Evaluation 2.

2
by other behaviour analysts. Possessing language
Behaviourism allows us to communicate with each other and to
think about ‘things’ that have never been observed
In addition to the criticisms – both general and
(and may not even exist), including rules, laws and
specific – that occur in the particular chapters
principles (Garrett, 1996). While these can only be
where Behaviourist explanations are presented, two
expressed in or thought about in words, much of
evaluative points will be made here:
our behaviour is governed by them. According to
1. The ‘Skinner box’ is an ‘auto-environmental chamber’,
Garrett, when this happens:
in which rats’ and pigeons’ environments can be
… behaviour is now shaped by what goes on inside
totally controlled by the experimenter. This is central
their [people’s] heads … and not simply by what goes
to Skinner’s analysis of behaviour. A rat pressing a
on in the external environment.
lever was intended to be equivalent to a cat operating
an escape latch in Thorndike’s puzzle box (1898), so So, what people think is among the important variables
counting the number of lever presses (the response determining what they do and say, the very opposite of
rate) became the standard measure of operant what Skinner’s radical behaviourism claims.
learning. Consequently, attention became focused However, behaviour analysts recognise the
on the frequency of behaviour, ignoring intensity, limitations of their approach. For example, Leslie
duration and quality. As Glassman (1995) observes: (2002) admits that operant conditioning cannot
While the focus on frequency was a practical provide a complete account of psychology from a
consideration, it eventually became part of the overall behavioural perspective, even in principle. Similarly,
conceptual framework as well – a case of research O’Donohue and Ferguson (2001) acknowledge that
methods directing theory. the science of behaviour cannot account for creativity,
as in music, literature and science.
But in everyday life, frequency isn’t always the
most meaningful aspect of behaviour. For example,
should we judge an author’s worth by how many
books s/he publishes, rather than their content?
THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY

Ask Yourself
● Do you agree with Skinner’s claim that thoughts
and other ‘covert behaviours’ don’t explain our
behaviour (because they cannot determine what
we do)?

2. Skinner’s claim that human behaviour can be

predicted and controlled in the same way as the Figure 2.2 Behaviourists have difficulty explaining
behaviour of non-humans is usually accepted only creativity or any kind of novel behaviour

THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH begin (Jacobs, 1992). Fortunately, Freud himself stressed
The term ‘psychodynamic’ denotes the active forces the acceptance of certain key theories as essential to the
within the personality that motivate behaviour, practice of psychoanalysis, the form of psychotherapy he
and the inner causes of behaviour (in particular, the pioneered and from which most others are derived.
unconscious conflict between the different structures
that compose the whole personality). While Freud’s
psychoanalytic theory was the original Psychodynamic
theory, the Psychodynamic theories of Jung (1964),
Adler (1927) and Erikson (1950) aren’t psychoanalytic.
Because of their enormous influence, Freud’s ideas will
be the focus of this section.

Basic principles and assumptions

Freud’s concepts are closely interwoven, making it
difficult to know where a description of them should Figure 2.3 Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)
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 conducted by critics hoping to discredit it (such as

2: THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO PSYCHOLOGY

Focus 2.3 Basic principles and Eysenck, 1985; Eysenck and Wilson, 1973).
assumptions of psychoanalytic theory Also like behaviourist theories, Freud’s ideas can
be found throughout Psychology. His contribution
● Much of our behaviour is determined by is extremely rich and diverse, offering theories
unconscious thoughts, wishes, memories, and so of motivation (see Chapter 9), dreams and the
on. What we’re consciously aware of at any one relationship between sleep and dreams (Chapter 7),
time represents the tip of an iceberg: most of our forgetting (Chapter 21), attachment and the effects
thoughts and ideas are either not accessible at that of early experience (Chapter 32), moral and gender
moment (pre-conscious) or are totally inaccessible development (Chapters 35 and 36), aggression
(unconscious). These unconscious thoughts and (Chapter 29) and abnormality (Chapter 45).
ideas can become conscious through the use of Psychoanalytic theory also influenced Gould’s (1978,
special techniques, such as free association, dream 1980) theory of the evolution of adult consciousness
interpretation and transference, the cornerstones (Chapter 38) and Adorno et al.’s (1950) authoritarian
of psychoanalysis (see Chapter 45). personality account of prejudice (Chapter 25).
● Much of what’s unconscious has been made Freud’s ideas have stimulated the development of
so through repression, whereby threatening alternative theories, often resulting from the rejection
or unpleasant experiences are ‘forgotten’ (see of some of his fundamental principles and assumptions,
Chapter 21). They become inaccessible, locked but reflecting his influence enough for them to be
away from our conscious awareness. This is a described as Psychodynamic. Some major examples
major form of ego defence (see Chapter 42). include:
Freud singled out repression as a special ● Ego psychology (e.g. Freud’s daughter, Anna Freud, 1936)
cornerstone ‘on which the whole structure of ● Psychosocial theory (Erikson, 1950, 1968)
psychoanalysis rests. It is the most essential part ● Analytical psychology (Jung, 1964)
of it’ (Freud, 1914). Repression is closely related to ● Individual psychology (Adler, 1927)
resistance, interpretation of which is another key ● Object relations school (Fairbairn, 1952; Klein, 1932;
technique used in psychoanalysis (see Chapter 45). Mahler, 1975; Winnicott, 1965).
● According to the theory of infantile sexuality, the
sexual instinct or drive is active from birth and
develops through a series of five psychosexual stages.
The most important of these is the phallic stage
(spanning the ages 3–5/6), during which all children
experience the Oedipus complex (see Chapter 35).
In fact, Freud used the German word ‘Trieb’, which
translates as ‘drive’, rather than ‘Instinkt’, which was
meant to imply that experience played a crucial role
in determining the ‘fate’ of sexual (and aggressive)
energy (see Focus 50.2).
● Related to infantile sexuality is the general impact
of early experience on later personality (see
Chapter 32). According to Freud (1949):
Anna Freud (1895–1982) Erik Erikson (1902–1994)
It seems that the neuroses are only acquired during early
childhood (up to the age of 6), even though their symptoms
may not make their appearance until much later … the child
is psychologically ­father of the man and … the events of
its first years are of paramount importance for its whole
­subsequent life.

Theoretical contributions
As with behaviourist accounts of conditioning, many
of Freud’s ideas and concepts have become part of
mainstream Psychology’s vocabulary.You don’t have
to be ‘Freudian’ to use concepts such as ‘repression’,
‘unconscious’, and so on, and many of the vast number Carl Gustav Jung (1875–1961) Alfred Adler (1870–1937)
of studies of different aspects of the theory have been Figure 2.4 Major alternative Psychodynamic theorists

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 desensitisation (a major form of behaviour therapy),
Ask Yourself were originally trained in Freudian techniques. Perls,
● Repeat the Ask Yourself exercise suggested for
the founder of Gestalt therapy, Ellis, the founder of
the Biopsychological approach (see p. 16).
rational emotive therapy (RET) and Berne, who
devised transactional analysis (TA), were also trained
psychoanalysts.
Practical contributions Even Freud’s fiercest critics concede his influence, not
just within world psychiatry but in philosophy, literary
The current psychotherapy scene is highly diverse,
criticism, history, theology, sociology, and art and
with only a minority using Freudian techniques, but,
literature. Freudian terminology is commonly used in
as Fancher (1996) points out:
conversations between therapists well beyond Freudian
Most modern therapists use techniques that were circles, and his influence is brought daily to therapy
developed either by Freud and his followers or by sessions as part of the cultural background and
dissidents in explicit reaction against his theories. experience of nearly every client (Jacobs, 1992).
Freud remains a dominating figure, for or against Many mental health practitioners (including
whom virtually all therapists feel compelled to take psychotherapists, counsellors and social workers),
a stand. although not formally trained as psychoanalysts,
have incorporated elements of Freudian thought
Both Rogers, the major humanistic therapist (see and technique into their approaches to helping their
below) and Wolpe, who developed systematic clients (Nye, 2000).

Evaluation 2.3
quantitative way for 100 years, and Einstein’s
The Psychodynamic approach general theory of relativity is still untestable.
However:
● A criticism repeatedly made of Freudian (and
other Psychodynamic) theories is that they’re … psychoanalytic theories have inspired more empirical
unscientific because they’re unfalsifiable (incapable research in the social and behavioural sciences than
THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY

of being disproved). For example, if the Freudian any other group of theories … (Zeldow, 1995)
prediction that ‘dependent’ men will prefer big-
● Support for certain aspects of Freud’s theories has
breasted women is confirmed, then the theory is
been provided by the relatively new sub-discipline
supported. However, if such men actually prefer
of neuropsychoanalysis, one of the many spin-offs
small-breasted women (Scodel, 1957), Freudians
of neuroscientific research (see Critical Discussion 2.1
can use the concept of reaction formation (an
and Chapter 42). According to Bargh (2014),
ego-defence mechanism, see Table 42.4) to argue
contemporary Cognitive Psychologists have recast
that an unconscious fixation with large breasts may
the Freudian worldview, adopting a more pragmatic
manifest as a conscious preference for the opposite,
view of what defines our unconscious self. For
a clear case of ‘heads I win, tails you lose’ (Eysenck,
example, Nobel laureate Daniel Kahneman (2011)
1985; Popper, 1959).
has described the modern distinction between
● However, it’s a mistake to see reaction formation
automatic and controlled thought processes
as typical of Freudian theory as a whole. According
(corresponding to unconscious and conscious,
to Kline (1984, 1989), for example, the theory
respectively); these are discussed in relation to
comprises a collection of hypotheses, some
decision-making in Chapter 20.
of which are more central to the theory than
● Automatic thought processes represent one facet
others, and some of which have more supporting
of the ‘cognitive unconscious’. This can manifest
evidence than others. Also, different parts of the
itself in several ways, including stereotyping (see
theory have been tested using different methods
Chapter 22), the cognitive component of prejudice
(see Chapter 42).
(see Chapter 25). A way of tapping the unconscious
● According to Zeldow (1995), the history of science
emotional/affective component of prejudice
reveals that those theories that are the richest in
is through the Implicit Association Test (IAT)
explanatory power have proved the most difficult
(Greenwald et al., 1998).
to test empirically. For example, Newton’s Second
● Bargh (2014) also describes unconscious (or ‘non-
Law couldn’t be demonstrated in a reliable,
conscious’) dimensions to emotion (see Chapter 10),

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 2: THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO PSYCHOLOGY
observational learning (a major feature of often unconscious demands from within as well as
social learning theory, see Chapter 11), advertising without. His ideas about repression, the importance of
(see Chapter 24), the treatment of alcoholism (see early experience and sexuality, and the inaccessibility
Chapter 8), and antisocial and prosocial behaviour of much of human nature to ordinary conscious
(see Chapters 29 and 30). introspection have become part of the standard
● Freud’s theory provides methods and concepts that western intellectual currency.
enable us to interpret and ‘unpack’ underlying
meanings (it has great hermeneutic strength). ● Reason (2000) believes it’s time to re-acknowledge
Popper’s and Eysenck’s criticism above helps to Freud’s greatness as a Psychologist. Like James,
underline the fact that these meanings (both he had a rare gift for describing and analysing
conscious and unconscious) cannot be measured the phenomenology of mental life. According to
in any precise way. Freud offers a way of Kline (1998):
understanding that, while less easily tested, may
… after 100 years, Freudian theory cannot be
capture the nature of human experience and action
uncritically accepted just as it cannot be totally
more appropriately (Stevens, 1995; see Chapter 3).
rejected. However … Freudian theory contains some
According to Fancher (1996):
profound observations and understanding of human
Although always controversial, Freud struck a behaviour. These must be incorporated into any
responsive chord with his basic image of human beings adequate human psychology, not only its theory but
as creatures in conflict, beset by irreconcilable and also its methods …

THE HUMANISTIC APPROACH USA during the 1950s. Maslow (1968), in particular,
gave wide currency to the term ‘humanistic’, calling
Basic principles and assumptions it a ‘third force’ (the other two being Behaviourism
and Freudianism). However, Maslow didn’t reject these
As we noted earlier, Rogers, a leading Humanistic
approaches but hoped to unify them, thus integrating
Psychologist (and therapist), was trained as
both subjective and objective, the private and public
a psychoanalyst. Although the term ‘humanistic
aspects of the person, and providing a complete,
psychology’ was coined by Cohen (1958), a British
holistic Psychology.
Psychologist, this approach emerged mainly in the

Focus 2.4 Basic principles and assumptions of the Humanistic approach

● Both the Psychoanalytic and Behaviourist ● Maslow argued that Freud supplied the ‘sick half’
approaches are deterministic: people are driven of Psychology, through his belief in the inevitability
by forces beyond their control, either unconscious of conflict, neurosis, innate self-destructiveness, and
forces from within (Freud) or reinforcements from so on, while he (and Rogers) stressed the ‘healthy
outside (Skinner). Humanistic Psychologists believe half’. Maslow saw self-actualisation at the peak of
in people’s ability to choose how they act (see a hierarchy of needs (see below and Chapter 9),
Chapter 49). while Rogers talked about the actualising tendency,
● A truly scientific Psychology must treat its subject an intrinsic property of life, reflecting the desire to
matter as fully human, which means acknowledging grow, develop and enhance our capacities. A fully
individuals as interpreters of themselves and their functioning person is the ideal of growth. Personality
world. Behaviour, therefore, must be understood in development naturally moves towards healthy
terms of the individual’s subjective experience, from growth (unless it’s blocked by external factors), and
the perspective of the actor (a phenomenological should be considered the norm (see Chapter 42).
approach, which explains why this is sometimes called ● Maslow’s contacts with Wertheimer and other
the ‘humanistic-phenomenological’ approach). This Gestalt Psychologists (see Focus 1.1 and Chapter 15)
contrasts with the positivist approach of the natural led him to stress the importance of understanding
sciences, which tries to study people from the position the whole person, rather than separate ‘bits’ of
of a detached observer. Only the individual can behaviour.
explain the meaning of a particular behaviour and is (Based on Glassman, 1995)
the ‘expert’ – not the investigator or therapist.

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 Theoretical contributions … psychotherapy is the releasing of an already
existing capacity in a potentially competent
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs distinguishes between
individual.
motives shared by both humans and non-humans and
those that are uniquely human, and can be seen as an
The change in name was meant to reflect more strongly
extension of the Psychodynamic approach. Freud’s id
that the person, in his/her full complexity, is the
would represent physiological needs, Horney (a major
centre of focus. Also, Rogers wanted to convey that his
critic of the male bias in Freud’s theory; see Chapter 35)
assumptions were meant to apply broadly to almost all
focused on love and safety needs, and Adler stressed
aspects of human behaviour – not just to therapeutic
esteem needs. Maslow added self-actualisation to the
settings. According to Nye (2000):
peak of the hierarchy (Glassman, 1995).
A wide range of individuals – psychotherapists,
counsellors, social workers, clergy and others –
have been influenced by Rogers’ assumptions
that, if one can be a careful and accurate listener,
while showing acceptance and honesty, one can
be of help to troubled persons.

Less well known is the prolific research that Rogers

undertook during the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s into this
form of therapy:

This body of research constituted the most

intensive investigation of psychotherapy attempted
anywhere in the world up to that time; its major
achievement was to establish beyond all question
Figure 2.5 Abraham H. Maslow (1908–1970) that psychotherapy could and should be subjected
to the rigours of scientific enquiry. (Thorne, 1992)
According to Rogers (1951), while awareness of being
THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY

alive is the most basic of human experiences, we each Rogers helped develop research designs (such as Q-sorts)
fundamentally live in a world of our own creation and which enable objective measurement of the self-concept,
have a unique perception of the world (the phenomenal ideal self and their relationship over the course of therapy,
field). It’s our perception of external reality that shapes as well as methodologies (such as rating scales and the use
our lives (not external reality itself). Within our of external ‘consultants’) for exploring the importance
phenomenal field, the most significant element is our of therapist qualities.These innovations continue to
sense of self, ‘an organised consistent gestalt, constantly influence therapeutic practice, and many therapists are
in the process of forming and reforming’ (Rogers, now concerned that their work should be subjected to
1959). This view contrasts with those of many other research scrutiny. Research findings are now more likely
self theorists, who see it as a central, unchanging core than ever before to affect training procedures and clinical
of personality (see Chapter 33). practice across many different therapeutic orientations
(Thorne, 1992).
By emphasising the therapist’s personal qualities,
Ask Yourself Rogers opened up psychotherapy to Psychologists and
contributed to the development of therapy provided by
● Repeat the Ask Yourself exercise as for the
non-medically qualified therapists (lay therapy). This is
Biopsychological, Behaviourist and Psychodynamic
especially significant in the USA, where (until recently)
approaches.
psychoanalysts had to be psychiatrists (i.e. medically
qualified). Rogers originally used the term ‘counselling’
Practical contributions as a strategy for silencing psychiatrists who objected to
By far the most significant practical influence of Psychologists practising ‘psychotherapy’. In the UK, the
any Humanistic Psychologist is Rogers’ form of outcome of Rogers’ campaign has been the evolution
psychotherapy: originally (in the 1950s) called ‘client- of a counselling profession whose practitioners are
centred therapy’ (CCT), since the mid-1970s it has drawn from a wide variety of disciplines; counselling
been known as ‘person-centred therapy’ (PCT). skills are used in a variety of settings (Thorne, 1992)
According to Rogers (1959): (see Chapter 1).

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 2: THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO PSYCHOLOGY
Evaluation 2.4
● As we noted earlier, Maslow didn’t reject
The Humanistic approach Behaviourism’s mechanistic approach; rather, he
wanted to provide a comprehensive understanding
● Like Freud’s theory, many of its concepts are difficult
of human nature. While embracing science,
to test empirically (such as self-actualisation), and it
he advocated that scientists should be more
cannot account for the origins of personality. Since it
transparent, receptive, patient, empathic, caring and
describes but doesn’t explain personality, it’s subject
open-minded (Compton, 2018). He saw his work as
to the nominal fallacy (Carlson & Buskist, 1997).
an attempt to rehumanise science (1969).
● However, as with Freud, it shouldn’t be condemned
● Whatever the empirical support or otherwise for
in its entirety. Apart from his hierarchy of needs,
Maslow’s idiographic theory (i.e. focusing on every
Maslow conducted empirical research into the
individual’s uniqueness), it undoubtedly represents
characteristics of the self-actualised person, and
a major counterbalance to the nomothetic (‘law-
self-actualisation has been found to be significantly
like’) approach of other personality theorists, such
related – in the expected direction – to several other
as Eysenck and Cattell (see Chapter 42) by trying
theories and research areas; these include Rogers’
to capture the richness of the personal experience
account of the fully functioning person, Kohlberg’s
of being human. Indeed, Rowan (2001) claims
theory of moral development (see Chapter 35), and
that Humanistic Psychology may be the only true
Erikson’s psychosocial theory (see Chapters 33 and
Psychology, the type that’s genuinely applicable to
37–39) (Compton, 2018).
human beings.

programmes and forms of psychotherapy having a

‘cognitive tilt’ (Nye, 2000).
As Wade and Tavris (1990) say, Cognitive Psychology
doesn’t yet have a unifying theory and, unlike other
‘brands’ of Psychology, it lacks an acknowledged
spokesperson: there’s no specific figure who can be
identified as being central to its development in the
same way as Watson, Freud and Rogers can with their
respective approaches.
Theoretical contributions
We noted earlier that two major modifications to
‘orthodox’ learning theory are Tolman’s cognitive
behaviourism and social learning theory (associated
primarily with Bandura), both of which stress the
central role of cognitive processes in the learning
Figure 2.6 Carl Rogers (1902–1987) process. The influence of the information-processing
approach is obvious in relation to attention, pattern
recognition and memory (see Focus 2.6), but it has
THE COGNITIVE APPROACH permeated many other areas of Psychology. As noted
in Chapter 1, social cognition is now a commonly used
Basic principles and assumptions term to refer to many aspects of the perception of
Despite its undoubted influence within Psychology as people (see Chapter 22), attribution (see Chapter 23),
a whole (see below and Chapter 3), it’s more difficult attitudes and attitude change (including prejudice,
to define the boundaries of Cognitive Psychology see Chapters 24 and 25), and other areas of Social
compared with the other major approaches. It Psychology.
cannot be considered to be a specific, integrated The information-processing approach also
set of assumptions and concepts; it has several represents an increasingly influential view of cognitive
contemporary forms, with many theories, research development (see Chapter 34) and of the nature of

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