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    chapter I extra slides

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    chapter I extra slides

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    alimelhem9090
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    chapter I extra slides

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    of 5

    Cell Homeostasis

    Homeostasis refers to the body’s ability to physiologically regulate its inner


    environment to ensure its stability in response to fluctua:ons in external or
    internal condi:ons. The liver, the pancreas, the kidneys, and the brain
    (hypothalamus, the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system)
    help maintain homeostasis.

    The liver: metabolizing toxic substances and maintains carbohydrate


    metabolism, regulates lipid metabolism.
    The kidneys: for regula:ng blood water levels, re-absorp:on of substances into
    the blood, maintenance of salt and ion levels in the blood, regula:on of blood
    pH, and excre:on of urea and other waste products.
    The hypothalamus is involved in the regula:on of body temperature, heart
    rate, blood pressure, and circadian rhythms (which include wake/sleep cycles).
    Homeostasis is defined as the state of steady internal, physical,
    and chemical condi:ons maintained by living systems.

    For op:mal func:oning of the organism, many variables, such as


    body temperature and fluid balance, should be kept within certain
    pre-set limits (homeosta6c range). Other variables include the pH
    of extracellular fluid, the concentra6ons of sodium, potassium
    and calcium ions, as well as that of the blood sugar level, and
    these need to be regulated despite changes in the environment,
    diet, or level of ac:vity. Each of these variables is controlled by one
    or more regulators or homeosta:c mechanisms, which together
    maintain life.
    Homeostasis can be influenced by either internal or exis:ng condi:ons
    (instrinsic factors) or external or environmental condi6ons (extrinsic factors).
    All homeosta6c control mechanisms have at least three interdependent
    components for the variable being regulated:

    1- A sensor or receptor that detects changes in the internal or external


    environment. An example is peripheral chemoreceptors, which detect changes
    in blood pH.
    2- The integra6ng center or control center receives informa:on from the
    sensors and ini:ates the response to maintain homeostasis. The most
    important example is the hypothalamus.
    3- An effector is any organ or :ssue that receives informa:on from the
    integra:ng center and acts to bring about the changes needed to maintain
    homeostasis. One example is the kidney, which retains water if blood pressure
    is too low.
    Temperature:

    Humans are warm-blooded or endothermic, maintaining a near-constant


    body temperature. Thermoregula:on is an important aspect of human
    homeostasis. Heat is mainly produced by the liver and muscle contrac:ons.
    Humans have been able to adapt to a great diversity of climates, including
    hot humid and hot arid environments. High temperatures pose serious
    stresses for the human body, placing it in great danger of injury or even
    death. In order to deal with these clima:c condi:ons, humans have
    developed physiologic and cultural modes of adapta:on.

    Nerve cells (the sensors) relay informa:on about body temperature to the
    hypothalamus (the integra:ng center). The hypothalamus then signals
    several effectors to return the body temperature to 37oC (the set point). Two
    effectors ac:vated in the process when core temperature is too high are the
    sweat glands which serve to cool the skin and the blood vessels which
    undergo vasodila6on (or enlarging) so the body can give off more heat.
    Blood glucose is regluated with two hormones, insulin and glucagon, both
    released from the pancreas.
    • When blood sugar levels
    become too high, insulin is
    released from the pancreas.
    Glucose, or sugar, is taken up by
    cells (especially liver and muscle
    :ssue) where it is stored as
    glycogen. This results in a
    lowering of the blood sugar levels.

    • On the other hand, when blood


    sugar levels become too low,
    glucagon is released by the
    pancreas. It promotes the
    breakdown of glycogen into the
    glucose monomers within liver
    cells. The liver cells then release
    free glucose back into the blood
    stream and restore blood sugar
    levels.

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