Gender Economics

UNIT – 1 INTRODUCTION
Introduction
Gender is a term being frequently used and heard these days. Government organizations,
voluntary organizations, developmental organizations, national and international
developmental programmes, donor organizations, UN organizations – all these talk about
gender, analyse programmes from a gender perspective and do gender budgeting.
Gender is the range of characteristics be relevant to, and distinguishing between, masculinity
and femininity. Depending on the perspective, these characteristics may include biological
sex (i.e., the state of being male, female, or an intersex variation), sex-based social structures
(i.e., gender roles), or gender identity. Most cultures use a gender binary, having two genders
(boys/men and girls/women) those who exist outside these groups fall under the umbrella
term non-binary or genderqueer.

Definitions of Gender
According to World Health Organization (WHO): Gender refers to the socially
constructed characteristics of women and men – such as norms, roles and relationships of
and between groups of women and men. It varies from society to society and can be changed.
While most people are born either male or female, they are taught appropriate norms and
behaviors – including how they should interact with others of the same or opposite sex within
households, communities and workplaces.

As stated by the Oxford Dictionary, Either of the two sexes (male and female), especially
when considered with reference to social and cultural differences rather than biological ones.
The term is also used more broadly to denote a range of identities that do not correspond to
established ideas of male and female.

Gender is the state of being male or female in relation to the social and cultural roles that are
considered appropriate for men and women. (Collins Dictionary)

Gender is defined by Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) as the relations between
men and women, both perceptual and material. Gender is not determined biologically as a
result of sexual characteristics of either men or women but it’s constructed socially. It is a
central organizing principle of societies, and often governs the production, consumption and
distribution.

Gender refers to the socially-constructed roles of and relationships between men and women.
Gender concerns men and women, including conceptions of both femininity and masculinity

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 Gender refers to the economic, social, political, and cultural attributes and opportunities
associated with being women and men. The social definitions of what it means to be a woman
or a man vary among cultures and change over time. Gender is a sociocultural expression of
particular characteristics and roles that are associated with certain groups of people with
reference to their sex and sexuality.

Objectives of Gender Studies

 Identifying gender gaps and revealing systematic or unconscious gender biases.
 Understanding the interrelatedness of gender, race, ethnicity, class, disability, sexuality, age,
religion, and other social categories.
 Applying theoretical frameworks of feminism, gender and women’s studies, queer studies,
sexuality studies.
 Applying methods and methodologies.
 Questioning historically accepted theories and explanations about society and human
behaviour.
 Seeking an understanding of the world which takes women, their lives and achievements into
account.
 Identifying the origins of power differences between women and men, and the division of
human characteristics along gender lines.
 Recognizing the centrality of queer and trans approaches to studies of gender and sexuality.

Importance of gender studies

General Studies (GS) holds significant importance, particularly in academic, professional,

and competitive examination contexts. It encompasses a broad spectrum of subjects,
providing individuals with a well-rounded understanding of diverse topics and fostering
critical thinking. Here we see the General Studies is essential:

1. Holistic Knowledge Base

Interdisciplinary Learning: General Studies integrates various disciplines like history,

geography, economics, science, and current affairs, offering a comprehensive view of the
world. Foundation for Specialized Knowledge: It forms a base for deeper exploration into
specific fields, making it valuable for both students and professionals.

2. Enhancing Critical Thinking

GS promotes analytical and logical reasoning by encouraging connections between

seemingly unrelated subjects. It helps develop the ability to evaluate different perspectives,
fostering informed decision-making.

3. Importance in Competitive Exams

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Civil Services and Government Jobs: In exams like UPSC, SSC, and State Public Service
Commissions, General Studies is a core component, testing knowledge across multiple
domains. Banking and Other Exams: Topics like current affairs, economics, and general
science are essential for scoring well.

4. Awareness of Current Affairs

GS helps individuals stay updated with national and international events, socio-political
changes, and technological advancements. It promotes civic awareness and responsibility,
making individuals more engaged citizens.

5. Practical Relevance

Understanding economics and governance helps individuals make better financial decisions
and grasp public policies. Knowledge of environmental issues fosters awareness of
sustainable living and ecological responsibility.

6. Development of Communication Skills

Learning GS topics enhances vocabulary and improves articulation, which is crucial for
interviews, group discussions, and public speaking. A broad knowledge base makes
conversations more engaging and insightful.

7. Career Advancement

GS knowledge can be leveraged in various careers, including journalism, teaching,

policymaking, and administration. It is particularly advantageous for professionals in roles
that require a multidisciplinary approach or public interaction.

8. Encourages Lifelong Learning

The wide array of topics in GS nurtures curiosity and a habit of continuous learning, helping
individuals adapt to new challenges and changes.

9. Bridging the Gap Between Theory and Practice

GS enables individuals to apply theoretical knowledge in practical scenarios, such as

understanding social issues, addressing workplace challenges, or participating in community
initiatives.

10. Personal Growth and Perspective Building

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Learning about history, culture, and science enhances personal understanding and
appreciation of human achievements and challenges. It broadens perspectives, encouraging
empathy, tolerance, and respect for diversity.

Conclusion

General Studies is not just an academic requirement but a tool for personal and professional
growth. It equips individuals with the knowledge, skills, and awareness needed to navigate a
complex and interconnected world, making it indispensable in today's dynamic
environment.

Women’s Work

According to anthropologists and some historians, women were the major producer of
food, textiles and handicrafts throughout human history and continue to provide a major
labour input where production is still in the small scale subsistence sector. Defining the
exact nature, scope and magnitude of women’s work remains a problem area because a
good deal of women’s work is either invisible or is only partially accounted for in the
data on workforce participation. Components of women’s work include housework, paid
and unpaid work related to home-based craft activities, family enterprise or business and
paid work outside home. You must have observed differential work participation of men,
women and children within the family both in quantitative and qualitative terms. The
kind of work women do is determined by women’s position in the society and family’s
location in the social hierarchy.. The basic elements of women’s work within the home
are related to the division of labour between men and women. Activities included under
‘housework’ broadly differ according to age, gender, income, occupational group,
location (rural/urban), size and structure of the family.
Debates around the concept ‘work’ have a long history which is almost as old as the
history of women’s movement. However, systematic and focused attention to women’s
economic role and economic differences based on gender started only in the 1960s.
Work, or for that matter labour as a social science concept, evolved largely within the
disciplinary boundaries of Economics. The mainstream economic definitions of terms
such as ‘work’, ‘labour’ and ‘economic activity’ show how gendered these terms are,
and how women are being excluded.
In common parlance work is defined as physical or mental effort or activity directed
toward the production or accomplishment of something. However, societal definitions
of ‘work’ are often associated with market oriented activity which is guided largely by
the measurability of the concept. Here, work does not convey anything more than the
fact that a monetary return is often associated with it and that the output which is the
result of labour could be easily marketed and thus valued.

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With the monetisation of the economy, the categories of work for which valuation is
possible also increased, alongside a large section of the population entering into paid
work outside home. This monetisation of the economy has not only marginalized the
work that was not carried out for reward or for the market but also those who performed
these activities. Given the social division of work in many societies this meant that most
of the work that women perform is not acknowledged as work within the popular
coverage of the term. Most of the work that women do, take place within the households
and the goods and services so produced do not reach the market.
Work, labour and economic activity are all used interchangeably in mainstream
economics which implies a market exchange of labour for wages. This in turn renders
unpaid work largely performed by women in the household’s invisible. Another
hierarchical dualism within the concept of work is the conventional economic distinction
between productive and ‘unproductive’ work. Activities that are performed within the
household or for subsistence (and not for market) are considered to be ‘unproductive’
(i.e. they do not contribute to Gross Domestic Product). Women work mostly without
wages in the household enterprise or by taking care of their children. By the mainstream
definition, these activities are done ‘at leisure’ because there is no monetary transaction
involved. Such conceptualisations lead to a narrow definition of the work force which
excludes many women. Thus, devaluing of women’s work is woven into the very fabric
of contemporary economic theory and practice. Against this backdrop, feminist
economists have challenged and exposed the rhetorical approach of mainstream
economics. One prominent issue in this context is how the concept of work does not
adequately measure unpaid labour predominantly performed by women.
Unpaid work:

Unpaid work denotes all work that takes place outside the monetised economy. This
includes:

• unpaid work in family farm or household enterprise;

• processing of agricultural products for self-consumption such as pickle making;

• activities such as collection of water and firewood for self-consumption;

• care of children, elderly or disabled or any person

• cooking, cleaning and other routine household work.

Further, unpaid work, which is largely performed by women, is not evenly distributed
amongst women irrespective of their class categorisations. The burdens of unpaid labour

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fall heavier on poorer households, whereas the more affluent households are able to
access market based substitutes for domestic labour.
The above categories of unpaid work are broadly divided into two:

• unpaid work within the production boundary and

• unpaid work outside the production boundary (social reproduction).

Both these categories where women are disproportionately concentrated have always
fallen out of the monetized mainstream economics. Within feminist thinking, however,
there is some dissonance between those who highlight and seek to make visible the
unpaid economic work of women and those who lay emphasis on the unpaid care aspects
of social reproduction. The former has a long history within the debates on gender and
development going back to Women in Development (WID) debate and the work of
Boserup (Boserup, 1970). After many years of struggle, unpaid work within the
production has made some progress in terms of its visibility and acceptability. Some
elements of unpaid work are captured by the data collection systems and thus broadly
covered by the term work. Example of such unpaid are work in family farm or household
enterprise and primary processing of agricultural products for self consumption.
Activities such as water and fuel collection and care services are yet to enter into the
official definition of work in many countries, though water and fuel collection is now
broadly agreed to be productive work.

Care services, however, are still classified under ‘unproductive’ activities and thus
outside the realm of ‘work’ and continue to be dismissed as ‘non- economic’ within the
mainstream economic thinking. The exclusion of this `non-productive’ work from the
production boundary in mainstream discourse has been often rationalised on the grounds
of the difficulty in measuring or valuing such services. Though there has been broad
consensus on what constitutes care work following the United National Statistics
Division (UNSD, 1993) classification of activities, the term unpaid work, care work and
unpaid care work are often used interchangeably.
• Unpaid work includes a range of activities that take place outside the monetised
segment, which include activities which are counted as ‘economic work’ as well as ‘non-
economic’ work. Care work involves care of persons, which could be either paid or
unpaid.

• Unpaid care work on the other hand is care of persons for no explicit monetary
reward.

However, some have followed a narrow approach to care work. The first limitation in
this regard is on account of the common meaning of the word, where unpaid care work
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can be interpreted to relate only to ‘care’ of people. This interpretation would therefore
focus on care of children, elderly, disabled and ill members of the household. However,
in this approach, the other related activities such as cooking, cleaning etc. are ignored
which are preconditions for direct care work. Another complication in respect of care
work is that it is sometimes understood narrowly as the time spent physically feeding the
child or aged person. This excludes, on the one hand, time during which one is
supervising or responsible for the other person. It also might exclude the time spent on
activities such as travelling connected with care. An alternative constricted interpretation
and one which is commonly found is to focus only on ‘domestic work’. This framing of
the activity can implicitly or explicitly exclude activities such as child care or care of
other persons, and also exclude activities such as shopping, or taking an ill household
member to get medical attention. In countries like India, domestic work (cooking,
cleaning etc.) and direct care work (care for children, adults etc.) are often not easily
distinguishable. Besides the debates discussed above, specific types of paid work are
also contested categories. In the next section, let us look at the debate surrounding one
such category.

Paid Work (Casual work)

Women also work for wages in fields, forests, mines, factories, offices, small scale and
household industries. The nature and extent of such work differs according to the
location of family in the social hierarchy. In the rural sector the subsistence work burden
falls heavily on women, while in higher castes and higher income groups ‘non-work’ of
women is given more value. Many micro studies have reported inverse relationship
between income level of the household and nature of women’s work participation.
Women in the subsistence sector have no option but to work. However, their options are
limited as they are non-entrants or drop-outs from school. They are often the primary
breadwinners of the family, but the ideological bias views men as the primary
breadwinner of the family. Let us examine some other important aspects of women’s
paid employment as follows,

a) Education, Paid Employment and Household Responsibilities

The spread of education among the middle and upper class women has opened up new
avenues of employment. However, we are to keep in mind here that education does not
necessarily lead to employment. On the one hand, illiteracy among the majority of
women in the lower socio-economic group constitutes a major barrier to increasing and
diversifying work and training opportunities. On the other hand, pre-defined roles,
ideology and labour market forces in a labour surplus economy effectively restrict
women’s work opportunity among educated women of certain sectors. (Studies have
shown wastage of skill and ability among women scientists and degree holders).

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In middle class families, women work for improving or maintaining the standard of
living of the family or to provide a cushion against rising cost of living. Working outside
home on the same terms and conditions, as men, does not absolve them from their
domestic responsibilities. The dual burden of work creates physical, mental and
emotional strain. Very few women may be lucky to get domestic help or kin-support.
One of the consequences of double burden may be delayed promotions or sacrificing
new job opportunities due to family responsibilities. Employment by itself does not
guarantee equal sharing of work at home or better status of women.

b) Agricultural and Industrial Sectors

Gender inequalities exist in all sectors. Inequalities are reflected in distribution of women
workers in different sectors, in job hierarchies and in wages and earnings between men
and women. In the latter half of the twentieth century there was very little structural
change in women’s employment. The proportion of female agricultural workers which
was less than onethird of the total workforce in 1951 rose to more than fifty per cent,
which means greater dependence on agriculture sector.
Industrialisation has created more work opportunities for a small section of educated
women but at the same time has reduced work opportunities for unskilled women
workers who were the traditional workers in textiles, jute, mines etc. Women workers
are concentrated in plantations, food products, tobacco and textiles, cane and bamboo
work, silk worm, rearing coir products, domestic services, education and health services.
The high concentration of women in household industries rather than factory-based
production affects their status as workers with no control on their labour and earnings.

c) Women in Services and Professions

As far as women in services and professions are concerned there is no wage
discrimination but they are concentrated in certain types of jobs like teachers, nurses,
typists and stenographers and very few occupy higher positions in administration,
business, technical jobs and professions. Despite impressive increase in the number of
educated women in urban areas the gap between men and women in the services and
professions is large. The reasons are many. Some of them are given below are,
a) Girls are generally socialised for their domestic roles

b) Less investment in the vocational and technical training of girls and female and
male stereotypes determine attitude to work and differential expectations from girl’s
education, which is rarely seen as an investment for future. In the middle class families,
it is seen as a contingency to be drawn on in times of need.
c) Higher concentration of girls is found in humanities and social sciences rather than
vocational and technical courses.

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d) There is less physical mobility among women after marriage.

D) Earning Differentials
Earning differential has been a crucial feature of women’s paid employment. The
division of labour between men and women works against women. An expression of
discrimination against women in labour market is wage differential. They not only get
unequal pay for equal work but many jobs that women do are categorised as low skilled
jobs for which lower wages are paid. For example, men usually do weaving which is
better paid while spinning, usually done by women, is low paid. In construction also men
are supposed to do skilled jobs and women do unskilled work and get lower wages.
Sexual divisions of labour and lower duration of women’s work are reflected into lower
wages for women. Women workers on an average are found to earn only sixty percent
of male wage for full time work. Wage differentials exist in both agricultural and non-
agricultural occupations. The ratio of male to female real wage rates in agriculture is
calculated as around 1.3 in 1995, i.e. for every one rupee earned by a female, the male
earns 1.3 (thirty-three percent) more (NSSO, 1996). Earning differentials also reflect
differences in skill acquisition, education and training.

Women in primary, secondary and service sectors

In the unorganised sector, women are engaged in almost all kinds of activities such as;
livestock, forestry, fishing, plantation, construction, retailing, beedi making, bangle making,
pottery, embroidery, stitching etc. Most of the women work as casual labourers in agriculture,
construction, brick-making, coir, or as own account workers in handloom weaving, basket
weaving and vending fish/ vegetables. Some of the newer activities are floriculture, poultry
and livestock rearing, garment making, food processing and fish processing etc. In fisheries
(marine and inland) women dominate the handling and processing activity accounting for
about 70 per cent of the workforce and in brassware industry women constitute 50 per cent of
the total workforce. As per available estimate there are about 50 lakhs scrap collectors in the
country. Illiterate, unskilled persons and poorest of poor persons are pushed into this
occupation.
Beedi rolling is a major source of employment for women which, however, remains low paid,
insecure and has health implications. It is estimated that there are 4.5 million beedi workers in
India of whom 80 per cent are women.
A large proportion of food processing in the unorganised sector in carried out by women using
the traditional skills in many primary food processing areas. The informal or unorganised
service sector is expanding too, generating large scale openings of opportunities for women.
The largest increase in employment opportunities come from domestic service, education
including home tuition, childcare and health services.

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Occupations of women
a) Agriculture, Dairy Farming and Forestry
There was a time when agriculture was the primary source of employment, for both men
and women. However, over time the proportion of male labour force has fallen as they
move out in search of better opportunities and wages, leaving behind the women, who have
no choice but to engage in agriculture, as and when they do get work. ‘On an average, a
woman gets three-and-half months of work in a year, indicating a state of severe under-
employment in the agriculture sector’.
Women have been negatively impacted by the introduction of capital-intensive
technologies, due to the lack of necessary skills and access to these technologies. These
technological innovations have intensified the discriminatory division of agricultural
labour, wherein men take up the mechanical functions such as operating the tractor,
spraying insecticides etc., whereas women are wholly or partially confined to the more
strenuous physical tasks such as weeding, harvesting, threshing etc.
Such hard physical labour leads to chronic skeletal-muscular problems which constitute a
significant proportion of the health-related issues, which needs to be addressed on an urgent
basis.
Apart from the inadequate number of working days available, there are a number of other
reasons why women are unable to attend to work regularly, and these are ‘ill-health, lack
of support for child care, health problems of kids and members of the family, care of elders,
household duties and child birth.’ It is more often than not difficult for women with young
children to balance their work with childcare, thereby limiting their income opportunities
and their working days.
b) Fishing
Although not directly involved in fishing, women in India have been indirectly
contributing to the fishing industry by way of net making, fish drying, harvesting, shell
collection etc. As per the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation’s
findings, women fisherfolk engaged in the seafood industry in India are paid much lesser
than their male counterparts and are required to stay away from home for a long period of
time, making it extremely difficult for them to simultaneously carry out their domestic
work.
c) Mining and Quarrying
Women have played a significant role in the expansion of the coal mining industry.
However, their participation has seen a decline due to the advent of newer technologies,
operating which requires technical skills, which the female workers lack, thereby rendering
them redundant. The Indian Mines Act, 1952 restricts women’s work in the surface, to day
time only. “The prohibition from night work deprives women of the opportunity to
participate in large open cut mines that are run on shift work and that pay better wages than
many other industrial sector.”

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 Although Trade Unions have played a significant role in the extractive sector in India, they
have not upheld the rights and interests of the female mine workers, as against their male
counterparts.
Women mine workers face a number of occupational illnesses, some of which are
reproductive, respiratory, arthritis, tuberculosis, silicosis etc. Many of them drop out of
work owing to ill health, leaving them with the burden of large amounts of unpaid debt and
medical expenses, forcing them to send their minor children to work as their replacement.
Thus, the vicious circle of occupational bondage continues for these families.
d) Manufacturing
Women play a major role in the manufacturing industry, comprising of garment factories,
handlooms, handicrafts, food items production, SHG activities, leather work, weaving, saw
mills, oil mills, beedi rolling etc. Studies have shown that women have largely been
confined to unskilled work in the garment industry, which comprise of most of the low paid
jobs. They are engaged in checking, button stitching, embroidery, cleaning, tagging,
packing etc., while men perform the key task of stitching, thereby reflecting a sexual
division of labour.
Male workers are not comfortable taking orders from a female supervisor, owing to which
majority of the supervisory work is carried out my men. It is only very recently that women
have begun engaging in stitching work, which has been a male dominated work. The lack
of adequate health services puts these women at risk of various health hazards such as
arthritis, tuberculosis, muscular aches, infertility, exhaustion, swollen feet etc. Women in
the beedi rolling business were found to roll beedis at home or on the pavements, by
bending down low, for long hours. Similarly, women in the garment industry were found
to perform their duties by standing for long hours, without an appropriate resting place,
thereby leading to severe back and eyesight problems. Women in gold mines lack proper
protective equipments, and handle chemicals such as mercury and cyanide without any
protective gear on. Similarly, agarbatti workers have been found to be vulnerable to
locomotive, postural and skin- related problems due to the repetitive nature of their work
and exposure to chemicals.
e) Construction
Women form a significant part of the workforce in the construction industry. They work
mainly as unskilled workers. Construction attracts both skilled workers (masons,
carpenters) and unskilled workers and although there is some scope for upward mobility,
the women tend to remain in low-paid unskilled jobs. This is because of discrimination
which deprives them of opportunities to gain skills. Despite their huge participation, they
are only seen as secondary and support workers, and not the mainstream workers.
Contractors discriminate against male and female workers, by paying the latter lesser
wages, even though they perform the same amount of work as their counterparts.
A significant portion of the women engaged in construction work are in the reproductive
age group, and work through their pregnancy, with no adequate health care services. The
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 long hours of tedious work, physical labour and pregnancy leave them in a very unhealthy
state. Most studies have recorded that these women work till the very last day of their
pregnancy, returning to work soon after their delivery, which serious affects their physical
and mental wellbeing. Lactating mothers find it extremely difficult to balance their work
and child care. They often hide from the contractors in order to take a break and feed their
babies, who they are forced to leave unattended and uncared for in the ground floor of their
construction sites, owing to the lack of crèches. These children are exposed to dust and
other chemicals at the site, with very little that their parents can do to protect them.
f) Wholesale and Retail Trade
Personal and Household Goods Trade is not considered an appropriate occupation for
women, as it is believed that a chaste and a devout woman would not work outside, but
instead carry out domestic work. Women in market trade are usually in the industry because
their husbands died or are unable to work, is unemployed or for need of more income. They
can usually be seen selling cheap and less profitable goods such as flowers, fruits and
vegetables, alongside newcomers in the trade, old people and children, whereas men
usually sell the more profitable and expensive goods, for e.g. meat.
Vendors is one of the most scattered category, which includes women engaged in selling
different types of commodities, like broomsticks, cane baskets, utensils, petty cosmetics,
bangles, vegetables and those running roadside tea stalls, etc. Nearly 40 of total vendors
are women and 30 of these women are the sole earning members in their families.
The garment industry is a sub-sector of the textile industry and also generates many jobs
for migrant workers. India’s readymade garment exports increased significantly as a share
of total exports. Those women work with some big drapers, boutiques and stores. Here too
the same bias is evident. The women work as helpers to male/female tailors (called as
masters). These workers include those involved in knitting clothes/woollens.
g) Hotels and Restaurants
Women are increasingly holding more positions of responsibility than ever before, in the
hotel industry. They are highly qualified, skilled, and as capable as their male counterparts.
However, they are mostly still confined to administrative and personnel management posts,
with very less representation in the managerial posts. They “constitute majority of
secretaries, front office assistant, housekeeping attendant, housekeeping supervisor,
executive housekeeper, guest relation executive, in positions supportive of men, who
comprise the majority of front office manager, shift manager, food & beverage manager,
food & beverage controller, human resource manager, training manager respectively”,
pointing at gender-based work segregation.
h) Financial Intermediation
Financial intermediation in the form of micro-financing can bring about social
empowerment of women by conferring on them the decision-making powers in carrying
out economic activities. Especially in rural India, Self-Help Groups have helped women to
become financially independent and assist those in grave financial distress.
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 However, studies have shown that in Northern states such as Chhattisgarh and Bihar
sufficient capacity-building training for the SHG members was not carried out, resulting in
their inability to make financial decisions relating to commercial trade, to the best of their
potential. Therefore, the need of the hour is skills and expertise that must be imparted to
ensure greater market opportunities to the members.
i) Education
Private tuitions are on the rise owing to the lack of teachers and quality teaching in schools.
Female tutors fill the vacuum of formal education, by imparting lessons, either to individual
students or groups.
j) Health and Social Work
The public healthcare sector has not been providing adequate services and lacks skilled
professionals. A crucial role played by women in the unorganised medical sector is that of
a birth attendant. The work of a midwife, in a rural set up is crucial since she is responsible
for ensuring safe childbirth and survival of the mother. She also gives advices to the
mothers on the nutritional needs of their child, breast- feeding, care during and after
pregnancy etc. However, a report by WHO notes that there is a serious lack of skilled birth
attendants. This lack of training coupled with unsanitary working Condition and poor
financial incentives are pushing more and more midwives out of the profession, or deterring
them from taking up the work at all. There is an urgent need to ensure retention of the
existing birth attendants, and to impart adequate training in order to improve the quality of
care.
k) Other Community, Social and Personal Service Activities
Women in the unorganised sector are engaged in various occupations, the most crucial of
them being domestic work. With the changing economic order, and more working women,
the need for domestic workers is rampant. The paid domestic work involves floor cleaning,
washing utensils, clothes, cleaning toilets, caring for children and the elderly, animal care
etc. With the rise of the middle class in India, domestic work has emerged as an important
new occupation for migrant women and girls. Some 20 million people (mainly women and
girls) migrate for domestic work to Mumbai, Delhi and other large cities from the eastern
states of Bihar, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Assam and Mizoram (Social Alert quoted
in SCF 2005). Roughly 20 of these workers are under the age of 14. A study of domestic
workers in Delhi (Neetha 2004) shows that although domestic work has brought higher
incomes to many women and their families it is still far from decent work being
characterised by long working hours, low wages and hardly any social security. Domestic
workers are more vulnerable than other kinds of workers because they are not officially
classified as workers at all and are therefore not covered by laws that apply to workers.
Certain safeguards must be put in place in order to ensure the domestic workers basic
entitlements, to which they have a right.
Besides the domestic works, the women workers in the informal sector work as piece rate
workers, self-employed workers, paid workers in informal enterprises, unpaid workers in
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 family business, casual workers without fixed employers, sub-contract workers limited to
formal enterprises. Home-based workers and street vendors are two of the largest sub-
groups of the informal workforce: home-based workers are numerous but street vendors
are more visible of the two. Taken together they represent an estimated 10-25 per cent of
the nonagricultural workforce in developing countries and over 5 per cent of the total
workforce in developed countries (World Bank, 2000).

Classification of Work in the Indian Census

In the Indian Census and National Sample Survey Office (NSSO), the classification of work
serves to categorize economic activities and employment patterns. The frameworks used by
these two agencies are distinct but related, reflecting their specific objectives and
methodologies.

1. Classification of Work in the Indian Census

The Indian Census classifies the population into various categories based on work status to
provide a snapshot of economic participation.

Categories of Workers:

1. Main Workers:
o Individuals who have worked for the majority of the reference period (6 months
or more in the past year).
o Includes agricultural and non-agricultural occupations.
2. Marginal Workers:
o Individuals who have worked for less than 6 months in the reference year.
o Typically involved in seasonal or irregular work.
3. Non-Workers:
o People not engaged in any economic activity during the reference period.
o Includes students, homemakers, dependents, retirees, and others not seeking
employment.

Types of Activities:

 Cultivators: People engaged in crop production on their own land or leased land.
 Agricultural Laborers: Those working for wages in agricultural activities.
 Household Industry Workers: Workers engaged in production, processing, servicing,
or repairs conducted within households.

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  Other Workers: Includes those in manufacturing, trade, transport, construction, and
services outside household industries.

2. Classification of Work in NSSO

The NSSO focuses on employment and unemployment data based on detailed surveys. It
provides more nuanced classifications of work and activity statuses.

Types of Employment Status:

1. Self-Employed:
o Includes own-account workers, employers, and unpaid family workers.
o Examples: Farmers, shopkeepers, and artisans.
2. Regular Salaried/Wage Workers:
o Individuals working on a continuous basis and earning a regular wage or salary.
o Typically found in formal sectors like government jobs or organized private
enterprises.

3. Casual Laborers:

o Those employed on a daily or periodic basis without job security.

o Often engaged in informal sectors like construction or agriculture.

Industrial and Occupational Classification:

o Based on the National Industrial Classification (NIC) and National Classification

of
o Occupations (NCO) frameworks to standardize categorization across sectors and
job
o types.

National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO)

National Sample Survey (NSS) was set up on the recommendations of the National Income
Committee in 1950 and was chaired by the late Professor P.C. Mahalanobis. The basic aim
behind setting up NSS was to fill up the large gaps in statistical data to calculate the national
income aggregates (especially related to the unorganised/household sector of the economy).
In March 1970, NSS was reorganised as National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO). It is
an organisation in the Ministry of Statistics and Programmed Implementation and is the largest
organisation in India that conducts regular socio-economic surveys

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The National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) also provides periodic estimates of
literacy, utilisation of educational services, unemployment, school enrolment, employment,
manufacturing and service sector enterprises, child care, maternity, etc. Other works of
NSSO include undertaking the fieldwork of the Annual Survey of industries, conducting crop
estimation surveys, and collecting rural and urban retail prices to compile the consumer price
index numbers.
The three major surveys in which NSSO is involved are Socio-economic Surveys, Annual
Survey of Industries, and Agricultural Surveys. The NSSO takes responsibility for the
socio-economic survey from its design to the release of the survey reports. However, it just
collects data from the field in the case of the other two surveys.
The four divisions of the National Samples Survey Organisation are as follows:
1. Survey Design and Research Division (SDRD)
2. Field Operation Division (FOD)
3. Data Processing Division (DPD)
4. Co-ordination and Publication Division (CPD)

Activities of National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO)

Some of the activities conducted by NSSO are as follows:

1. NSSO carries out multi-subject integrated socio-economic surveys.
2. It also undertakes the fieldwork of the Annual Survey of Industries and follow-up surveys
of the Economic Census.
3. NSSO conducts the sample checks on area enumeration and crop estimation surveys of
the State Statistical agencies.
4. The National Sample Survey Organisation collects price data from the rural and urban
sectors.
5. To draw urban samples, NSSO also prepares the urban frames.
6. Another activity of NSSO includes conducting ad-hoc surveys and pilot inquiries for the
methodological studies.
The National Sample Survey Organisation works and functions under the direction of a
Governing Council with the required independence and autonomy for collecting, processing,
and publication of NSS data. NSSO has become similar in India and abroad with reliable
estimates on different aspects of economic and social life based on large-scale sample
surveys.

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Organisational Structure of NSSO

The Governing Council of NSSO is composed of five academicians, five data users from the
Central and State Government departments and the senior officers of the Ministry. Besides,
the NSSO is headed by the Director General and Chief Executive Officer. They are
responsible for the coordination and supervision of the activities of the organisation and are
assisted by a small secretarial known as Co-ordination and Publication Division (CPD).
National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) was merged with Central Statistics Office
(CSO) by the Indian Government on 23 rd May 2019 to form National Statistical Office
(NSO).

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Invisibility of women’s work:

Many maintain that women’s economic dependence on men impacts their power within the
family. With increased participation in income-earning activities, not only will there be more
income for the family, but gender inequality could be reduced. This issue is particularly salient
in India because studies show a very low level of female labour force participation. This under-
reporting is attributed to the frequently held view that women’s work is not economically
productive. If all activities — including maintenance of kitchen gardens and poultry, grinding
food grains, collecting water and firewood, etc. — are taken into account, then 88 percent of
rural housewives and 66 percent of urban housewives can be considered as economically
productive. Women’s employment in family farms or businesses is rarely recognized as
economically productive, either by men or women. And, any income generated from this work
is generally controlled by the men. Such work is unlikely to increase women’s participation in
allocating family finances. In a 1992 study of family-based textile workers, male children who
helped in a home-based handloom mill were given pocket money, but the adult women and
girls were not.
The International Labour Organisation says that women in India represent:
i) 50% of the population
ii) 30% of the labour force
iii) Perform 60% of all working hours
iv) Receive only 10% of the country’s income

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 iv) Own less than 1% of the Country’s property
However, despite concerted efforts of the State, the economic status of women in the
unorganised sector is lagging far behind their male counterparts, as their contribution to
the economy is still largely unrecognised.
The difficulties faced by the women workers in the unorganised sector are numerous, with
their vulnerability further, accentuated by their gender. Their work is characterised by
irregular employment, uncertain terms and Condition, lack of clear- cut rights and
obligations and inaccessibility to social security benefits. Though they constitute a
majority of the workforce in this unorganised sector, they are subjected to different kinds
of discrimination, inequitable pay and harassment, owing to their lack of education and
technical skills. (Mohapatra, 2004) They are exploited, paid meagrely and forced to work
for long hours, i.e. 10-12 hours in case of migrants, and 8-10 hours in case of local workers.
Further, more, rebuking, cheating, threatening, beating and sexual abuse were common
challenges reported by women working in this sector

Problems of Women workers

Women workers in India face a multitude of challenges that hinder their economic
participation, career growth, and overall well-being. These issues stem from a combination of
cultural, social, economic, and institutional barriers. Below is an overview of the key problems
faced by women workers in India:

1. Gender Wage Gap

Women often receive lower wages than men for performing the same or similar work. Wage
disparities are more pronounced in informal sectors and rural areas.

2. Informal Employment
A significant proportion of women work in the informal sector, such as agriculture, domestic
work, and small-scale industries. These jobs often lack job security, benefits, and legal
protection. Informal employment exposes women to exploitation, underpayment, and unsafe
working conditions.

3. Unpaid and Care Work Burden

Women disproportionately bear the burden of unpaid domestic and caregiving responsibilities.
This limits their time and ability to engage in paid employment or pursue career advancement.

4. Limited Access to Education and Skill Development

Gender disparities in education and vocational training result in fewer opportunities for women
in skilled and higher-paying jobs. Women are often restricted to low-skill and low-wage
occupations.

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5. Workplace Discrimination
Women face discrimination in hiring, promotions, and access to training. They are often
excluded from leadership roles or decision-making positions. Gender stereotypes further
restrict their career choices.

6. Sexual Harassment and Workplace Safety

Sexual harassment at workplaces remains a significant concern, despite laws like the Sexual
Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013.
Unsafe working conditions and lack of grievance redressal mechanisms deter many women
from joining or continuing in the workforce.

7. Lack of Maternity Benefits and Childcare Support

Many women, especially in the informal sector, lack access to maternity leave, crèche
facilities, and other childcare support. Returning to work post-maternity becomes challenging
due to societal expectations and lack of support systems.

8. Cultural and Social Barriers

Patriarchal norms and societal expectations discourage women from working, particularly in
certain communities or regions. Women face resistance from family and society for taking up
jobs, especially those requiring travel or late working hours.

9. Poor Representation in Leadership and Decision-Making

Women are underrepresented in leadership roles across industries and sectors. This lack of
representation perpetuates gender biases and limits mentorship opportunities for other women.

10. Challenges in Agricultural Work

In rural areas, women in agriculture often do not own the land they work on and lack access
to credit, technology, and resources.
Their contributions are often undervalued and unrecognized.

11. Health Hazards

Women in sectors like construction, textile, and domestic work are exposed to physical labor
and health risks without adequate safety measures or healthcare access.

12. Legal and Policy Implementation Gaps

Despite existing laws and policies aimed at empowering women workers, enforcement
remains weak. Many women are unaware of their rights, further compounding the problem.

Non-Recognition of Women’s work in National Income Accounting

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1. Unpaid Domestic and Care Work:
Women spend a significant amount of time performing unpaid tasks like cooking, cleaning,
childcare, and eldercare. These activities are critical to societal well-being but are not
monetized or included in GDP calculations.

2. Work in Informal Sectors:

Many women work in informal, subsistence, or home-based activities (e.g., tailoring,
handicrafts, or small-scale farming), which are often excluded from formal accounting
systems. Lack of documentation and irregular income make these contributions invisible in
national income data.

3. Gender Bias in Measurement:

Traditional definitions of "work" in economic surveys often prioritize market-
based, paid activities, neglecting unpaid or subsistence activities predominantly undertaken by
women.

4. Undervaluation of Contributions:
Even when women;s work is recognized, it is often undervalued in monetary terms,
particularly in agriculture and household industries.

5. Methodological Limitations:
National income accounting, guided by the System of National Accounts (SNA), classifies
unpaid work as outside the "productive boundary." This excludes significant
contributions like food preparation, child-rearing, and volunteer work from economic metrics.

Impacts of Non-Recognition

1. Policy Blind Spots:

Exclusion of women’s work leads to policies that overlook their needs, such as lack of support
for childcare, maternity benefits, or skill development for informal workers.

2. Economic Inequality:
Misrepresentation in national accounts perpetuates economic inequality and reinforces
stereotypes about women's roles.

3. Loss of Developmental Insights:

Failing to account for women's unpaid labor diminishes the understanding of actual
economic activity and social reproduction.

Measures to raise National Income

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1. Incorporating Unpaid Work in GDP:
Develop methodologies to assign monetary value to unpaid domestic and care work. Tools
like the Time-Use Survey can help quantify the hours spent by women in these activities.

2. Expanding the Definition of Economic Activity:

Broaden the scope of national accounting systems to include non-market production.
Recognize subsistence farming, informal work, and volunteer services.

3. Policy Interventions:
Implement supportive measures such as subsidized childcare, maternity leave, and pensions
for homemakers. Encourage shared household responsibilities to reduce the unpaid work
burden on women.

4. Awareness and Advocacy:

Increase public awareness of the economic significance of unpaid labor. Encourage feminist
economists and organizations to influence global accounting standards like the SNA.

5. Global Best Practices:

Learn from countries like Norway and Sweden, which have taken steps to integrate unpaid
work into their national statistics and policy frameworks.

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