Module 7 Part A

Timber as a
Construction Material
Table of Contents

Introduction............................................................................................................................ 3

Learning Outcomes................................................................................................................. 3

Module Topics......................................................................................................................... 3

Background...................................................................................................................... 3

Features of Timber........................................................................................................... 4

Characteristics of Good Timber........................................................................................ 6

Properties of Timber......................................................................................................... 8

Required Reading.................................................................................................................. 12

Summary.............................................................................................................................. 12

References............................................................................................................................ 13

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 Introduction
Welcome to Module 7 Part A of Low Rise Construction – Timber as a Construction
Material.

Timber has been used in construction for many years. Due to its aesthetic value, flexibility
and strength, it is used more ubiquitously in today’s building industry.

This module introduces the material aspects of timber. There is an appendix (provided
separately) on the construction aspects of timber with reference to ground floors, suspended
floors and walls. This appendix is not examinable in the end examination. However, it shall
be used to complete this week’s tutorial. In addition, the appendix will provide practical
knowledge on the aforementioned topics and the students are reminded that the previous
modules on ground floors, suspended floors and walls excluded timber construction.

Learning Outcomes
In this module you will learn:

 Features of timber;
 Wood structure; and
 Characteristics and properties of timber relevant to building construction.

Module Topics
This module is broken into the following topics:

 Background;
 Features of Timber;
 Characteristics of Good Timber; and
 Properties of Timber.

Let us look at each of these in detail.

Background
Timber is an easily worked and widely available material. It has a wide range of properties
influenced by the species selected. The main valuable feature for construction is its
strength and that it is lightweight. In other words, it has great strength-to-weight ratio.
Timber can be easily cut, fitted and joined with simple hand tools on-site or in a factory
environment.

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Another reason for using timber in construction is its aesthetic value. Timber is visually
attractive. As a natural material, it incorporates unique features relating to the individuality
of each tree from which it has been produced. These unique characteristics are at times
very desirable for specially designed buildings (Ward-Harvey 2009, 21).

The use of timber in building construction is limited to low rise construction in Australia.
However, wooden skyscrapers are believed to be the future of our cities (see the video
below). The main reason being timber is a sustainable material in terms of embodied energy
and waste management.

Useful videos

Wooden skyscrapers are becoming the future of our cities. Watch the
video below:

 Wooden skyscrapers could be the future of our cities (6min

25sec)

Activity 1

What is the embodied energy of a building material?

Compare the embodied energy values of the following building

materials and list out them from most sustainable to the least
using the embodied value as the only indicator (note that there
are many other indicators that determine the environmental
sustainability of a building material):
 Air dried sawn hardwood;
 Kiln dried sawn hardwood;
 Aluminium;
 Galvanised steel;
 Concrete blocks;
 In situ concrete;
 Cement; and
 Clay bricks.

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Features of Timber
The key features of timber are that it is available in a variety of colours, grain and is
textured. Wood structure is easily explained with a cross-section through a tree (Figure 1).
These are the tree’s main parts (Everett 1994, 28):
 Bark: This is the outermost surface layer of a tree;
 Sapwood: This is the living, immature zone of a tree. It is responsible for
transferring water and minerals to the leaves. It is also the storage zone for the
tree’s food. However, the preservation of sapwood requires particular attention.
Paint is inadequate to protect against the growth of fungi. Also, this part of the
wood attracts insects; and
 Heartwood: This is the mature part of the tree. It no longer contains living cells.
The darkening of this part is due to the production of substances that are by-
products of the living process of the tree. These by-products (or extractives) have a
significant influence on the properties of the timber, particularly its durability.

Figure 1: Structure of wood and various sections of a tree (Everett 1994, 29)

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 When comparing sapwood and heartwood, both are equally strong and weigh about the
same at equivalent moisture content. Sapwood has a lower natural decay resistance (or
durability) but accepts preservatives more readily than heartwood. Sapwood also contains
starch, which can be susceptible to some timber-boring insects.

Figure 2: Timber showing sapwood and

heartwood - Note the radial lines or cracks which
are ‘shakes’ (MPF 2004)

Characteristics of Good Timber

Good timber is generally taken from the heart of a sound tree and is free of sap. It should
contain straight, close fibres and have uniform colour. It gives a clear ringing sound when
struck. A dull heavy sound is normally a sign of internal decay. Good quality timber also
has regular annual rings. Narrow annual rings are generally the strongest.

The freshly cut surface of good timber should give a sweet smell. Saw teeth should not get
clogged during the sawing process. When planed, it should have a bright smooth surface. A
dull appearance indicates defective timber. From the same species of timber, darker and
heavier pieces are stronger. It should also be free from dead knots and too many knots,
shakes (see Figure 2 above showing sapwood and heartwood) and other defects.

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 Figure 3: Knot in timber (Pkalac 2010)

Softwoods and Hardwoods

Table 1 is a summary that compares the properties of softwoods and hardwoods. In the
building industry, ‘softwood’ and ‘hardwood’ refer to the relative ease with which a
particular species of timber can be worked with carpentry tools. However, this is a general
case and not specific to all cases. Many hardwoods, such as balsa wood, are in fact softer
and lighter than some softwood.

Table 1: properties of softwoods and hardwoods

Descriptio
Softwood Hardwood
n

Species coniferous (cone bearing) broadleaved species

pines, spruces, Douglas Fir,

Examples jarrah, balsa, teak, oak, mahogany
Oregon
typically, heavier (however, balsa is
Weight lighter than most hardwood
lighter than some softwood)

Strength weaker stronger

Annual
distinctive not distinctive
rings

Work with easier more difficult

windows, doors, furniture, high-quality furniture, decks, flooring,

Applications
medium-density fibreboard and construction that needs to last

Cost cheaper more expensive

Growth rate faster slower

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 Botanically, softwoods come from the coniferous species such as pines, spruces, Douglas fir
and Oregon. Hardwoods come from the broadleaved species such as deciduous trees and
the majority of tropical trees. Examples of hardwood are teak, oak, mahogany and Jarrah
(Ward-Harvey 2009, 21). Characteristics of hardwood and softwood are:
 Hardwood: comparatively heavier and a darker colour than softwood. It is
generally hard and difficult to work with. Its annual rings are not distinct. It can
contain a relatively high percentage of acids. However, it is close-grained and very
strong; and
 Softwood: light in weight and colour. Its annual rings are very distinct. It is
comparatively weaker than hardwood and splits easily. It has straight fibres and can
be weak in directions across the grain. Texture of softwood is soft and regular, while
having a distinct fragrance.

Properties of Timber
The following explains properties of timber relevant to building construction.

Density
Generally, density is one of the most reliable indicators of strength as well as stiffness, joint
strength, hardness, ease of machining, fire resistance and drying characteristics. Density
values represent an amount of wood substance in kg/m 3. Timber density is measured at a
moisture content of 12%.

Activity 2

What are the densities of the following timber species at the 12%
moisture content?
 Oregon;
 Jarrah;
 Balsa;
 Mahogany; and
 Douglas Fir.

Consider only the aforementioned species, is there any hardwood

type lighter than the softwood species?

Higher densities associates with better fire resistance. For example, all Bushfire Resistance
Timbers (BRT) specified in AS3959-2009 for Australia (Kwila; Blackbutt; Spotted Gum;
Red Ironbark; River red Gum; Silvertop Ash; Turpentine) have high density values.

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Moisture Content
Newly felled timber usually has relatively high moisture content because of the considerable
amount of sap it contains. Moisture content of timber is tested by oven drying a timber
sample and then using an equation:
Moisture content of timber (or MC) = loss in its weight on oven drying x 100%

Generally, up to between 25% and 32% of moisture is contained within the timber’s cell
walls. Above this range, the cell walls become saturated and moisture is held as free water
in the timber’s cell cavities.

Seasoning

Timber with a moisture content exceeding 15% is regarded as unseasoned. Seasoning

refers to the intentional process of removing moisture from timber, usually by undergoing
either one of these two methods: air-drying and kiln drying (Everett 1994, 43):
 Air-drying or air seasoning: conducted by open stacking of wood off the ground to
allow the moisture content to reduce naturally. This stacking method can also
reduce the opportunity of fungi growing on wood. Moisture of between 17% and
23% is attained. In hotter weather, thin softwoods can be air-seasoned in just
weeks, while in less favourable conditions, hardwoods can take a year or more to
achieve the same result; and
 Kiln drying or kiln seasoning: a controlled process using purpose-made heated
chambers. In some situations, kiln seasoning can follow air seasoning. In general,
25 mm hardwood can be seasoned in days or months, depending on the species,
under kiln drying method.

Advantages of using seasoned timber are:

 Cross-section dimensions remain almost constant;
 The weight is reduced;
 Strength and hardness is improved (optimum at about 10% MC. At any lower level,
it becomes brittle);
 Electrical resistance increases;
 Glue / nail holding properties increase; and
 Joint strength increases.

It should be noted that there is a moisture bound range for timber construction elements
(Table 2)

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 Table 2: Moisture bound range for timber construction elements (Timber
Queensland 2014)

Activity 3

To use a hardwood timber specimen for flooring construction, the

moisture content should be within 9% and 14%. Which
specimen(s) is (are) suitable for flooring construction out of the
two options given below?
 Specimen 01 – the initial and oven dry masses are 55g and
50g, respectively.
 Specimen 02 – the initial and oven dry masses are 60g and
50g, respectively?

Timber Shrinkage
Shrinkage in timber is only a major problem when unseasoned timber is used and allowed to
dry in place. In general, shrinkage starts when the timber’s cell walls begin to dry. There are
three shrinkage types in a timber member, which are: tangential; radial and longitudinal.
The latter represents the minimal shrinkage.

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 Figure 4: Shrinkage types in timber

Timber moisture movement is the periodic small dimensional changes (such as shrinkage
and swelling) that occur in seasoned timber due to environmental changes. The basic cause
of this is a change in the moisture content of wood. Effects of this movement can be
minimised by installing timber members at a moisture content mid-way between the
extremes of equilibrium moisture content (or EMC) it is likely to experience when in location
(Everett 1994, 37-39; Ozelton and Baird 2006, 17-18). Good strategies to minimise moisture
movement are:
 Selecting timbers with low movement characteristics;
 Protecting against excessive drying / wetting;
 Coating timber to retard rapid moisture absorption / loss; and
 Using smaller rather than larger cross-sections.

Strength
Strength of timber is designated in accordance to their stress grades. Timber strength can
be classified by visual or machine based grading methods. These grading systems indicate
a structural timber’s basic working stresses and stiffness. For example, stress grade of F7
indicates a basic working stress in bending of approximately 7 MPa (Ward-Harvey 2009, 21-
22). Timber strength can be classified under various strength groups:
 There are seven strength groups for unseasoned timber (S1 to S7, with S1 being the
strongest);
 There are eight groups for seasoned timber (SD1 to SD8); and
 The strength groups are determined by the species of timber (i.e., a particular
timber species has just one strength group designation).

Strength grading methods include:

 Stress grading: The stress grading of timber by visual means is influenced by both
the inherent strength of a species (or strength group) and the structural grade (or
quality) of the particular timber being assessed. Grading of softwood is conducted
by examination or passing it through a specially designed machine. The structural
grade is assessed in accordance with Australian Standards, which place limits on the
size or extent of strength reducing characteristics allowable under each structural
grade (Everett 1994, 34; Ward-Harvey 2009, 21-22);
 Machine stress grading: This involves the passing of individual timber pieces
longitudinally into a computer-controlled machine that imposes a standard load on it
and measures the amount of its deflection. This technique correlates the stiffness of
the timber to its strength (Everett 1993, 36); and
 Proof grading: This allocates a stress grade to a piece of timber if it demonstrates
its ability to sustain a specific proof bending stress.

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 Activity 4

James is a qualified timber grader. After examining a piece of seasoned

Jarrah, he classified it under the structural grade #3. Using the table given
below, what will be the basic working stress of this timber piece? Note that
the ‘green’ and ‘dry’ strength groups of Jarrah are S4 and SD4, respectively.

Table 3: The relationship among strength group, stress grade and

structural grades (Wood Solutions N.D)

Required Reading
There are no required readings for this module.

Summary
This week’s module for Timber focused on the following:

 Timber is commonly used in building construction due to its aesthetic value,

flexibility and good strength-to-weight ratio;
 Good timber is generally taken from the heart of a sound tree and should be free of
sap, contain straight and close fibres and have uniform colours;
 In the building industry, ‘softwood’ and ‘hardwood’ refer to the relative ease with
which a particular species of timber can be worked with carpentry tools;
 Seasoning methods for timber are air-drying and kiln-drying;

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  Timber moisture movement is the periodic small dimensional changes that occur in
seasoned timber due to environmental changes; and
 Strength of timber is designated in accordance to stress grades. The three strength-
grading methods are stress grading, machine stress grading and proof grading.

References
Everett, Alan. 1994. Materials. 5th ed. London: Routledge Taylor & Harris Group.
MPF. 2004. Taxus wood. Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood.
Ozelton, E. C., and Jack A. Baird. 2006. Timber Designers' Manual. 3rd ed. Oxford:
Blackwell Science Ltd.
Pkalac, F. 2010. Wood Knot. Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood.
Timber Queensland. Moisture in Timber: Technical Data Sheet. Timber Queensland Ltd.
Ward-Harvey, Ken. 2009. Fundamental Building Materials. 4th ed. Boca Raton: Universal-
Publishers.
Wood Solutions. N.D. The relationship among strength group, stress grade and structural
grades. https://www.woodsolutions.com.au/.

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