R-1 Political Sociology... Tom Bottomore {900}

POLITICAL SOCIOLOGY
-Tom Bottomore
What is Political Sociology? Examine the various debates in the
development of Political Sociology as a distinct discipline.
In his text titled “Political Sociology”, Tom Bottomore examines the

concept of power in its social context. He provides a preliminary
definition of power as “the capacity of individuals or social groups to
assert their will, make decisions, and shape agendas, even when in
opposition to others.” Power is an ability of an individual to pursue one’s
own interest rather than others. The principal object of political
sociology focuses on understanding these power dynamics within a
society, including relationships between societies and the role of social
movements, organizations, and institutions in determining power.
According to Tom Bottomore, political science and political sociology
are two distinct fields of study, although he personally disagrees on
any theoretical distinctions between the two. The variations that do
exist are results of traditional focuses or a division of labor. For
example, political scientists tend to be more interested in the
mechanics of government, like legislation and administration,
sometimes separate from the social context. On the other hand,
political sociology sees the interconnection between the political and
social aspects, recognizing how they influence each other. This
distinction was originally contrasted as “civil society” and “state” in
the works of scholars like Hegel and Marx.
A new idea of politics emerged, one which, as defined by Karl Marx, is
“rooted in the material conditions of life”. This idea emerged alongside
the rise of a new type of society, modern capitalism, marked by the
standoff between system of production (property and labour) on one
hand, and organized political power (the state) on the other hand. Civil
society was partially equated with “bourgeois society”.
All these changes were expressed in Hegel’s philosophy when he
described civil society as “the achievement” of the modern world;
state, distinct from civil society, was primarily responsible for
resolving all contradiction within society. According to Marx, civil
society and state are connected to each other but Marx disagrees with
Hegel's belief that the state creates harmony. Instead, Marx sees the
state as serving the interests of the ruling class, thus maintaining
inequality and conflict in society. The interplay of economic factors
and political power becomes a central focus of Marxist theory.
Bottomore contrasts the Marxist perspective with Tocqueville’s broader
understanding of the democratic and industrial revolutions of
eighteenth century. Unlike Marx, Tocqueville places greater emphasis on
the democratic revolution and its role in shaping modern societies. He
believed that the main tendency of the democratic movement was to
promote social equality by eliminating hereditary distinctions and
making opportunities accessible to all. He noted how industrial
capitalism influenced democratic movements and emphasized the
independent role of politics in shaping society.
Max Weber, like Tocqueville, sees the autonomy of political forces and
acknowledges the influence of various political trends on national
politics. In societies dominated by forces of rationalization, he holds a
pessimistic view for individual liberty as he believes rationalization
leads to increased bureaucracy and a loss of personal freedom. Mosca
and Pareto argue that society is always divided into two groups: the
ruling class and the ruled class. They believe that elite class is always the
ruling class. Pareto focused on the psychological differences between the
ruling and ruled classes, while Mosca highlighted the impact of social
relationships on their interaction and the changing composition of elite
rulers over time.
Bottomore delves into the major issues which have given rise to
theoretical conflicts in political sociology. Firstly, as mentioned before, is
the dichotomy between Marxism, which emphasizes on the “impotence
of all politics” and the influence of non-political forces on politics, and
elitism, which believes that all societies have similar political systems,
and focuses on how political institutions affect society on their own.
Bottomore also outlines the conflict between proponents of the
functionalist perspective, who see society as a stable system maintained
by balanced relationships, and those who focus on instability and the
possibility of change. The dominant functionalist view declined in
relevance after the political conflict in industrial societies in 1960s. It
was replaced by an alternative model, broadly Marxist in nature, that
focuses on conflicts and tensions, viewing stability as temporary.
Bottomore then delves into the conflict between those who seek to
explain social events with causes and those who focus on understanding
intentional, rule-based actions. He then examines the Marxist and
structuralist critique of empiricism. Structuralism, influenced by
linguistics and anthropology, argues that science grows not by collecting
facts, but by developing concepts that define those facts; and secondly, It
also believes that theory uncovers a deeper reality beyond what we see.
Tom Bottomore concludes by saying that social sciences today
encompass a multitude of paradigms, which makes it impossible to
establish a direct, uncontroversial and universally accepted
understanding of political sociology. He highlights the diversity within
Marxism. He argues that what distinguishes Marxism is not just a single
method but a core of theoretical concepts and ideas. Broadly, three main
styles of social theory can be identified: the Hegelian (linked with
interpretative method and a phenomenological approach), the positive
empiricist (influenced by neo-Kantian knowledge, natural sciences, and
materialism), and the structuralists (linguistics and anthropology). To
fully grasp the subject, its problems, solutions, and development, it is
necessary to examine the different paradigms in relation to each other
considering the historical context that includes both the advancement of the
discipline and the shifting external environment shaped by economic,
political, and cultural changes.

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POLITICAL SOCIOLOGY

In his text titled “Political Sociology”, Tom Bottomore examines the

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