Networking Concepts

Networking Concepts
Computer networks:
A computer networks is an interconnection of two or more computers that
are able to exchange information.

Advantages / Goals of networking:

 Resource sharing: All the programs data and peripherals available to any
one of the network can be shared in the network irrespective of physical
location the resources and the user’s
 Reliability: A similar data is available in 2 or more machines so that if any
one of them is unavailable other copy can be use .
 Cost factor: Network versions of application software’s are available at lower
cost where compared to buying individually licensed copies.
 Communication medium: Email facility allow the user’s to communicate
online faster and cost effective manner. Video conferencing is another form
of communication made possible via networking.
 Speed: Networks provide a very rapid method for sharing and transferring
files.
 Flexible access: Networks allow users to access their files from computer
throughout the organizations.

Disadvantages of networking:
 Expensive to install: The initial cast of installation is very high.
 Requires administrative time: Proper maintenance of the network
requires considerable time and expertise.
 Server failures: when the server goes down the entire network may come
to halt when this happens, the entire network may loose the access to
necessary programs and files.
 Cable may break : If the main cable breaks the entire network stops its
working.

OSI model: (open system interconnection):

It is a reference tool for understanding data communication between any

2 networking system.

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TCP / IP model (Transfer control protocol and Internet Protocol)

It is a network model used in the current internet architecture
The TCP /IP model uses four layers to perform the function of seven layer
OSI model.

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Network Protocol:
Protocol : A set of rules and procedures that determine how a computer systems
receives and transmits data
 Network protocol means the rules that are applicable for a network.
 It defines the standardized format for data package, techniques for deleting
and correcting errors and so on.
 A protocol is formal description of message formats and the rules that 2 or
more machines must be followed to exchange those messages.

(a) TCP / IP(Transfer control protocol/Internet protocol) : It is a reliable

connection orientated protocol which handles byte streams from source to
destination without error and flow control.

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(b) HTTP(Hyper text transfer protocol):

It is an application protocol for distributed, collaborated and hypermedia
information system.
 HTTP is the foundation of data communication for world wide web.

(c) FTP (File transfer protocol):

 It is a standard network protocol used for the transfer of computer files
between a client and server on a client – serves model architecture and uses
separate control and data connections b/w the client and server.

(d)SMTP (simple mail transfer protocol):

 It is the standard protocol for email services on a TCP / IP network.
It provides the ability to send and receive email messages.
 SMTP is an application layer protocol that enables the transmission and
delivery of email over the internet.
(e) SLIP (Serial line internet protocol):
 Serial line IP was the first protocol for relaying the IP packets over dial-up
lines
 SLIP is a protocol used for communication b/w two machines that are
previously configured for communication.
 It is an encapsulation of ID designed to work over serial ports and router
connections.

(f) PPP (point – to point protocol):

 PPP is a data link layer communications protocol used to establish a direct
connection b /w two nodes
 It connects two routers directly without any host or networking devices
 PPP is used over many types of physical networks including serial cable,
phone line, trunk line, cellular telephone.

Internet
It is a network of networks that needs to operate around the world as if it
were one
The internet backbone is a network of high – capacity communications links
that provides the main routes for data traffic across the internet

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Inter space:
Inter space is a client / server software applied that allows multiple users
to communicate online with real- time audio video and text chat.
Server : It is a specially designated computer where all the shareable stuff are
stored and able to process requests and deliver data to other s/m over a
network.

Client : It is a computer on the networks which requests for some services

such as data and server responds to requests.

ARPANET ( Advanced Research projects agency network ):

It was an early packet switching network and the first network to
implement the protocol suite TCP /IP .

Types of networks:
Networks can be classified on the basis of their size, complexity and
geographical spread. Depending upon the geographical area covered by a
network, It is classified as,
(a) Local area Network (Lan)
(b) Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
(c) Wide Area Network (WAN)

a. Local Area Network (LAN):

 It is a privately owned network that operate within a small area such as

a single building like a home, office, college or factory
 LAN are widely used to connect computers to share resource.
 It is limited in size, typically spanning a few hundred meters.

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 It is fast, with speeds from lombps to 10 Gbps LAN can be wired Dr

wireless
 LSN’S is built from point topoint links popularly called Ethernet.
 When LAN’S are used by companies, them they are called as enterprise
networks.
 A LAL in turn often connects to other LAN’s and to the internet or other
WAN
 DATA transfer rate is high
 Easy to design and trouble shoot
 Co-axial cables were used.

(b) Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):

 MAN are the networks spread over a city

 The purpose of a MAN is also to share hardware and software resources
among its users.
 MAN typically covers area b/w 5 to 50 km diameter.
 Optical fibers were used

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(c) Wide Area Network (WAN)

 WAN is a network that spreads over a large –scale geographical area

 A WAN connects different small networks including LAN’S and MAN’S
 This ensures that computers and users in one Location can
communicate with computers and users in other locations
 WAN works in similar fashion to a LAN just on a larger scale
 Typically, TCP /IP is the protocol used for a WAN in combination with
devices such as routers, switches, firewalls and modems
 Data transfer rate is low
 Designing is not easy as LAN and MAN satellite links.

Network Topologies:
Topology refers to the arrangement computers and other devices in a
network
Network topologies can be classified as follows:
1) Bus Topology
2) Star Topology
3) Ring Topology
4) Mesh Topology
5) Tree Topology

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1) Liner or Bus Topology:

 A bus topology uses one main cable to connect all of the s/m together
 Used in small Networks.
 A bus topology is very easy to set up and requires no additional
hardware
 Data flow takes place in single direction
 Cost effective
 It is slower and dependent on main cable
 If main cable fails all the other s/m’s will also fails.

Advantages :
 A bus topology requires less cost
 A bus topology uses less cable and other devices such as hubs and
switches
 Easy to install
 It is easy to work with and a minimal amount of additional devices are
required
Disadvantages :
 Difficulty of trouble shooting, when the network goes down
 The bus topology is not very scalable (extendable)

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2. Ring Topology:

 In Ring topology computers are connected via a cable that loops in a ring
or circle
 The data travels in one direction from node to node around the ring
Advantages:
 Signal de generation is low because each computer is responsible for
regenerating or boosting the signal.
 Suitable for optical fibers.
 Each computer has equal access to resources.
 Requires less cable length than star topology.
Disadvantages:
 If one computer fails or the cable link is broken, the entire network could
go down
 Isolating a problem can be difficult in some ring configurations
 A small movement or cabling change can interrupt or bring down the
entire network

3. Star Topology :

 In star topology all computers are connected through one central device
known as a hub or switch
 It is the topology used in most existing networks involving data
processing or voice communications

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Advantages :
 Easy to add new system to the network
 If there is a break in the cable it affects only the system that is connected
to that cable
 It is easy to add or change configurations
Disadvantages:
 If the switch fails the entire network comes down
 Installation cost is high

4. Mesh / Graph Topology:

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 In this Topology every node is connected to every other node in the

network.
 This type of topology is very expensive as there are many redundant
connections
 This topology is most rarely used in computer networks
 Mesh topology is also called as the graph topology or fully connected
topology
 Two techniques are used
1) Routing
2) Flooding
Advantages:
 Fault tolerance is there, if there is a break in a cable segment, traffic can
be reflected
 Expansion and modification can be done without disrupting other nodes

Disadvantage:
 Installation cost is very high

5. Tree Topology / Hybrid Topology:

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 Tree Topology combines the characteristics of the linear bus and the star
topologies
 It consists of groups of star configures computers connected to a bus
Advantages:
 Eliminates network congestion
 The network can be easily extended
 Faulty nodes can easily be isolated from the rest of the networks
Disadvantages:
 Uses large cable length
 Requires a large amount of hardware components and hence it is
expensive
 Installation and reconfiguration is very difficult

Transmission media / communication channel:

 It is a pathway that carries the information or data from sender to
receiver
 We use different types of cables or waves to transmit data. Data
transmission normally through electrical or electromagnetic signals.

Factors to be considered while choosing the transmission media are,

 Transmission Rate
 Distances
 Cost and case of installation
 Resistance to environmental conditions.

Types of transmission media:

There are 2 types of transmission media
1. Guided
2. Unguided

1. Guided Transmission media:

It uses a cabling system that guides the data signals along a specific path

Types:
(a) Twisted pair
 Unshielded Twisted pair (UTP)
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 Shielded Twisted pair (STP)

(b) Co – axial cable
(c) Optical Fiber

(a) Twisted pair:

Twisted pair cabling is a type of wiring in which two conductors of sigle circuit
are twisted together for the purposes of improving electromagnetic compatibility

Advantages:
 Reduces cross talk’s
 Prevents from external form of signal interference
 Simple and physically flexible
 Low weight and cheaper
 Easy to connect and maintain
Disadvantages:
 Carrying a signal for a large distance without repeater is impossible
 Its lower bandwidth capabilities make it unsuitable for broadband
applications

i. Unshielded Twisted paid (UTP):

 UTP surrounded by an outer jacket, they have no metallic shield

 This makes the cable small in diameter but unprotected against

electrical interface

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 UTP is the copper media inherited from telephone wires, which is being
used for increasingly higher data rates
 UTP is a very flexible low cost media, and can be used for either voice or
data communications.
 The disadvantage is the limited bandwidth which restricts long distance
transmission with low error routes
 Twisted pair is commonly used for LAN

(!!) Shielded Twister pair (STP):

 STP include two individual wires covered with a foil shielding , which
prevents electromagnetic interference, there by transporting data faster.
 STP is similar to unshielded twisted pair (UTP), it contains an extra foil
wrapping or copper mesh jacket
 STP are costlier than UTP
Advantages:
 It is easy to install and maintain.
Disadvantages:
 It is incapable to carry a signal over long distances without the use of
repeaters.
 These are not suitable for broadband application

(b) Co-axial cable :

 Co-axial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center
 A plastic layer provides insulation b/w the center conductor and a metal
shield
 The metal shield helps to block any outside interference

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Types of co-axial cables:

There are 2 types of co-axial cables
(1) Thick net
(2) Thin net

Thick net : The thick net co-axial cable segments can be up to 500 meters
long.

Thin net: This form of co-axial cable is thinner and it can have maximum
segment length of 185 meters.
Advantages:
 Data transmission rate is better than twits pair cables
 Used for broadband transmission
 Higher bandwidth upto 400 mbps

Disadvantages:
 Expensive than twisted pair cables
 Difficult to manage and reconfigure

(c)Optical Fibers:

 Optical fiber cable is a high-speed data transmission medium. It contains

tiny glass for plastic filaments that carry light beams
 Digital data is transmitted through the cable via rapid pulses of light. The
receiving end of a fiber optic transmission translates the light pulses into
binary values.
 They are less susceptible to noise and interference compared to copper wire
and transmits signals for much longer distance.

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Advantages:
 Transmits data over long distance with high secuiry
 Data transmission speed is high
 Provide better noise immunity
 Bandwidth is up to 100 Gbps
Disadvantages:
 Expensive as compared to other guided media
 Need special care while installation
 Difficult to repairs.

2. Unguided media:
Unguided transmission media the data signals How through the air. They
are not guided or bounded or covered to channel to follow

The following are unguided media used for data communication

(a) Radio transmission.
(b) microwave [Satellite com]
(c) Infrared transmission.
(d) Laser transmission

(a) Radio wave transmission:

This transmission making use of radio frequency to transmit data.

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The radio wave transmission has two poles

 Transmitter
 Receiver
The transmitter encodes the data to be sent using sine wave and transmits it
with radio waves
The receiver decodes the data receives the radio waves are from the sine wave
Both the antennas to Signals transmitter and receiver use radiate and capture
the radio signals.

Advantages:
 Free from land acquisition rights.
 Provides easy communication ever difficult places
 Provide mobility.
 In Expensive.

Disadvantages:
 Insecure Communication
 Susceptible to weather effects.

b. Micro wave Satellite Communication:

Radio wave higher named microwave than 3 GHz is named as microwave.
In Satellite communication the earth station consists of a satellite dish that
functions as an antenna and communication equipment to transmit and
receive data from satellites passing overhead .

Advantages:
 The area coverage through satellite transmission is quite large
 The maintenance of intercontinental cable is easy in satellite
communication.
 Towers are not required
 They can carry high quantities of information due to their high operating
frequencies.

Disadvantages:
 Reflected from Hat Surface like water and metal
 Diffracted (Split) around solid objects.
 Reflected by atmosphere, thus causing beam to be projected away from
receiver.
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c. Infrared transmission:
This type of transmission uses infrared light to send the data. The infrared
light transmits data through the air and can propagate throughout a room
But will not penetrate walls. The infrared transmission commonly used PDA'S
[Personal digital Assistants]

Infrared transmission is Secured transmission media.

d. Laser transmission:
 The laser transmission required direct Line-of-sight It is unidirectional
like microwave and much speed than microwaver
 The laser, transmission requires the use of a transmitter and a photo
sensitive receiver at each end.
 The laser transmission is point – to- point transmission

Data communication Terminologies

Data channel: A channel used to send an information signal either physical

transmission medium or logical connection.
Bandwidth: The amount of data that can be carried from one point to another
point in a given period.
Bandwidth is usually expressed in bits per second (bps)
Data transfer rate: The speed with which data can be transmitted from one
device to another is called data transfer rate.
Bit rate: Bit rate is the number of bits that are processed per unit of time

Transmission Switching Technique:

In large networks there may be multiple paths Information linking sender
and receiver Information has to be switched as it travels through various
communication channels.

There are 3 types of switching techniques available for digital data transfer

1. circuit Switching:
It is a method of implementing a telecommunication network in which two
networks nodes establish a dedicated communication channel through the
network before the nodes may communicate
The circuit guarantees the full bandwidth of the channel and remains
connected for the duration of the Communication session. The Circuit
functions as if the nodes were physically connected as with an electrical
circuit.
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Eg: early analog telephone network.

(ii) Message Switching:

This is called as store and forward -network derived from packet switching,
where message were routed from the Source node destination nod, one hope
at a time
During message routing every intermediate Switch in the network stores the
whole message.
If the entire network's becomes blocked or engaged then message - switched
network. Stores and delays the message until resources are available for
effective transmission.

(iii) Packet Switching:

A type of communication line in which data it broken into distinct
addressed packets that can be transferred no separataly.
Packet switching combines both the advantages of message and circuit
switching.
In packet switching method, a message is broken into small parts called
packets
Each packet is tagged with appropriate Source and destination addresses. So
this feature allows the packet to travel in multiple paths.

Communication modes:
Depending on the type of media used one of three distinct transmission modes
is available.

1. Simplex: In simplex mode only one interface is transmitted and every

other interface is a receiver.
In simplex channel. The transmitting interface cannot receive information and
the receiving interface can't transmit
Ex: Radio broadcasting, television.

2. Half- Duplex: In half- Duplex channel, each interface serves as both

transmitter and receiver, but only one interface can transmit at a time
The Channel full bandwidth is available to the transmitting interfaces.
Ex: walkie-talkies, marine aviation.
3. Full Duplex: A full -Duplex channel has 2 ends, each, serving as both
transmitter and receiver
Each interface can both transmit & receiver at the same time.
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Ex: Telephone systems.

Network Devices:

Servers: It is a very fast computer with a large amount of RAM and Storage
space, along fast network interface card.

workstation / client: All the computers other than the server connected to a
network are called work station or client

Repeater: A repeater is a network device that amplifies and restores signals

for long distance transmission

Bridge: Bridges are networking devices that connect similar networks.

Network Interface cards: The network Interface card (NIC) provides the
physical connection b/w the network and the computer work station.

Hubs: A hub is a hardware device used to connect Several computers

together
A hub includes a series of ports that each accept a network cable. Hubs
forward data packets from one workstation to all their remaining ports.

Routers: A router is a networking device, that, forwards data packets b/w

computer networks.
Routers perform the traffic directing functions on the internet

Switch : switch is a device that channels incoming data from any of multiple
input ports to the output Port

Gateway:
 A gateway is a device that connects dissimilar networks.
 A gateway is a hardware device that acts as a "gate" between 2 networks.
 It is node on network that provides entry to another network.
 It performs data translation and protocol conversions.

Modem: The modem modulates the signal at the sending end and demodulate
at the receiving end.

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Modern perform a simple function they translate digital signals from a

computer to analog signals that can travel across conventional phone lines.

Wireless Computing:
Wireless refers to the method of transferring information b/w a computing
device and a data source, without physical connection.

Mobile computing: It refers to computing devices that are not restricted to a

desktop.
Various technologies and interfaces that are used for wireless and
mobile computing :

GSM [Global system for mobile communication]: GSM is the one of the
leading digital cellular systems.
GSM uses narrowband, which allows eight simultaneous calls on the same
radio frequency.

Time division multiple access (TDMA): A technology for delivering digital

wireless service using, a TDMA works by dividing radio frequency into time to
slots and then allocating slots to multiple calls
In this way, a single frequency can support multiple, simultaneous data
channels.

SIM [Subscriber Identity module]: SIM is a chip card, A SIM is a ting

computer chip that gives a cellular device, its unique phone number.

CDMA [Code Division multiple Access]: CDMA is a form of multiplexing

which allows numerous signals to occupy a signal transmission channel,
Optimizing the use of available bandwidth. This technology is used in ultra-
high frequency cellular telephone systems in the 800 MHz and 1.9 GHz
bands.

WLL Wireless local loop]: wireless refers to the method of transferring

information b/w a computing device and a data Source, without aphysical
connection.
wireless computing is simply data Communication without the use of a
landlines

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It involves cellular telephone, a 2 way radio a fixed wireless connection, a

laser or Satellite communication.

Generations of Networks:
a. 1G Network :
 1G Network are considered to be the first analog cellular technology
system which was started in early 1980's
 Data bandwidth 2 kbps.
 Service mobile telephony (voice).
 Circuit Switching is used.

b. 2G Network:
 2G Network started in early 1990's.
 Data bandwidth 14 to 64 Kbps
 Standards used COMA, GSM, GPRS, EDGE
 Digital cellular technology was used,
 Service - Digital voice, short messaging.
 Uses circuit switching for network access and packet switching for core
network and data

c. 3G Network
 It was Started in 1990 to 2002 data bandwidth 2 mbps.
 Broad band, CDMA, IP technology
 Service Integrated high quality audio video and data
 Both Circuit and packet Switching.

d. 4G Network:
 This technology was in b/w 2000 to 2010
 Data bandwidth 200mbps to 1Gbps for low mobility.
 Technology used is unified IP and combination of broadband, LAN/WAN
etc.
 Service-Dynamic information access portable and Wearable device.
 Uses all types of switching techniques.

e. 5G Network:

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 Data band width 1 Gbps and higher

 Technology used is unified IP combination of broadband, LAN/WAN ETC.
 Service - Dynamic information access AI capabilities
 Uses all 3 switching techniques.

Applications of Network communication:

1. Short Message Service [SMS]:
 SMS is the transmission of short text messages to another from a
mobile phone, fax machine and IP address
 Messages must not be longer than some fixed number of alpha-numeric
character and contain no images or graphics.

2. E-mail:
E-mail is sending and receiving message by computer
E-mail is an extremely cost-effective way to move information around,
especially when it must be moved quickly.
E-mail can be delivered almost as fast as the wire can carry it.

3. Voice mail:
 The voice-mail refers to e-mail systems. that support audio.
 Users can leave audio message.
 Voice message or voice mail is a method of storing voice massages
electronically for later retrieval by intended recipients. Callers leave
short messages that are stored on digital media or in some older
Systems, on analog recording tape.

4. Chat:
 Chatting is talking to other people who are using the internet at the
same time.
 Chatting is exchange of typed in messages requiring one site as the
repository for the messages or "chat site".

5. Video conferencing:
Video conferencing is a two-way video phone conversion among multiple
participants. To make use of video conferencing you need to install a

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digital camera, video conferencing, software and an internal connection.

It is related due to multiple users each other while conferencing

6. WIFI (wireless - fidelity]:

Wi-Fi is a type of wireless networking protocol that allows devices to
communicate without physical connection.Uses radio wave for
communication.

Computer Viruses:
A computer virus is a program that enters a computer usually without the
Knowledge of the operator.

Types of viruses:
1. File viruses: A file infecting virus is a type of malware that infect
executable files with the infects cause permanent damage or make them
unusable.
2. Boot Sector Viruses: A Boot Sector viruses is a Computer virus that
infects virus a strange device's master boot record. These viruses сору
their infected code either to the floppy disk boot Sector or to the hard
disk.
3. Macro viruses: A macro viruses is a computer virus written in the same
macro language used for the software programs.
When a macro virus infects a software application it causes a sequence
of actions to begin automatically when the application is opened.
4. Network viruses : These are new type of malware that Spreads from
computer to other computer without having to drop a file based сору.
The virus can hide on any computer in an infected network
5. Bomb viruses: A logic bomb is a piece of code infects an operating
system or software application that implement a malicious function after
a certain amount of time or Specific Conditions are met.
6. Worm Virus: A computer worm is a standalone malware computer
program that replicates itself in order to spread to other computers .
often, it a computer network to Spread itself..
7. Trojan Horse: A Trojan horse is a type of malware that is often disguised
as legitimate Software Trojan can be employed by cyber-thieves and
hackers trying to gain access to users systems.

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Protection methods:
(a) Authorization: Determines whether you are authorized to access the
resources.
The method of giving access to only authorized person. This can be done
by using, a legal Login- id and password.
(b) Authentication: Confirms user's identity to grant access to system it
ensures that each entity involved in using a web service the requestor,
the provider and the broker etc. is what it actually claims to be
(c) Encrypted smart cards: The hand-held Smart card can generate a
token that a computer system can recognize. Every time a new and
different token is generated which even though Cracked or hacked,
cannot be used later.
(d) Bio-metric Systems: This method involve identifying some unique
aspect of a person's body such as finger prints, retinal patterns etc.
(e) Fire wall: A System designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from
a private network is called firewall.
(f) Packet filter: It looks at each packet entering or " leaving the network
and accept or reject it based on User defined
(g)Application gateway: This type of firewall security mechanisms to
Specific application.
(h)Circuit-level gateway: This type of firewall applies mechanisms when a
connection is established.
(i)Proxy Server: This type of firewall intercepts all messages entering
leaving the network. The proxy server effectively hides the true network
addresses.
(j)Intrusion detection: This type of firewall senses the unauthorized
intruders trying to access the system and then denies the access to such an
authorized persons.

Cookies: Cookies are messages that a web Server transmits to a web browser
so that a web server can keep track of the user's activity.

Hacker: Hacker are export programmers. most commonly used to gain

unauthorized access to other computers.

Cracker: A cracker is one who breaks into or otherwise violates the system
integrity of remote machines.

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