personal Use: Letters, journals, and creative writing projects.
• Collaborative Work: Group assignments, shared documents, and real-time co-
authoring.

Basic Tools in Word Processors

• File Management: New, open, save, print, and save as functions.
• Editing Tools: Cut, copy, paste, undo, and redo operations.
• Formatting Tools: Bold, italics, underline, font size and style, alignment (left, center,
right, justified), paragraph spacing, and line spacing.
• Insert Tools: Insert images, tables, charts, hyperlinks, footnotes, endnotes, and
headers/footers.
• Review Tools: Spell check, thesaurus, word count, track changes, and comment
features.
3. Presentation Tools
Presentation tools are software applications used to create visual slideshows for the purpose
of delivering a message to an audience. These tools allow users to combine text, images,
charts, videos, and other media into a series of slides that can be presented in various
formats. Common examples include Microsoft PowerPoint, Google Slides, and Apple
Keynote.
Key Features of Presentation Tools
• Slide Layouts: Pre-designed templates for slide layouts and designs.
• Text and Image Insertion: Insert and format text, images, and other media.
• Animations and Transitions: Add animations to text and objects, and transitions
between slides.
• Multimedia Support: Ability to include videos, audio clips, and embedded objects
from other applications.
• Collaboration Features: Real-time collaboration, comments, and sharing options for
team presentations.
• Presenter Tools: Tools like a presenter’s view, slide notes, and timers to aid the
presentation process.

Applications of Presentation Tools

• Business Presentations: Presenting reports, strategies, marketing plans, and
proposals to clients, stakeholders, and colleagues.
• Educational Presentations: Lectures, class assignments, and seminars.
• Conferences and Seminars: Presenting research findings, papers, or updates in
professional settings.
• Creative Presentations: Designing portfolios, showcases, or pitches for creative
industries (e.g., advertising, film, art).
Basic Tools in Presentation Tools
• Slide Management: Create, delete, and reorder slides.
• Text Tools: Insert and format text (font type, size, color, and alignment).
• Insert Media: Add images, charts, tables, videos, and audio.
• Design Templates: Choose from pre-designed slide themes to improve the visual
appeal of the presentation.
 • Animations: Apply entrance, exit, and emphasis effects to text, images, and other
objects on slides.
• Transitions: Choose transition effects between slides (e.g., fade, wipe, push).
• Slide Show: Preview and present the slides with full-screen options and navigation
controls.
• Collaboration Tools: Share the presentation with others for real-time editing or
feedback.

4. Comparison of Word Processors and Presentation Tools

While word processors and presentation tools share some similarities, such as the ability to
insert and format text, their primary purposes differ significantly:
• Word Processors: Primarily focused on text-heavy documents, providing tools for
detailed writing, editing, and formatting. Commonly used for writing essays, reports,
and business documents.
• Presentation Tools: Designed for creating multimedia slideshows, combining text,
images, and other media to communicate ideas effectively in a visual format. These
are used for creating presentations for meetings, conferences, or educational
purposes.

5. Conclusion
Word processors and presentation tools are two of the most commonly used application
packages that play crucial roles in personal, academic, and professional settings. Word
processors are indispensable for creating written content, while presentation tools are vital
for creating engaging visual slideshows. Both types of software offer a range of features and
tools that help users efficiently produce high-quality documents and presentations. Whether
writing a report, preparing a business presentation, or collaborating with a team, these tools
are essential for modern-day productivity.
Report: Logic Gates, Boolean Algebra, and Practical Implications

1. Introduction
Logic gates are the fundamental building blocks of digital circuits. These gates perform basic
logical functions and are used to process binary data (0s and 1s). Logic gates form the
foundation of digital electronics and are used in various devices like computers, smartphones,
and other digital systems.
Boolean algebra is a branch of mathematics that deals with variables that can take only two
values: true (1) and false (0). It provides the mathematical framework for analyzing and
simplifying digital circuits, making it an essential tool in the design of logic systems.
This report will discuss the types of logic gates, provide an overview of Boolean algebra,
and explore its practical implications in modern electronics.

2. Logic Gates and Their Types

A logic gate is a physical device that implements a Boolean function. In digital circuits, a
logic gate has one or more inputs and produces an output based on a logical rule. The most
common logic gates are:

1. AND Gate
• Symbol: ⋅
• Operation: The output is 1 only if both inputs are 1; otherwise, the output is 0.
• Truth Table:
 Input A Input B Output (A ⋅ B)

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

2. OR Gate
• Symbol: +
• Operation: The output is 1 if at least one input is 1; otherwise, the output is 0.
• Truth Table:

Input A Input B Output (A + B)

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1

3. NOT Gate (Inverter)

• Symbol: ¬
• Operation: The output is the inverse of the input; if the input is 0, the output is 1,
and vice versa.
• Truth Table:

Input Output (¬A)

0 1

1 0
4. NAND Gate
• Symbol: A ⋅ B (with a negation on the output)
• Operation: The NAND gate is the inverse of the AND gate. The output is 0 only if
both inputs are 1; otherwise, it is 1.
• Truth Table:

Input A Input B Output (A ⋅ B)¬

0 0 1

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

5. NOR Gate
• Symbol: A + B (with a negation on the output)
• Operation: The NOR gate is the inverse of the OR gate. The output is 1 only when
both inputs are 0; otherwise, it is 0.
• Truth Table:

Input A Input B Output (A + B)¬

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 0

6. XOR Gate (Exclusive OR)

Symbol: ⊕
Operation: The output is 1 if the inputs are different, and 0 if they are the same.
Truth Table:

Input A Input B Output (A ⊕ B)

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

ss7. XNOR Gate (Exclusive NOR)

• Symbol: A ⊕ B (with a negation on the output)
• Operation: The XNOR gate is the inverse of the XOR gate. The output is 1 if both
inputs are the same, and 0 if the inputs are different.
• Truth Table:

Input A Input B Output (A ⊕ B)¬

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

3. Boolean Algebra
Boolean algebra is a branch of algebra that operates on binary variables, with values of 1
(True) and 0 (False). It is the mathematical foundation for designing and simplifying logic
circuits. The basic operations in Boolean algebra are:
• AND ( ⋅ ): The output is true only if both operands are true.
• OR ( + ): The output is true if at least one operand is true.
• NOT ( ¬ ): The output is the inverse of the operand.
Basic Boolean Laws
• Identity Law:
 o A⋅ 1 =A
o A+ 0 =A
• Null Law:
o A⋅0=0
o A+1=1
• Complement Law:
o A ⋅ ¬A = 0
o A + ¬A = 1
• Idempotent Law:
o A⋅A=A
o A+A=A
• Distributive Law:
o A ⋅ (B + C) = (A ⋅ B) + (A ⋅ C)
o A + (B ⋅ C) = (A + B) ⋅ (A + C)

Boolean Expressions Simplification

• Boolean algebra helps simplify complex Boolean expressions, which results in fewer
logic gates and more efficient circuits. For example, the Boolean expression A ⋅ (A +
B) simplifies to A based on the distributive property.

4. Practical Implications of Boolean Algebra

Boolean algebra has several practical applications, particularly in the field of digital
electronics and computer science.
1. Digital Circuit Design
• Logic gates are used in digital circuits such as adders, multiplexers, and memory
units. Boolean algebra is used to simplify these circuits and reduce the number of
gates required, thus saving space and improving performance.
2. Computer Programming
• Boolean expressions are widely used in programming languages for conditional
statements like if-else, loops, and decision-making processes. Conditions in code
often rely on Boolean operators like AND, OR, and NOT.
3. Microprocessors and Microcontrollers
• Microprocessors and microcontrollers process data using binary logic, where Boolean
algebra helps design the control unit and arithmetic logic unit (ALU). Boolean
expressions are used to simplify the processing logic within these systems.
4. Error Detection and Correction
• Boolean algebra is applied in designing error detection codes such as parity bits
and checksums, which are used to detect and correct errors in data transmission and
storage.
5. Search Engines and Databases
• In database queries, Boolean operators (AND, OR, NOT) are used to filter results.
For example, when searching for information in search engines or databases, Boolean
algebra helps refine search criteria to get more accurate results.
6. Networking
• Routing algorithms and network switches use Boolean logic to determine the best
path for data transmission across the network.

5. Conclusion
Logic gates and Boolean algebra are at the core of digital electronics, and their understanding
is fundamental for designing and simplifying circuits. From basic devices like calculators and
smartphones to complex systems like microprocessors and computer networks, Boolean
algebra serves as the foundation for all modern digital technologies.