Unit 2: Fluid properties & Hydrostatic

2.1 Fluid properties & its definition

Sure, here are some of the main properties of fluids:

1. Density: The mass of the fluid per unit volume.

2. Viscosity: The resistance offered to a layer of fluids when it moves over another layer of fluids.
3. Temperature: The measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a system.
4. Pressure: The force exerted by a fluid per unit area.
5. Specific Volume: The volume of fluid per unit weight. It is the reciprocal of weight density.
6. Specific Weight: The weight of fluids per unit volume.
7. Specific Gravity: The ratio of specific weight or mass density of fluids to the specific weight or mass density of the standard fluids.
8. Surface Tension: A tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in contact with air or between 2 liquids.
9. Vapour Pressure: The pressure exerted by a vapor in thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed phases at a given temperature in
a closed system.
10. Capillarity: The ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the assistance of, or even in opposition to, external forces like
gravity.
11. Cavitation: The formation of vapor cavities in a liquid – i.e. small liquid-free zones (“bubbles” or “voids”) – that are the consequence
of forces acting upon the liquid.

Fluids are classified into four types depending on their flow: Steady or unsteady, Compressible or incompressible, Viscous or
nonviscous, Rotational or irrotational. The study of fluids can be divided into two parts: Fluid statics (the mechanism of fluids at rest)
and Fluid dynamics (the study of the flow of fluids in motion).

2.2 definition of fluid, Viscosity, Bulk modulus of elasticity, Vapour pressure, Surface tension, Capillarity

Sure, here are the definitions of the terms you asked for:

1. Fluid: A fluid is a substance that does not possess a definite shape and easily yields to external pressure. Fluids are substances with
zero shear modulus, i.e., they cannot resist the shear force applied to them.

2. Viscosity: Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. It measures resistance to flow arising due to the internal friction
between the fluid layers as they slip past one another when fluid flows.

3. Bulk Modulus of Elasticity: The bulk modulus of elasticity is a numerical constant that measures and describes the elastic properties
of a solid or fluid when pressure is applied to all the surfaces.

4. Vapour Pressure: Vapour pressure or equilibrium vapour pressure is the pressure exerted by a vapor in thermodynamic equilibrium
with its condensed phases (solid or liquid) at a given temperature in a closed system.

5. Surface Tension: Surface tension is the property of a liquid surface displayed by its acting as if it were a stretched elastic membrane.
This property allows certain insects to stand on the surface of water.

6. Capillarity: Capillarity is the ability of a liquid to move through a second liquid due to attraction. It can be defined as the rate at which
liquids move across a surface (wetted or not) or between two surfaces.

2.3 Manometers

A manometer is a device used to measure pressure at a point in a fluid by balancing the column of fluid by the same or another fluid.
It is commonly known as a U-shaped tube that is filled with a liquid, gas, steam, etc. Manometers are precision instruments that are
used to measure pressure, which is the force exerted by a gas or liquid per unit surface area owing to the effects of the weight of that
gas or liquid from gravity.

There are several types of manometers, including:

1. Simple Manometer: A simple manometer has a glass tube that’s one end is connected to a point where pressure is to be measured and
the other end remains open to the atmosphere.

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 Unit 2: Fluid properties & Hydrostatic

2. U-Tube Manometer: U-tube manometer features a vertical or inclined U-tube column that is filled with a reference liquid (mercury)
to display the pressure level.
3. Enlarged-Leg Manometer: In this type of manometer, the float is seen in the enlarged leg that is used for noting or indicating.
4. Well-Type Manometer: A well-type manometer includes a large well in one of the legs. Another leg features a simple tube.
5. Inclined-Tube Manometer: It is a slant-shaped manometer which has a 10-degree angle of the measuring leg. The sensitivity of the
device is improved with the inclination.

Each type of manometer has its own specific applications and advantages. They are used in a variety of fields, including engineering,
physics, and chemistry, to measure fluid pressure

2.4 Pascal’s law

Pascal’s Law, also known as the principle of transmission of fluid-pressure, is a principle in fluid mechanics that was established by
French mathematician Blaise Pascal in 1653.

The law states that a pressure change at any point in a confined incompressible fluid is transmitted throughout the fluid such that the
same change occurs everywhere. In other words, when we apply pressure at a point in an enclosed fluid, the change in pressure is
transmitted undiminished in all directions throughout the fluid.

The mathematical representation of Pascal’s Law for a fluid column in a uniform gravity (e.g., in a hydraulic press) can be stated as:

where:

This principle is used in hydraulic systems like hydraulic lifts, hydraulic jacks, and hydraulic presses, where pressure applied at one
point is transmitted to another point without being diminished. The braking system of most cars also uses this principle

2.5 Hydrostatic law its derivation

The Hydrostatic Law, also known as the Hydrostatic Pressure Law, states that the pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is
proportional to its depth. The pressure is exerted equally in all directions at any given depth.

Let’s derive the hydrostatic law:

Consider a column of fluid with height h, cross-sectional area A, and density ρ. The fluid is under the influence of gravity g. The weight
of the fluid column is given by the product of its mass and the acceleration due to gravity, i.e., W = m*g.

The mass m of the fluid can be expressed as the product of the fluid’s volume V and its density ρ, i.e., m = ρ*V. The volume V of the
fluid is the product of the cross-sectional area A and the height h, i.e., V = A*h.

Substituting these expressions into the equation for the weight gives W = ρ*A*h*g.

Pressure p is defined as the force per unit area. In this case, the force is the weight of the fluid column, and the area is the
crosssectional area A. So, the pressure p at a depth h in the fluid is given by p = W/A = (ρ*A*h*g)/A.

Simplifying this expression gives the hydrostatic pressure law:

𝑝=𝜌∗𝑔∗ℎ

This equation tells us that the pressure p at a depth h in a fluid of density ρ under the acceleration due to gravity g is given by the
product of ρ, g, and h.

2.6 Total pressure & Centre of pressure on vertical,horizontal, inclined, curved surface its derivation Sure,

let’s go through these one by one:

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 Unit 2: Fluid properties & Hydrostatic

1. Total Pressure: Total pressure is defined as the hydrostatic force applied by a static fluid on a plane or curved surface when the fluid
comes in contact with the surfaces. The total pressure F on a surface submerged in a fluid can be calculated by integrating the pressure
p over the area A of the surface. The formula for total pressure is given by:

𝐹 = ∫𝑝 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔 ∫ℎ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎˉ
𝐴 𝐴

where:

2. Centre of Pressure: The centre of pressure is the point of application of the total pressure force (Resultant hydrostatic force) exerted
by the liquid on the object. The position of the center of pressure is generally expressed as its perpendicular distance from the free
surface of the liquid h*. The center of pressure is found in such a way that the moment of the total pressure force, F (acting at the
center of pressure) about the free surface is equivalent to the sum of the moment developed by each of the individual hydrostatic forces
about the free surface.

• For a horizontal plane surface submerged in liquid, the center of pressure is given by h* = h, where h is the depth of the
plane surface from the free surface of the liquid.
• For a vertical plane surface submerged in liquid, the center of pressure is given by

• For an inclined plane surface submerged in liquid, the center of pressure is given by:

where θ is the angle between the plane and free

surface.
• For a curved surface submerged in liquid, the derivation of the center of pressure is more complex and depends on the
specific shape of the surface.

Please note that these derivations are based on the assumptions of incompressible, static fluids and small angles. For more complex
situations, additional factors may need to be considered.

2.7 Concept Of buoyancy & flotation Meta centre, metacentric height its derivations Sure,

let’s go through these concepts one by one:

1. Buoyancy: Buoyancy is the tendency of an object to float in a fluid. All liquids and gases in the presence of gravity exert an upward
force known as the buoyant force on any object immersed in them. This phenomenon is governed by Archimedes’ principle, which
states that the buoyant force on an object is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. The buoyant force can be
calculated using the formula:

𝐹𝑏 = 𝜌 ⋅ 𝑔 ⋅ 𝑉

where:

• 𝐹𝑏 is the buoyant force,

• ρ is the density of the fluid,
• g is the acceleration due to gravity,
• V is the volume of the fluid displaced by the object.

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 Unit 2: Fluid properties & Hydrostatic

2. Flotation: Flotation is the phenomenon where an object floats in a liquid if it displaces the same amount of liquid as its weight. This is
known as the law of flotation. For an object to float, the fluid in which the object has to float should have a density more than that of
the average density of the floating object. The total weight of the object must be equal to the upthrust force of the fluid on the object.

3. Metacenter: The metacenter is the point about which a body starts oscillating when it is given a small angular displacement. If the
body undergoes angular displacement, then the point of intersection of the two straight lines is called the metacenter. These lines are:

• The axis line of the body passing through the center of gravity and original center of buoyancy (GB).
• The vertical line passing through the new center of buoyancy when the body is tilted.

4. Metacentric Height: The metacentric height (GM) is a measurement of the initial static stability of a floating body. It is calculated as
the distance between the center of gravity of a ship and its metacenter. A larger metacentric height implies greater
initial stability against overturning. The metacentric height can be determined by two methods: Analytical method and Experimental
method. The analytical method involves considering a wedge-shaped floating body in equilibrium.

Please note that these derivations are based on the assumptions of incompressible, static fluids and small angles. For more complex
situations, additional factors may need to be considered. If you have any other questions or need further clarification, feel free to ask!.

2.8 Stability, unstability, equilibrium of floating & submerged body Sure,

let’s discuss these concepts:

1. Stability: A floating or submerged body is said to be stable if it comes back to its original position after being slightly disturbed. The
stability of these bodies depends on the position of its metacentre (M), centre of buoyancy (B), and centre of gravity (G). For a floating
body, it is in stable equilibrium if the metacentre is above the centre of gravity (M > G). For a submerged body, it is in stable
equilibrium if the centre of buoyancy is above the centre of gravity (B > G).

2. Unstability: A floating or submerged body is said to be unstable if it moves farther away from its original position when slightly
disturbed. For a floating body, it is in unstable equilibrium if the metacentre is below the centre of gravity (M < G). For a submerged
body, it is in unstable equilibrium if the centre of buoyancy is below the centre of gravity (B < G).

3. Equilibrium: A floating or submerged body is in equilibrium if it remains at rest in any position to which it may be displaced. For a
floating body, it is in neutral equilibrium if the metacentre coincides with the centre of gravity (M = G). For a submerged body, it is in
neutral equilibrium if the centre of buoyancy coincides with the centre of gravity (B = G).

The conditions of stability, unstability, and equilibrium are crucial in many applications, including the design of ships and submarines.
If you have any other questions or need further clarification, feel free to ask!

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