Introduction To Aerial Photographs

EXERCISE

Multiple Choice Questions

1. In which of the following aerial photographs the horizon appears?

a. Vertical
b. Near-vertical
c. Low-oblique
d. High-oblique

2. In which of the following aerial photographs the Nadir and the

principle points coincide?
a. Vertical
b. Near-vertical
c. Low-oblique
d. High-oblique

3. Which type of the following projections is used in aerial photographs?

a. Parallel
b. Orthogonal
c. Central
d. None of the above.

Short Questions

1. State any three advantages that an aerial photograph offers over

ground based observations.

2. How is an aerial photograph taken?

3. Present a concise account of aerial photography in India.

4. Answer the following questions in about 125 words :

i) What are the two major uses of an aerial photograph? Elaborate.
ii) What are the different methods of scale determination? 83
 Practical Work in Geography

reliable if the given aerial photograph is truly vertical or near vertical and
the terrain photographed is flat. The focal length of the camera (f) and the
flying height of the aircraft (H) are provided as marginal information on
82 most of the vertical photographs (Box 6.2).
The Fig. 6.15 may be used to derive the photo-scale formula in the
following way :
Focal Length (f) : Flying Height(H) =
Photo distance (Dp) : Ground distance (Dg)
Problem 6.3 Compute the scale of an aerial photograph when the flying
height of the aircraft is 7500m and the focal length of the camera is 15cm.

Sp = f:H
Or Sp = 15 cm : 7,500 x 100 cm
Or Sp = 1 : 750,000/15
Therefore, Sp = 1 : 50,000

Box 6.2 Marginal Information given on Vertical Aerial Photographs

Fiducial
Marks

3000m 793 B/5-23

Flying Height Tilt Indicator Photo Specifications*

Indicator
* 793 is a Photo Specification number maintained by the 73 APFPS Party of the Survey of
India. B is the Flying Agency that carried out the present photography (In India three
flying agencies are officially permitted to carry out aerial photography. They are the
Indian Air Force, the Air Survey Company, Kolkata and the National Remote Sensing
Agency, Hydrabad, identified on the aerial photographs as A, B and C respectively), 5 is
the strip number and 23 is the photo number in strip 5.
Introduction To Aerial Photographs

Method 2: By Establishing Relationship Between Photo

Distance and Map Distance: As we know, the distances between
different points on the ground are not always known. However, if a reliable
map is available for the area shown on an aerial photograph, it can be
used to determine the photo scale. In other words, the distances between
two points identifiable both on a map and the aerial photograph enable
us to compute the scale of the aerial photograph (Sp). The relationship
between the two distances may be expressed as under :
(Photo scale : Map scale) = (Photo distance : Map distance)
We can derive
Photo scale (Sp) = Photo distance (Dp) : Map distance (Dm ) x Map
scale factor (msf)
Problem 6.2 The distance measured between two points on a map is 2
cm. The corresponding distance on an aerial photograph is 10 cm.
Calculate the scale of the photograph when the scale of the map is 1:
50,000.
Solution
Sp = Dp : Dm x msf
Or = 10 cm : 2 cm x 50,000
Or = 10 cm : 100,000 cm
Or = 1 : 100,000/10 = 10,000 cm
Or = 1 unit represents 10,000 units
Therefore, Sp = 1 : 10,000

Method 3: By Establishing
Relationship Between Focal
Length (f) and Flying Height
(H) of the Aircraft : If no
additional information is available
about the relative distances on
photograph and ground/map, we
can determine the photo-scale
provided the information about the 81
focal length of the camera (f) and the
flying height of the aircraft (H) are
known (Fig. 6.15). The photo scale
Figure 6.15 Focal Length of the Camera (f) and
so determined could be more
Flying Height of the Aircraft (H)
 Practical Work in Geography

S CALE OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH

You are already familiar with the concept of a map scale (See Chapter 2).
80 The concept of scale for aerial photographs is much the same as that of a
map. Scale is the ratio of a distance on an aerial photograph the distance
between the same two places on the ground in the real world. It can be
expressed in unit equivalents like 1 cm= 1,000 km(or 12,000 inches) or
as a representative fraction (1:100,000).
Scale determines what objects would be visible, the accuracy of
estimates and how certain features will appear. When conducting an
analysis that is based on air photos, it will sometimes be necessary to
make estimates regarding the number of objects, the area covered by a
certain amount of material or it may be possible to identify certain features
based on their length. To determine this dimension during air photo
interpretation, it will be necessary to make estimates of lengths and areas,
which require knowledge of the photo scale. There are three methods to
compute the scale of an aerial photograph using different sets of
information.

Method 1: By Establishing Relationship Between Photo

Distance and Ground Distance : If additional information like
ground distances of two identifiable points in an aerial photograph is
available, it is fairly simple to work out the scale of a vertical photograph.
Provided that the corresponding ground distances (Dg) are known for which
the distances on an aerial photograph (Dp) are measured. In such cases,
the scale of an aerial photograph will be measured as a ratio of the two,
i.e. Dp/ Dg.
Problem 6.1 The distance between two points on an aerial photograph is
measured as 2 centimetres. The known distance between the same two
points on the ground is 1 km. Compute the scale of the aerial photograph
(Sp).
Solution
Sp = Dp : Dg
= 2 cm : 1 km
= 2cm : 1 x 100,000 cm
= 1 : 100,000/2 = 50,000 cm
= 1 unit represents 50,000 units
Therefore, Sp = 1 : 50,000
Introduction To Aerial Photographs

D IFFERENCE BETWEEN A MAP AND AN AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH

A map cannot be directly traced out of an aerial photograph. The reason
is that there is a basic difference in the planimetry (projection) and
perspective of a map and an aerial photograph. The difference is given in
Table 6.2.

Table 6.2: Difference between Maps and Aerial Photographs

Aerial Photograph Map

It is a central Projection. It is an orthogonal Projection.

An aerial photograph is A map is a geometrically correct

geometrically incorrect. The representation of the part of the earth
distortion in the geometry is projected.
minimum at the centre and
increases towards the edges of the
photographs.

The scale of the photograph is The scale of the map is uniform

not uniform. throughout the map extent.

Enlargement/reduction does not Enlargement/reduction of the maps

change the contents of the involves redrawing it afresh.
photographs and can easily be
carried out.

Aerial photography holds good for The mapping of inaccessible and

inaccessible and inhospitable areas. inhospitable areas is very difficult and
sometimes it becomes impossible.

Even vertical aerial photographs do not have a consistent scale unless

they have been taken of a flat terrain. Aerial photographs need to be
transformed from perspective view to the planimetric view before they can
be used as map substitute. Such transformed photographs are known
79
as orthophotos .
 Practical Work in Geography

ground) plane at PG, i.e. the ground principal point. Similarly, if we draw
a vertical line (plumb line as indicated by the direction of gravity) through
S, it will meet the photo negative at a point known as the nadir point and
78 on the ground as the ground nadir point. Observe from figures 6.3, 6.5
and 6.7 that the plumb line and the camera axis are coincident for a
vertical photograph while they are separable in case of an oblique or a
tilted photograph. Thus in case of a vertical photograph, the principal
and the nadir points also coincide with one another. For an oblique
photograph, the angle between the camera axis and the plumb line is the
tilt angle. Figure 6.14 shows both the positive and the negative planes of
a vertical photograph. The geometry of the positive and the negative planes
are identical.

Figure 6.14 Geometry of Vertical Photograph

It needs to be understood here that SP, i.e. the perpendicular distance

between the camera lens and the negative plane is known as the focal
length. On the other hand, SPG, i.e., the perpendicular distance between
the camera lens and the ground photographed is known as the flying
height .
Introduction To Aerial Photographs

Orthogonal Projection: This is a special case

of parallel projections. Maps are orthogonal
projections of the ground. The advantage of this
projection is that the distances, angles or areas on
the plane are independent of the elevation
differences of the objects. Figure 6.12 is an example
of orthogonal projection where the projecting rays
are perpendicular to the line LL1.
Figure 6.12 Orthogonal projection

Central Projection: Figure 6.13 shows an

example of Central Projection. The projecting rays
Aa, Bb and Cc pass through a common point O,
which is called the perspective Centre. The image
projected by a lens is treated like a central
projection.
An aerial photograph, as discussed earlier is a
central projection. In an absolutely vertical flat
terrain the aerial photograph will be geometrically
the same as the corresponding map of the area.
However, because of the tilt of the photograph and
relief variations of the ground photographed, an
Figure 6.13 Central Projection
aerial photograph differs geometrically from the
map of the corresponding area.
As shown in Figure 6.14, S is the camera lens centre. The bundle of
light rays coming from the ground plane converge at this point and diverge
from there towards the negative (photo) plane to form images of the objects.
Thus, the central projection is characterised by the fact that all straight
lines joining corresponding points, i.e. straight lines joining object points
to their corresponding image points pass through one point. Figure 6.14
illustrates this relationship. Straight lines AAi, BBi, CCi and DDi join
corresponding points on the ground photographed and the negative plane.
For example, A on the ground and Ai on the negative plane (or ‘a’ on the
positive plane) is a line joining corresponding points which pass through
the camera lens centre. If we draw a perpendicular from S following the 77
camera axis onto the negative plane, the point where this perpendicular
meets the negative is known as the principal point (P in Fig. 6.14). If we
extend the same line to the ground, it would meet the target (photographed
 Practical Work in Geography

(iii) Small Scale

76 Photographs: The
photographs with the
scale being smaller than
1 : 30,000, are referred to
as small scale
photographs (Fig. 6.10).

Figure 6.10 1 : 40,000 Photograph of Arnehem

G EOMETRY OF AN AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH

To understand the geometry of an aerial photograph, it is important to
appreciate the orientation of the photograph with respect to the ground,
i.e. the way the rays connect or ‘project’ onto the ground in relation to the
ground representation (photograph or map). The following three examples
of such projection would be useful in
understanding the problem.

Parallel Projection: In this projection, the

projecting rays are parallel but not necessarily
perpendicular. The triangle ABC is projected on
LL1 as triangle abc (Figure 6.11).

Figure 6.11 Parallel Projection

Introduction To Aerial Photographs

(b) Types of Aerial

Photographs Based
on Scale: The aerial
photographs may also
be classified on the
basis of the scale of
photograph into three
types.
(i) Large Scale
Photographs: When the
scale of an aerial
photograph is 1 : 15,000
and larger, the
photography is classified
as large-scale
photograph (Fig. 6.8).

Figure 6.8 1 : 5000 Photograph of Arnehem

(ii) Medium Scale

Photographs: The
aerial photographs
with a scale ranging
between 1 : 15,000
and 1 : 30,000 are
usually treated as
medium scale
photographs (Fig. 6.9).

75

Figure 6.9 1 : 20,000 Photograph of Arnehem

 Practical Work in Geography

(iii) High Oblique: The high

oblique are photographs
obtained when the camera
74 axis is intentionally inclined
about 60° from the vertical
axis (Figure 6.7). Such
photography is useful in
reconnaissance surveys.

Figure 6.7 High Oblique Photograph

Table 6.1 provides a comparison between vertical and oblique
photographs.

Table 6.1: Comparison between Vertical and Oblique Photographs

Attributes Vertical Low Oblique High Oblique

Optical Axis Tilt < 3° i.e. exactly Deviation is <300 Deviates by

or nearly from the Vertical axis > 30O
coincides with the axis. from vertical
Vertical axis. axis.
Characteristics Horizon does not Horizon does Horizon appear
not appear. appears.
Coverage Small area Relatively larger Largest area
area
Shape of the area Square Trapezoidal Trapezoidal

Photographed
scale Uniform, if the Decreases from Decreases from
terrain is flat foreground to the foreground
background to the
background

Difference in Least Relatively Greatest

comparison to greater
the map
Advantages Useful in Reconnaissance Illustrative
topographical Survey
and thematic
mapping
Introduction To Aerial Photographs

Figure 6.3 Vertical Aerial

Photograph Figure 6.4 Vertical Aerial Photograph of Arneham,
The Netherlands

(ii) Low Oblique: An aerial photograph taken with an intentional deviation

of 15° to 30° in the camera axis from the vertical axis is referred to as the
low oblique photograph (Figures 6.5 and 6.6). This kind of photograph is
often used in reconnaissance surveys.

73
Figure 6.5 Low-Oblique Photograph
Figure 6.6 Low-Oblique Photograph of Arneham,
The Netherlands
 Practical Work in Geography

c. Broadened Sensitivity: The sensitivity of the film used in taking

aerial photographs is relatively more than the sensitivity of the human
eyes. Our eyes perceive only in the visible region of the electromagnetic
72 spectrum, i.e. 0.4 to 0.7 µm whereas the sensitivity of the film ranges
from 0.3 to 0.9 µm.

d. Three D imensional Perspective: Aerial photographs are

normally taken with uniform exposure interval that enables us in obtaining
stereo pair of photographs. Such a pair of photographs helps us in getting
a three-dimensional view of the surface photographed.

T YPES OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS

The aerial photographs are classified on the basis of the position of the
camera axis, scale, angular extent of coverage and the film used. The
types of the aerial photographs based on the position of optical axis and
the scale are given below :

a. Types of Aerial Photographs Based on the Position of

the Cameral Axis: On the basis of the position of the camera axis,
aerial photographs are classified into the following types :
(i) Vertical photographs
(ii) Low oblique photographs
(iii) High oblique photographs
(i) Vertical Photographs: While taking aerial photographs, two distinct
axes are formed from the camera lens centre, one towards the ground
plane and the other towards the photo plane. The perpendicular dropped
from the camera lens centre to the ground plane is termed as the vertical
axis, whereas the plumb line drawn from the lens centre to the photo
plane is known as the photographic/optical axis . When the photo plane
is kept parallel to the ground plane, the two axes also coincide with each
other. The photograph so obtained is known as vertical aerial photograph
(Figures 6.3 and 6.4). However, it is normally very difficult to achieve
perfect parallelism between the two planes due to the fact that the aircraft
flies over the curved surface of the earth. The photographic axis, therefore,
deviates from the vertical axis. If such a deviation is within the range of
plus or minus 3o, the near-vertical aerial photographs are obtained. Any
photography with an unintentional deviation of more than 3o in the optical
axis from the vertical axis is known as a tilted photograph.
Introduction To Aerial Photographs

breadth and height from such photographs. Hence, they are used as the
data source for creating and updating topographic maps.
The development of aerial photography in India is briefly given in Box 6.I.

Box 6.1 Aerial Photography in India

Aerial photography in India goes back to 1920 when large-scale aerial

photographs of Agra city were obtained. Subsequently, Air Survey Party
of the Survey of India took up aerial survey of Irrawaddy Delta forests,
which was completed during 1923–24. Subsequently, several similar
surveys were carried out and advanced methods of mapping from aerial
photographs were used. Today, aerial photography in India is carried
out for the entire country under the overall supervision of the
Directorate of Air Survey (Survey of India) New Delhi. Three flying
agencies, i.e. Indian Air Force, Air Survey Company, Kolkata and
National Remote Sensing Agency, Hyderabad have been officially
authorised to take aerial photographs in India.
The procedure for indenting aerial photographs for educational
purposes could be made with APFPS Party No. 73, Directorate of Air
Survey, Survey of India, West Block IV, R. K. Puram, New Delhi.

Image Interpretation: It is an art of identifying images of objects and

judging their relative significance. The principles of image interpretation
are applied to obtain qualitative information from the aerial photographs
such as land use/land cover, topographical forms, soil types, etc. A trained
interpreter can thus utilise aerial photographs to analyse the land-use
changes.

A DVANTAGES OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

The basic advantages that aerial photographs offer over ground based
observation are :
a. Improved vantage point : Aerial photography provides a bird’s
eye view of large areas, enabling us to see features of the earth surface in
their spatial context. 71
b. Time freezing ability: An aerial photograph is a record of the
surface features at an instance of exposure. It can, therefore, be used as
a historical record.
 Practical Work in Geography

The photographs so obtained have been found to be indispensable tools

in the topographical mapping and interpretation of the images of the
objects.
70 Glossary

Aerial Camera : A precision camera specifically designed for use in

aircrafts.
Aerial Film : A roll film with high sensitivity, high intrinsic resolution
power and dimensionally stable emulsion support.
Aerial Photography : Art, science and technology of taking aerial
photographs from an air-borne platform.
Aerial Photograph : A photograph taken from an air-borne platform
using a precision camera.
Fiducial Marks : Index marks, rigidly connected at the central or corner
edges of the camera body. When the film is exposed, these marks appear
on the film negative .
Forward Overlap : The common area on two successive photographs
in the flight direction. It is usually expressed in per cent.
Image Interpretation : An act of identifying the images of the objects
and judging their relative significance.
Nadir Point : The foot of the perpendicular drawn from the camera lens
centre on the ground plane.
Principal Point : The foot of the perpendicular drawn from the camera
lens centre on the photo plane.
Principal Distance : The perpendicular distance from the perspective
centre to the plane of the photograph.
Perspective Centre : The point of origin (perspective centre) of the bundle
of light rays.
Photogrammetry : The science and technology of taking reliable
measurements from aerial photographs.

U SES OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS

Aerial photographs are used in topographical mapping and interpretation.
These two different uses have led to the development of photogrammetry
and photo/image interpretation as two independent but related sciences.
Photogrammetry: It refers to the science and technology of making
reliable measurements from aerial photographs. The principles used in
photogrammetry facilitate precise measurements related to the length,
Introduction To Aerial Photographs

Chapter 6

Introduction To Aerial
Photographs
We are familiar with photographs
taken with normal cameras. These
photographs provide us with a view
of the object similar to the way we
see them with our own eyes. In other
words, we get a horizontal perspective
of the objects photographed. For
example, a photograph of a part of
settlement will provide us a
perspective the way it appears to us
when we
look at it
(Fig. 6.1).
Suppose
we want
to take a
Figure 6.1 Terrestrial
‘bird’s
photograph of
Mussorrie town eye view’
of similar
features, then we have to place
ourselves somewhere in the air. When
we do so and look down, we get a very
different perspective. This perspective,
which we get in aerial photographs, is 69
termed as aerial perspective (Fig. 6.2).
The photographs taken from an
aircraft or helicopter using a precision
Figure 6.2 Bird’s Eye View of Tehri
camera are termed aerial photographs . Town, Uttarakhand