Tropical Arc. Module 10.1&.2 | Mendoza A.

• Lighting: Simplified as watts per

square foot rather than detailed
fixture input.
Module 10.1: Energy-Efficient Buildings • HVAC Systems: Require detailed
entries (fan horsepower, pump
BUILDING ENERGY-MODELING (BEM) horsepower, system type, and
Building Energy-Modeling (BEM), also efficiency) due to their complexity
known as energy modeling, is a digital and effect on energy use.
simulation process designed to predict a • Occupant Load and Air
building's energy consumption. Through BEM, Requirements: Used to estimate
designers evaluate energy-saving decisions internal loads and ventilation
using a model of the building’s architecture and needs.
its interactions with environmental factors over Energy Conservation Measures (ECMs)
a typical year. The purpose of BEM is to
optimize energy savings, reduce costs, and ECMs are specific projects or
lower carbon emissions by implementing technologies designed to reduce energy
effective Energy Conservation Measures consumption. In BEM, ECMs are analyzed over
(ECMs). the life cycle of the building, covering design,
construction, operation, and demolition stages.
The BEM Process: Virtual Architecture and This analysis ensures that ECM benefits are
Components assessed in terms of long-term savings and
In BEM, a virtual architecture is sustainability.
created using software, modeling building Simulation Stages in BEM
elements in a 3D digital space. This architecture
includes: BEM simulations range from
preliminary models for early design phases to
• Surface Area and Volume: Used to detailed simulations closer to project
calculate heat transfer and internal completion. Preliminary models allow designers
conditions. to explore design alternatives and optimize
• Thermal Properties: Materials, energy savings with early adjustments, while
insulation, and thermal mass. detailed simulations, requiring greater data
• Room Descriptions: Occupancy, input and expertise, are used for final
purpose, and layout. performance assessments.
• Windows and Doors: Type,
location, size, and finishes. Case Example: eQUEST Energy-Modeling
Software
This virtual model is combined with a
weather file that provides synthetic year-long In an example using eQUEST, a
climatic information, including average respected energy simulation tool, a building
temperatures, solar radiation, and other key simulated in Orlando, Florida, demonstrated the
variables. Typical weather files, such as Typical impact of shading devices:
Meteorological Year 2 (TMY2) or Weather Year
• Without Shading: Higher energy
for Energy Calculations 2 (WYEC2), help
use and costs.
simulate the building’s energy behavior over a
• With Shading: Achieved a 10%
year.
reduction in energy usage and an
Inputs and Simplification in BEM 11% cost savings.

Most BEM software allows Shading devices, as ECMs, illustrate

simplifications for time and efficiency. Examples the role of BEM in reducing energy costs and
include: enhancing thermal comfort. This example
shows how the right ECMs can balance energy
savings, cost reduction, and carbon efficiency.
SOLAR ENERGY DESIGN • Garage Placement: Should be on
the north, northeast, or northwest
Sunlight becomes solar energy when
side to act as a barrier insulating
transferred to a medium that can provide useful
living areas from cold elements.
heat. This solar energy can heat water, the
Inactive rooms shelter living areas
inside of a building, or create power for
from northern exposure. Masonry
electrical utilities. Most areas of the Earth
walls allow the house to be built
receive about 60% direct sunlight annually, and
into a slope on its northern side, or
in clear areas, up to 80%. When the sun’s rays
berms to be used as shelter from
reach the Earth, air and features become
the elements.
heated. Dense materials like concrete absorb
more heat than less dense materials like wood. Air-Lock Entry
During the day, dense materials absorb and
store solar energy, which is released at night as An air-lock entry, known as a
heat. Some substances, like glass, absorb vestibule, provides a hall or chamber
thermal radiation while transmitting light, between an exterior and interior door. The
making solar heating possible. Solar radiation vestibule should be designed so that the interior
enters a structure through glass panels and and exterior doors are not open simultaneously.
warms interior surfaces, keeping heat inside by The distance between the doors should be at
absorbing radiation. least 7' (2100 mm) to ensure occupants close
one door before reaching the other. The main
Uses of Solar Energy idea is to provide a chamber that remains
closed to the living area by a door. When the
• Residential and Commercial:
exterior door opens, the air lock loses heat, but
Heating spaces and hot water.
heat loss is confined to the small vestibule
• Industrial: Drying materials such as space, minimizing heat loss from the living
lumber, masonry, or crops. area.
• Desalinization: Providing fresh
water from mineral or saltwater. LIVING WITH SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEMS

Types of Solar Heating Systems Living with solar energy systems and
energy efficient construction requires a
• Passive Solar Systems: Use no commitment to conserving energy. Each
mechanical devices to retain, individual must evaluate costs against potential
store, or radiate solar heat. savings and recognize the responsibility of
• Active Solar Systems: Use energy conservation.
mechanical devices to absorb,
store, and use solar heat. Solar systems can be designed to
provide heat from the sun with minimal
Site Orientation involvement from occupants. Active solar
systems provide substantial heat energy
A southern exposure provides the best
automatically and require little homeowner
site orientation for solar construction. A perfect
involvement, while passive solar systems may
solar site allows for unobstructed southern
require significant participation from occupants.
exposure.
For example, homeowners must operate
Room Placement mechanical shades to block summer sun rays
from southern-exposure windows.
• Living Areas: Should be on the
south side of the house. Codes And Solar Rights
• Inactive Rooms: Bedrooms,
Building permits are generally
bathrooms, and laundry rooms
required for installing active solar systems and
should be located on the north side
constructing passive solar systems. It is
for a cooler environment.
essential to verify requirements with local
building officials and check local zoning
ordinances during planning to determine managed through shutters or curtains, while
feasibility. vents help regulate temperature. In this type of
construction, the structure itself serves as the
Access to sunlight is not always
solar system.
guaranteed. A solar home may have excellent
solar orientation initially, but nearby tall Passive Solar Systems
structures or growing trees can block
The amount of material required for
sunlight. It is important to assess potential
heat storage depends on several factors:
issues before construction begins. Some local
zoning ordinances, laws, or deed restrictions • the amount of sunlight
can protect the right to light. • the desired interior temperature
Roof Overhang • the material’s ability to store heat.

A roof overhang can effectively shield Materials such as water, steel,

large glass areas from the heat of the summer concrete, and masonry have good heat
sun. Properly designed overhangs can capacity, while wood does not.
significantly aid in the effective use of solar Several passive solar architectural
heat. methods can be employed, including:
To calculate an overhang that provides
• South-Facing Glass (or Direct
nearly 100% shading at noon on the longest
Solar Gain): Large south-facing
day of the year, use a formula that divides the
windows can provide up to 60% of
window height by a factor determined in relation
a building's heating needs when
to latitude. For example, to calculate the
insulated at night with tight-
recommended southern overhang for a
fitting shutters or insulated
location at 36° latitude with a windowsill
curtains. Without this insulation,
height of 6'-8", consider that the
daytime heat gain is quickly lost.
recommended overhang increases for more
The sun’s energy needs to heat
northerly latitudes.
dense materials to be retained
effectively, so floors and walls
should be constructed of or
covered with tile, brick, or concrete.
• Clerestory Windows: These are
rows of windows set along the
upper part of a wall that can
enhance light and direct solar
gain to second-floor living areas.
They can also assist in ventilating
the structure during summer
months when cooling is more
necessary than heating.
• Skylights: Skylights are windows
in a roof that admit sunlight.
However, in summer, skylights can
Passive Solar Systems lead overheating unless ventilation
or shading is provided. Some
In passive solar architecture, the skylights are operable and can help
design allows the sun to directly warm the ventilate the space.
interior of the structure. A passive solar
system enables sunlight to enter and be THERMAL STORAGE WALLS
absorbed by a structural mass, which then Thermal storage walls are made of
warms the living space. Control of sunlight is heat-absorbing materials such as concrete,
masonry, or water-filled cylinders. These a forced-air system. However, solariums can
walls can be constructed inside and next to overheat during hot summer days. This can be
large southern exposed windows. They absorb managed with mechanical ventilators,
energy during the day and release heat slowly humidifiers, or exterior shading devices.
at night. Landscaping with southern deciduous trees can
also provide shade and help regulate
• Trombe Wall: A well-known temperatures.
thermal storage wall designed by
Dr. Felix Trombe. It consists of a
massive dark-painted masonry
Module 10.2: Energy-Efficient Buildings
or concrete wall positioned a few
inches inside and next to south ACTIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS
facing glass. The sun heats the air
between the wall and the glass, Active solar systems are part of green
causing the heated air to rise and power systems. Green power generates
enter the room through vents at the electricity from resources such as solar, wind,
top. Cool air from adjacent rooms geothermal, biomass, and low-impact hydro
is pulled in through vents at the facilities. Active solar systems for space heating
bottom. The vents must be use collectors to gather heat from the sun,
closable to prevent heat loss at which is transferred to a fluid. Fans, pumps,
night. The Trombe wall also cools valves, and thermostats move the heated fluid
the structure during summer by from the collectors to a heat storage area. The
venting warm air outside, creating heat collected is then distributed to the
air currents that draw in cooler air structure.
from open north-side windows. Heating System
• Some passive solar structures use
water as the storage medium. An active solar heating system
Large vertical water-filled tubes generally requires a backup heating system
or drums painted dark can serve that is capable of handling the entire heating
as a Trombe wall, storing heat needs of the building.
during the day and releasing it at
Solar Collectors
night.
Solar collectors catch sunlight and
ROOF PONDS
convert this light to heat. Well-designed solar
Roof ponds are typically more common collectors are nearly 100% efficient. The
in commercial construction but can also be number of solar collectors needed to provide
used in residential architecture. A roof pond heat for a given structure depends on the size
consists of containers filled with antifreeze of the structure and the volume of heat needed.
and water placed on a flat roof. Collectors are commonly placed in rows on a
roof or on the ground next to the structure.
GREEN ROOF
• Placement: The best placement
A green roof, or rooftop garden, is requires unobstructed southern
planted over existing roof structures to reduce exposure.
building temperatures, filter pollution, and
decrease water runoff. This type of roof helps
mitigate the urban heat island effect and can
lower heating and cooling loads within the
building.

SOLARIUMS

Heat from the solarium can circulate

throughout the house via natural convection or
 Solar collectors can be integrated into
various surfaces, such as patios, driveways,
tennis courts, pool decks, and tile roofs. These
solar architectural concrete products are
versatile solar collectors, serving multiple
functions, including:

• Driveways
• Sidewalks
• Patios
• Pool decks
• Roofing materials
• Surfaces of building walls or fences

The finished surface can mimic

cobblestone, brick, or roof tiles, enhanced with
pigments for a lasting, visually pleasing color.

These solar products differ from

traditional solar collectors as they add aesthetic
value. Manufactured from a specially
Photovoltaic Modules formulated mixture, they are:

Photovoltaic modules have been • Strong

developed and refined to power thousands of • Dense
installations. Photovoltaic systems produce • Very conductive
electricity to supply power for various uses. • Waterproof
Photovoltaic cells turn light into electricity.
Solar architectural cement products
• Function: Photovoltaic modules absorb and collect heat from the sun and
function when photons strike the outside air, transferring this heat into water,
surface of a silicon wafer to glycol, or another heat transferring fluid that
stimulate the release of mobile flows through embedded tubes.
electric charges.
Geothermal Systems
• Electricity Types: Photovoltaic
modules produce direct current Water-Based Systems
(DC) electricity. DC can be
changed to alternating current (AC) • Closed-Loop: Circulates water or
by an inverter. water-antifreeze fluid through
polyethylene tubes.
Site Selection and Future of Solar • Open-Loop: Pumps water from a
Technologies well or reservoir through a heat
Precise site selection is vitally exchanger and discharges it into a
important. The solar modules should be drainage ditch, field tile, reservoir,
situated where they receive maximum or another well.
exposure to direct sunlight. The future looks Refrigerant-Based Systems
bright for solar technologies, as costs and
efficiencies are improving. Solar heating • Known as direct exchange,
becomes an attractive alternative as energy involving refrigerant flowing in
costs rise. Solar alternatives should be copper tubing around a heat
considered in preliminary designs. exchanger, not widely recognized
by the Air Conditioning and
Solar Architectural Concrete Products Refrigeration Institute
 A geothermal system operates by • The specific heat of air is only
pumping groundwater from a supply well, 0.018, allowing it to absorb and
circulating it through a heat exchanger where release only 1/50 of the energy that
heat or cold is transferred by a refrigerant. The water can.
water undergoes only a temperature change • To produce a given amount of heat,
and is returned through a discharge well back 50 times more air volume than
to the strata. Alternate water sources include water is required to pass through
lakes, rivers, ponds, streams, and swimming the unit.
pools.
WIND ENERGY
ALTERNATIVE SYSTEMS
Wind energy is a form of solar energy.
• Insert a geothermal Freon Winds are caused by the uneven heating of the
exchanger directly into a well, atmosphere by the sun, the irregularities of the
utilizing natural convection of earth’s surface, and the earth's rotation. Wind
groundwater temperature. turbines capture energy from the wind.
• If necessary, force Freon to
circulate through tubes within the • A wind turbine is turned by the wind
well using a low horsepower pump. passing over propellers that power
an electric generator, creating
• A geothermal system can assist a
electricity.
solar system that uses water as a
heat storage and transfer medium. • Large-scale applications use
Water heated by solar collectors several technologically advanced
can operate the geothermal turbines grouped together in a wind
system after its temperature farm.
reduces to below 100°F. • A wind farm is an area of land with
energy-producing windmills or
When an adequate supply of water is wind turbines.
unavailable, the ground, which maintains a • This wind power plant generates
constant temperature below the frost line, can electricity fed into a local utility for
extract either heat or cold. Thermal extraction distribution to customers.
occurs through a closed-loop system consisting • Small-scale wind turbines are
of polyethylene tubing filled with a glycol available for home or business use.
solution.
The wind speed in an area determines
The geothermal system is the effectiveness of possible power generation.
mechanically similar to a conventional heat Good wind areas have an annual minimum
pump but uses available water to cool the average wind speed of 13 miles per hour. The
refrigerant or extract heat instead of relying on advantages of wind energy include being a free,
90°F air for cooling or 20°F to 40°F air for renewable, clean resource. However, there are
heating. considerations:
EFFICIENCY: • A good location where wind is
available
• Ground or water source heat
pumps have more capacity and are • Initial costs
more efficient due to less • Noise from turbines
temperature variation. • Bird mortality concerns
• Water can store large amounts of HYDROELECTIC POWER
geothermal energy because of its
high specific heat, the energy Hydroelectric generators convert the
required to raise the temperature of energy from falling water into electricity.
any substance by 1°F. Hydroelectric power is a renewable resource.
Although hydroelectric resources are abundant,
there is environmental concern about dams • Coal and petroleum combustion
blocking the natural river flow. increases the carbon dioxide
content in the atmosphere.
• Hydroelectric power for residential
and business use depends on a Biopower is twice as effective at
good source of flowing water. reducing greenhouse gases as other forms of
• The two key factors are: Flow rate renewable energy, helping reduce America’s
Vertical distance that water falls, dependence on fossil fuel-generating facilities.
referred to as head.
• Biopower is carbon neutral,
The site should be evaluated and releasing no new carbons into the
tested by a hydrology engineer to determine its atmosphere, helping to reduce the
feasibility. Local codes and environmental greenhouse gases that contribute
regulations must be considered before planning to climate change.
a hydroelectric project. Power produced from • Biopower reduces carbon dioxide
hydroelectric sources is clean, making it an emissions by over 15 tons annually
excellent consideration when compared with while diverting over 25 million tons
power plants fired by fossil fuels. However, of organic materials that would
other environmental impacts, such as fish otherwise decompose, be open-
passage, must also be considered. burned, or accumulate in the forest
as overgrowth material.
Roof Overhang
• Biopower improves the health of
To calculate an overhang that provides American forests and reduces
nearly 100% shading at noon on the longest firefighting costs by clearing
day of the year, use a formula that divides the millions of tons of forest waste
window height by a factor determined in relation annually, which otherwise would be
to latitude. For example, to calculate the fuel for deadly forest fires
recommended southern overhang for a
location at 36° latitude with a windowsill
height of 6'-8", consider that the
recommended overhang increases for more
northerly latitudes.

BIOPOWER

BIOMASS

Biomass means natural material, such

as trees, plants, agricultural waste, and other
organic material. Organic material is any
material that originated as a living organism. In
this context, biomass refers to plant matter
grown to generate electricity or produce biofuel,
plant or animal matter used for the production
of fibers, chemicals, or heat, and biodegradable
wastes that can be burned as fuel.

• Exclusions include organic

material transformed by geological
processes into coal or petroleum,
which contains carbon that has
been “out” of the carbon cycle for a
very long time.