CHAPTER 33 Resistance of the Body to Infection: I.

Leukocytes, Granulocytes, the Monocyte-Macrophage System, and Inflammation The leukocytes, also called white blood cells, are the mobile units of the body s protective system. The granulocytes and monocytes have a special ability to seek out and destroy a foreign invader. The granulocytes and monocytes protect the body against invading organisms mainly by ingesting them that is, by phagocytosis. The lymphocytes and plasma cells function mainly in connection with the immune system; Polymorphonuclear neutrophils 62.0% Polymorphonuclear eosinophils 2.3% Polymorphonuclear basophils 0.4% Monocytes 5.3% Lymphocytes 30.0%

The number of platelets, which are only cell fragments, in each microliter of blood is normally about 300,000.The granulocytes and monocytes are formed only in the bone marrow. Lymphocytes and plasma cells are produced mainly in the various lymphogenous tissues especially the lymph glands, spleen, thymus, tonsils, and various pockets of lymphoid tissue elsewhere in the body, such as in the bone marrow and in so-called Peyer s patches underneath the epithelium in the gut wall. The life of the granulocytes after being released from the bone marrow is normally 4 to 8 hours circulating in the blood and another 4 to 5 days in tissues where they are needed (few hours when is infection).The monocytes also have a short transit time, 10 to20 hours in the blood, before wandering through the capillary

membranes into the tissues. Once in the tissues, they swell to much larger sizes to become tissue macrophages, and, in this form, can live for months unless destroyed while performing phagocytic functions. Lymphocytes enter the circulatory system continually, along with drainage of lymph from the lymph nodes and other lymphoid tissue. After a few hours, they pass out of the blood back into the tissues by diapedesis. Then, still later, they re-enter the lymph and return to the blood again and again; thus ,the lymphocytes have life spans of weeks or months; The platelets in the blood are replaced about once every 10 days; in other words, about 30,000 platelets are formed each day for each microliter of blood. It is mainly the neutrophils and tissue macrophages that attack and destroy invading bacteria, viruses, and other injurious agents. Neutrophils and monocytes can squeeze through the pores of the blood capillaries by diapedesis. Both neutrophils and macrophages can move through the tissues by ameboid motion White Blood Cells Are Attracted to Inflamed Tissue Areas by Chemotaxis. Chemotaxis depends on the concentration gradient of the chemotactic substance. The concentration is greatest near the source, which directs the unidirectional movement of the white cells. Chemotaxis is effective up to 100 micrometers away from an inflamed tissue. Therefore, because almost no tissue area is more than 50 micrometers away from a capillary, the chemotactic signal can easily move hordes of white cells from the capillaries into the inflamed area. The most important function of the neutrophils and macrophages is phagocytosis. First, most natural structures in the tissues have smooth surfaces, which resist phagocytosis. But if the surface is rough, the likelihood of phagocytosis is increased. Second, most natural substances of the body have protective protein coats that repel the phagocytes. Conversely, most dead tissues and foreign particles have no protective coats, which makes them subject to phagocytosis. Third, the immune system of the body develops antibodies against infectious agents such as bacteria. The antibodies then adhere to the bacterial membranes and thereby make the bacteria especially susceptible to phagocytosis. On approaching a particle to be phagocytized, the neutrophil first attaches itself to the particle and then projects pseudopodia in all directions around the particle. The pseudopodia meet one another on the opposite side and fuse. A single neutrophil can usually phagocytize 3 to 20 bacteria before the neutrophil itself becomes in activated and dies .Macrophages are much more powerful phagocytes than neutrophils, often capable of phagocytizing as many as 100 bacteria. They also have the ability to engulf much larger particles, even whole red blood cells or, occasionally, malarial parasites, whereas neutrophils are not capable of phagocytizing particles much larger than bacteria. Also, after digesting particles, macrophages can extrude the residual products and often survive and function for many more months. Once Phagocytized, Most Particles Are Digested by Intracellular Enzymes (lysosome).Both neutrophils and macrophages contain an abundance of lysosomes filled with proteolytic enzymes especially geared for digesting bacteria and other foreign protein matter. The lysosomes of macrophages (but not of neutrophils) also contain large amounts of lipases, which digest the thick lipid membranes possessed by some bacteria such as the tuberculosis bacillus. Both Neutrophils and Macrophages Can Kill Bacteria by 1.oxidizing agents formed by enzymes in the membrane of the phagosome (important, because some bacteria have protective coats or other factors that prevent their destruction by digestive enzymes; agents formed by enzymes in the membrane include large quantities of superoxide (O2 ), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and hydroxyl ions ( OH ), all of which are lethal to most. Also, one of the lysosomal

enzymes, myeloperoxidase, catalyzes the reaction between H2O2 and chloride ions to form hypochlorite, which is exceedingly bactericidal.) 2.peroxisome (organelle) Monocyte-Macrophage Cell System (Reticuloendothelial System)mobile macrophages, fixed tissue macrophages Tissue Macrophages in the Skin and Subcutaneous Tissues (Histiocytes).macrophages can divide in situ and form still more macrophages. Macrophages (Kupffer Cells) in the Liver Sinusoids. Macrophages of the Spleen and Bone Marrow. second defense line, for bacteria in the circulation When tissue injury occurs, whether caused by bacteria, trauma, chemicals, heat, or any other phenomenon, multiple substances are released by the injured tissues and cause dramatic secondary changes in the surrounding uninjured tissues. One of the first results of inflammation is to wall off the area of injury from the remaining tissues. The tissue spaces and the lymphatics in the inflamed area are blocked by fibrinogen clots so that after a while, fluid barely flows through the spaces. This walling-off process delays the spread of bacteria or toxic products. Inflammation is characterized by (1) vasodilation of the local blood vessels, with consequent excess local blood flow; (2) increased permeability of the capillaries, allowing leakage of large quantities of fluid into the interstitial spaces; (3) often clotting of the fluid in the interstitial spaces because of excessive amounts of fibrinogen and other proteins leaking from the capillaries;(4) migration of large numbers of granulocytes and monocytes into the tissue; and (5) swelling of the tissue cells. Tissue Macrophage Is a First Line of Defense Against Infection. the first effect is rapid enlargement of each of the macrophage cells. Next, many of the previously sessile macrophages break loose from their attachments and become mobile Neutrophil Invasion of the Inflamed Area Is a Second Line of Defense.(1)chemicals from the inflamed tissue alter the inside surface of the capillary endothelium, causing neutrophils to stick to the capillary walls in the inflamed area. This effect is called margination (2)increase permeability to allow neutrophils flow by diapedesis directly from the blood into the tissue spaces.(3) Other products of inflammation then cause chemotaxis of the neutrophils toward the injured tissues Acute Increase in Number of Neutrophils in the Blood-Neutrophilia is caused by products of inflammation that enter the blood stream, are transported to the bone marrow, and there act on the stored neutrophils of the marrow to mobilize these into the circulating blood. Second Macrophage Invasion into the Inflamed Tissue Is a Third Line of Defense (3rd-they become effective after 8 hours+ they are less than neutrophils). Along with the invasion of neutrophils, monocytes from the blood enter the inflamed tissue and enlarge to become macrophages. Increased Production of Granulocytes and Monocytes by the Bone Marrow Is a Fourth Line of Defense. Eosinophils exhibit chemotaxis, kill parasite by adhere-release combination Eosinophils also have a special propensity to collect in tissues in which allergic reactions occur Basophils liberate heparin into the blood release histamine, bradykinin and serotonin. antibody that causes allergic reactions, the immunoglobulin E (IgE) type, has a special propensity to become attached to mast cells and basophils. attachment of antigen to antibody causes the mast cell or basophil to rupture and release exceedingly large quantities of histamine, bradykinin, serotonin, heparin, slow-reacting substance of anaphylaxis, and a number of lysosomal enzymes. Formation of Pus After several days, a cavity is excavated in the inflamed tissues that contains varying portions of necrotic tissue, dead neutrophils, dead macrophages, and tissue fluid(known as pus) After the infection has been suppressed, the dead cells and necrotictissue

in the pus gradually autolyze over a period of days. Eosinophils weak phagocystosis and exhibit chemotaxis, increased in people with parasitic infections. (eg schistosomiasis) Attach to parasites and kill them in several ways (1)by releasing hydrolytic enzymes from their granules,which are modified lysosomes; (2) probably by also releasing highly reactive forms of oxygen that are especially lethal to parasites; and (3) by releasing from the granules a highly larvacidal polypeptide called major basic protein. Eosinophils also collect in tissues which allergic reactions occur (mast cells and basophils release ECF) they prevent excess spreading of the local inflammatory process. Basophils- similar to mast cells; both secrete heparin, histamine, brandykinin and serotonin. Mast cells and basophils are important in allergic reactions. Leukopenia bone marrow produces very few white blood cells Leukemia uncontrolled production of abnormal WBC by canerous mutation. Types (1) Lymphocytic leukemia caused by cancerous production of lymphoid cells begining in lymphoid tissue and spreading to other areas of the body (2) Myelogenous leukemia begins by canerous production of young myelogenous cells in the bone marrow and spreads throughout the body. Occasionally produces partially differentiated cells, resulting in what might be called neutrophilic leukemia, eosinophilic leukemia, basophilic leukemia, or monocytic leukemia. More frequently, leukemia cells are bizarre and undifferentiated and not identical to any of the normal white blood cells; the more undifferentiated the cell, the more acute the leukemia, often leading to death within a few months if untreated. More differentiated cells, the process can be chronic (developing slowly over 10 to 20 years) Effects of leukemia on the Body development of infection, severe anemia, and a bleeding tendency caused by thrombocytopenia (lack of platelets). Result mainly from displacement of the normal bone marrow and lymphoid cells by the nonfunctional leukemic cells. The body is excessive use of metabolic substrates by the growing cancerous cells. The leukemic tissues reproduce new cells so rapidly that tremendous demands are made on the body reserves for foodstuffs, specific amino acids, and vitamins. Consequently, the energy of the patient is greatly depleted