APUSH Fall Final Exam (via @togatests) Answer Key

AP US History
Lupoli/Remmers

1. Questions 1-3 refer to the following image.

Engraving of sugar production on a plantation in the Spanish Caribbean, 1595, Theodor de Bry

Developments such as that depicted in the image most directly led to which of the following?
A. The importation of enslaved Africans to the Caribbean
B. The increasing use of indentured servants in the Caribbean
C. The spread of Spanish missionaries into portions of Florida
D. The settling of the eastern North American seaboard by the Spanish

2. Which of the following most directly contributed to the development depicted in the image?
A. The emerging European naval capabilities in the Caribbean
B. The search for new sources of wealth in the Caribbean
C. The North American reliance on imports from the Caribbean
D. The spread of diseases native to the Americas to enslaved African plantation laborers

3. Historical developments such as that depicted in the image helped advance which of the
following?
A. The conquest of the European continent by Spain
B. The spread of Spanish influence in the Western Hemisphere
C. The shift in European economies from capitalism to feudalism
D. The funding of Christopher Columbus’s expeditions to the Caribbean
4. Questions 4-6 refer to the following excerpt.
“You have told us that we do not know the One who gives us life and being, who is Lord of the
heavens and of the earth. You also say that those we worship are not gods. This way of speaking is
entirely new to us, and very scandalous. We are frightened by this way of speaking because our
forebears who engendered and governed us never said anything like this. ...It would be a fickle,
foolish thing for us to destroy the most ancient laws and customs left by the first inhabitants of this
land. . . . All of us together feel that it is enough to have lost, enough that the power and royal
jurisdiction have been taken from us. As for our gods, we will die before giving up serving and
worshiping them. This is our determination; do what you will.”
—Lords and holy men of Tenochtitlan [the Aztec capital], reply to the Franciscans in 1524 after the
conquest of Mexico, from a Spanish account written in 1564

The ideas expressed in the excerpt most directly resulted from which of the following?
A. The arrival of Christian missionaries in the Americas
B. Grants of encomiendas to Spanish colonists
C. Treaties for the purchase of Native American territory
D. Internal disputes among Native American leaders

5. The ideas expressed in the excerpt most strongly suggest which of the following about how
Native Americans responded to colonization?
A. They befriended European traders and settlers.
B. They resisted European efforts to repress their culture.
C. They suffered from European diseases to which they had no immunity.
D. They allied with Europeans against rival native groups.

6. Which of the following most immediately resulted from the Columbian Exchange?
A. Expansion of the trans-Atlantic slave trade
B. Growth of feudalism in Europe
C. Decline of Native American populations due to disease
D. Rise of mercantilism as an economic system
7. Questions 7-9 refer to the following excerpt.
“[Before European contact] Cahokia [in present-day Missouri] and such other major centers as those
now known as Coosa and Etowah in Georgia, Moundville in Alabama, and Natchez in Mississippi
were home to highly stratified societies, organized as chiefdoms and characterized by a sharp divide
between elites and commoners. . . . Surrounding networks of agricultural hamlets provided food to
support the urban centers. . . .
“From the Ohio River through most of present-day Canada and down the coast to the Chesapeake
were speakers of Algonquian languages. . . . Nearly everywhere [here], villages composed of 500 to
2,000 people were the norm. . . .
“[This] Indian country was decentralized and diverse, but not disconnected. . . . Routes of trade and
communication, most of them millennia old and following the great river systems, crisscrossed the
continent. The goods that moved along them were, for the most part, few and rare. . . . Some closely
neighboring people might exchange crucial resources—corn, for instances, for meat or fish.”
—Daniel K. Richter, historian, Facing East from Indian Country: A Native History of Early America, 2001

Which of the following most supported the development of the commerce described in the
third paragraph?
A. Maize cultivation spread northward from Mexico.
B. Native Americans constructed extensive road networks.
C. Native Americans in the Northeast of North America formed extensive empires.
D. Metal tools became valuable objects in Native American religions.

8. Which of the following best characterizes the process described in the first paragraph of the
excerpt?
A. Native American agriculture encouraged the growth of socially diversified urban areas.
B. An arid climate led Native Americans to construct irrigation projects in the Mississippi
River valley.
C. The climate in North America discouraged the development of large settlements.
D. Military power helped Native American hunters and gatherers to conquer expansive
cities.
9. Which of the following best describes the economic system that supported the Native
American villages discussed in the second paragraph of the excerpt?
A. Seminomadic hunting
B. Settled subsistence farming
C. Trade and manufacturing of luxury goods
D. Migration and colonization of new territories
10.Questions 10-11 refer to the following excerpt.
“Slavery, though imposed and maintained by violence, was a negotiated relationship.... First, even as
they confronted one another, master and slave had to concede, however grudgingly, a degree of
legitimacy to the other.... [T]he web of interconnections between master and slave necessitated a
coexistence that fostered cooperation as well as contestation. Second, because the circumstances of
such contestation and cooperation continually changed, slavery itself continually changed. . . .
Slavery was never made, but instead was continually remade, for power—no matter how great—was
never absolute, but always contingent.”
—Ira Berlin, historian, Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America, 1998

Which of the following contributed most to the increasing use of African slave labor in North
America during the 1600s and 1700s?
A. Successful colonial attempts to convert enslaved Africans to Christianity
B. European demand for agricultural products grown in the colonies
C. The spread of European Enlightenment ideas in the colonies
D. A decline in regional distinctiveness among the colonies

11.Which of the following primary sources would most likely support Berlin’s argument in the
excerpt?
A. Data showing the growth of the enslaved population during the 1700s
B. Records of purchases and sales of slaves from a plantation in the South
C. Diary entries from a slaveholder discussing plantation life
D. Speeches about slavery given by officials in the British colonial government

12.Questions 12-14 refer to the following excerpt.

“Various are the reports and conjectures of the causes of the present Indian war. Some impute it to
an imprudent zeal in the magistrates of Boston to christianize those heathen before they were
civilized and enjoining them the strict observation of their laws.... Some believe there have been
vagrant and Jesuitical priests, who have made it their business, for some years past, to go from
Sachem to Sachem, to exasperate the Indians against the English and to bring them into a
confederacy, and that they were promised supplies from France and other parts to extirpate
[eradicate] the English nation out of the continent of America.”
—Edward Randolph, report of King Philip’s War (Metacom’s War) in New England, 1676
 The confederacy formed to “exasperate the Indians against the English” was motivated
primarily by which of the following?
A. Fraudulent trade deals between the leaders of Plymouth Colony and the Wampanoags
B. Dispossession of Wampanoag land and threats to their sovereignty
C. Forced religious conversion of Wampanoags by Puritan missionaries
D. Intermarriage with the English, which threatened Wampanoag cultural independence

13.Compared with French and Spanish interactions with American Indians, English interaction
with American Indians often promoted
A. Respect for political alliances
B. Cultural blending
C. Separation between the groups
D. Assimilation of American Indians into colonial society

14.Which of the following best characterizes relations between the English and American
Indians in New England following Metacom’s War?
A. Peaceful accommodation between both groups
B. Religious freedom for the English and American Indians
C. Dramatic decline and dispersion of the American Indian population
D. Recognition of American Indian property and land rights

15.Questions 15-18 refer to the following excerpt.

“We are reduced to the alternative of choosing an unconditional submission to the tyranny of
irritated ministers, or resistance by force. . . .We fight not for glory or for conquest. We exhibit to
mankind the remarkable spectacle of a people attacked by unprovoked enemies, without any
imputation or even suspicion of offense. They boast of their privileges and civilization, and yet
proffer no milder conditions than servitude or death. In our own native land, in defense of the
freedom . . . , and which we ever enjoyed till the late violation of it—for the protection of our
property, acquired solely by the honest industry of our forefathers and ourselves, against violence
actually offered, we have taken up arms.”
—Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms, July 1775

Which of the following most immediately built on the ideas expressed in the excerpt?
A. The publication of the pamphlet Common Sense
B. The drafting of the United States Constitution
C. The issuing of George Washington’s Farewell Address
D. The writing of The Federalist papers
16.The British Crown’s response to actions like those in the excerpt was to
A. declare the American colonies to be in open rebellion
B. agree to meet with colonial representatives
C. adopt a new form of imperial government
D. appoint a new prime minister

17.The issuing of the declaration in the excerpt best serves as evidence of the
A. Patriot inclusion of abolitionism as a goal of the resistance
B. desire of the majority of colonists to launch offensive attacks against the British
C. efforts of colonists to protect their rights as English subjects
D. colonial demand for complete independence from Britain

18.Which of the following pieces of evidence could best be used to challenge the assertion in
the excerpt that British attacks on the colonists had been “unprovoked”?
A. The extension of a petition of reconciliation by members of the Second Continental
Congress
B. A series of popular boycotts, mob protests, and violence against royal officials
C. Efforts by Quakers and Germans in the mid-Atlantic colonies to promote pacifism and
remain neutral
D. The outbreak of skirmishes between Patriot and Loyalist forces throughout the
southern colonies

19.Questions 19-21 refer to the following excerpt.

“The Anti-Federalists charged that the authors of the Constitution had failed to put up strong enough
barriers to block this inevitably corrupting and tyrannical force. They painted a very black picture
indeed of what the national representatives might and probably would do with the unchecked power
conferred upon them under the provisions of the new Constitution.... But [the Anti-Federalists]
lacked both the faith and the vision to extend their principles nationwide.”
—Cecelia M. Kenyon, historian, “Men of Little Faith: The Anti-Federalists on the Nature of
Representative Government,” 1955

During the constitutional ratification process, Anti-Federalists’ concerns, as described in the

excerpt, were most directly addressed by an agreement to
A. grant citizenship rights to women and American Indians
B. adopt the Bill of Rights
C. expand the role of the states in foreign affairs
D. allow the states to print money
20.The Anti-Federalists’ view of government power during the 1780s, as described in the
excerpt, is best reflected by which of the following?
A. Debates about the incorporation of new territories into the United States
B. The expansion of women’s political roles as a result of the ideas of republican
motherhood
C. The existence of many state constitutions that limited executive authority
D. The shift from emphasizing inherited wealth and status to emphasizing individual merit

21.By the 1790s the ideas of the Anti-Federalists contributed most directly to the
A. imposition of a protective tariff
B. abolition of the trans-Atlantic slave trade
C. continued use of property qualifications for voting in most states
D. resistance of western farmers to federal oversight

22.Questions 22-23 refer to the following excerpt.

“Hail Columbia! Happy Land!
Hail ye heroes, heaven-born band,
Who fought and bled in freedom’s cause, Who fought and bled in freedom’s cause, And when the
storm of war was gone, Enjoy’d the peace your valor won—
Let Independence be our boast,
Ever mindful what it cost;
Ever grateful for the prize,
Let its altar reach the skies.
Firm, united let us be,
Rallying round our Liberty,
As a band of brothers join’d, Peace and safety we shall find. . . .
Sound, sound the trump of fame,
Let [George] Washington’s great name Ring round the world with loud applause, Ring round the
world with loud applause, Let every clime to freedom dear,
Listen with a joyful ear,
With equal skill, with godlike power,
He governs in the fearful hour
Of horrid war, or guides with ease,
The happier times of honest peace.
Firm, united let us be, Rallying round our Liberty, As a band of brothers join’d, Peace and safety we
shall find.”
—Hail Columbia, popular song, 1798
 Which of the following developments best explains the sentiment expressed in the first verse
of the song lyrics?
A. The conflicts between the federal army and Native Americans on western frontiers
B. The resumption of commerce with Great Britain after the American Revolution
C. The growth among people in the United States of a sense of national identity
D. The partisan clash between Democratic-Republicans and Federalists

23.Which of the following best explains the depiction of George Washington in the third verse of
the song?
A. Washington’s public advocacy for abolition
B. The movement to elect Washington president for life
C. Washington’s policy of intervening in European conflicts
D. The popular image in national culture of Washington as a virtuous leader

24.Questions 24-25 refer to the following image.

Which of the following factors most directly contributed to the change between the two
periods shown in the graph?
A. A rise in secular reform inspired by the Second Great Awakening
B. A fear of too much popular influence in government
C. An expansion of political democracy for White men
D. A growing reluctance to locate political power in legislative assemblies
25.Which of the following statements best explains the change over time in the composition of
legislatures depicted in the graph?
A. Women became involved in politics through their participation in the grassroots
independence movement.
B. The concept of republican self-government encouraged individual talent.
C. Factory jobs provided workers with increased free time that some used to participate in
politics.
D. Participation in labor unions encouraged workers to engage in politics.

26.Questions 26-28 refer to the following excerpt.

“His Catholic Majesty [of Spain] and the United States of America desiring to consolidate on a
permanent basis the Friendship and good correspondence which happily prevails between the two
Parties, have determined to establish by a convention several points. . . .

Article IV: It is likewise agreed that the Western boundary of the United States which separates them
from the Spanish Colony of Louisiana, is in the middle of the channel or bed of the River Mississippi .
. . ; and his Catholic Majesty has likewise agreed that the navigation of the said River in its whole
breadth from its source to the Ocean shall be free only to his Subjects, and the Citizens of the United
States, unless he should extend this privilege to the Subjects of other Powers by special convention. .

Article XXII: The two high contracting Parties hoping that the good correspondence and friendship
which happily reigns between them will be further increased by this Treaty, and that it will
contribute to augment their prosperity and opulence, will in future give to their mutual commerce all
the extension and favor which the advantage of both Countries may require; . . . his Catholic Majesty
will permit the Citizens of the United States for the space of three years from this time to deposit
their merchandise and effects in the Port of New Orleans.”
—Treaty of Friendship, Limits, and Navigation Between Spain and the United States, known as
Pinckney’s Treaty or the Treaty of San Lorenzo, 1795

Which of the following was a primary reason that the United States and Spain agreed to the
articles outlined in the excerpt?
A. To force Great Britain to give up its colonial claims in Canada
B. To provide land for the establishment of Catholic missions
C. To minimize tensions caused by United States expansion into western territory
D. To prevent France from reclaiming the territory it lost after the Seven Years’ War
27.The agreements made in the excerpt best reflect which of the following concerns in the
United States during this period?
A. How to support western settlers beyond the Appalachian Mountains
B. How to avoid the establishment of political parties
C. Whether to assist the French in their war against Great Britain
D. Whether to allow slavery to expand into new territories

28.Which of the following groups would have most likely supported the agreements made in the
excerpt?
A. Fur trappers on the Pacific coast
B. White farmers in Kentucky
C. Merchants in New England
D. Native American leaders in Louisiana

29.Questions 29-30 refer to the following excerpt.

“Our detached and distant situation invites and enables us to pursue a different course. . . .Why forgo
the advantages of so peculiar a situation? Why quit our own to stand upon foreign ground? Why, by
interweaving our destiny with that of any part of Europe, entangle our peace and prosperity in the
toils of European ambition, rivalship, interest, humor, or caprice? It is our true policy to steer clear of
permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world.”
—President George Washington, Farewell Address, 1796

The ideas expressed in the excerpt were most directly a reaction to which of the following?
A. The migration of United States settlers west of the Appalachians
B. The expansion of Spanish missions in California
C. The election of Thomas Jefferson as president
D. The revolutionary government in France

30.During his administration, Washington pursued the foreign policy suggested by the excerpt in
part because he believed that the
A. new nation needed time to gain economic and military strength
B. Constitution prohibited the United States from making treaties
C. United States should not acquire new territory by force
D. United States should establish alliances with both France and Britain
31.Questions 31-33 refer to the following excerpt.
“The voice of the people has been said to be the voice of God; [but] it is not true in fact. The people
are turbulent and changing; they seldom judge or determine right. . . . Can a democratic assembly,
who annually revolve in the mass of the people, be supposed steadily to pursue the public good?
Nothing but a permanent body can check the imprudence of democracy.”
—Alexander Hamilton, speech at the Constitutional Convention, 1787

Hamilton’s views expressed in the excerpt most directly supported which of the following?
A. The process of electing members of the House of Representatives
B. The method of counting slaves for representation and taxation
C. The establishment of the Supreme Court
D. The addition of the Bill of Rights

32.Based on the excerpt, Hamilton would most likely support

A. the abolition of slavery
B. reconciliation with Great Britain
C. a weak central government
D. property qualification for voting

33.In the decade following the ratification of the Constitution, divisions emerged between
Hamilton’s political party, the Federalists, and their rivals, the Democratic-Republicans, over
all of the following issues EXCEPT the
A. relationship between national and state governments
B. relationship between religion and the federal government
C. federal government’s degree of support for manufacturing and finance
D. United States policy toward the French Revolution

34.Questions 34-35 refer to the following excerpt.

“In singing of hymns and spiritual songs—whereby their hearts are greatly inflamed with divine love
and heavenly joy, and makes the Holy Ghost be shed abroad in their hearts. This is very fine talking. I
could wish that all the doings were equally innocent....But let us go on, and examine if in the general
corruption of manners these New Lights have made any reform in the vice of drunkenness?...There is
not one hogshead of liquor less consumed since their visiting us, or any tavern shut up—So far from
it, that there has been a great increase of both....Since the appearance of these New Lights more
enormities of every kind have been committed—more robberies, thefts, murders, plunderings,
burglaries, and villainies of every kind, than ever before...In short, they have filled the country with
idle and vagrant persons, who live by their criminalities. For it is a maxim with these vermin of
religion, that a person must first be a sinner e're he can be saint.”
—Charles Woodmason, a traveling Anglican preacher, 1768
 The excerpt above was most likely a response to
A. Puritan efforts to create close-knit religious societies
B. the diminishing of regional distinctiveness over time
C. widespread Protestant evangelical religious revivals
D. mistrust between European leaders and American settlers

35.The underlying cause of the author's complaints in the passage above was
A. social tensions among backcountry inhabitants
B. a strong belief in British racial and cultural superiority
C. the rise of indentured servitude and African slavery
D. resistance to British imperial control in the colonies

36.Questions 36-37 refer to the following excerpt.

“Few wives in antebellum America enjoyed a life free from labor. Family life depended on the
smooth performance of an extensive array of unpaid occupations in the household, and on the
presence . . . of someone to provide that work—to supervise the children through the vicissitudes of
a changing social and economic order; to make and mend clothes, quilts, pillows, and other
household furnishings; to shop for items the household could afford . . . , and scavenge . . . for those
it could not; to clean, cook, and bake; and, whenever necessary, to move from unpaid to paid labor
to bolster the household income. The growth . . . of the cash [economy] of the Northeast had not
rendered this labor superfluous. Nor had it reduced housework to unskilled labor.”
—Jeanne Boydston, historian, Home and Work, 1990

Which of the following most directly contributed to the situation described in the excerpt?
A. The abolitionist movement
B. Increased immigration
C. The market revolution
D. The emergence of mass political parties
37.During the first half of the nineteenth century, some women increasingly “bolster[ed] the
household income,” as described in the excerpt, by
A. obtaining positions in textile mills
B. signing contracts for indentured servitude
C. performing clerical and secretarial labor for large corporations
D. participating in secular and religious reform associations
38.Questions 38-39 refer to the following excerpt.
“We, therefore, the people of the State of South Carolina, in convention assembled, do declare and
ordain... that the several acts and parts of acts of the Congress of the United States, purporting to be
laws for the imposing of duties and imposts on the importation of foreign commodities...are
unauthorized by the Constitution of the United States, and violate the true meaning and intent
thereof and are null, void, and no law, nor binding upon this State....”
—South Carolina Ordinance of Nullification, 1832

The excerpt most directly expresses an economic perspective that

A. prioritized regional interests
B. discouraged international trade
C. sought to protect United States manufacturing
D. supported the interests of organized labor unions

39.The ideas expressed in the excerpt emerged most directly from a larger intellectual debate
over the
A. balance between individual freedom and public order
B. expansion of slavery into the western territories
C. priorities of United States foreign policy
D. relationship between the federal government and the states

40.Questions 40-41 refer to the following excerpt.

“[In the South in the 1880s] some African Americans were looking to diversify their political options
by working with white [political] independents. . . . The potential for [political] victories for
independent white candidates through black electoral support was not lost on Democratic
leadership. In 1888, North Carolina Democrats reacted to the black and independent threat by
passing election laws that gave greater discretion to handpicked Democratic election registrars to
disqualify potential voters. . . . The pattern of black disfranchisement continued in other parts of the
South. In Georgia, independent political efforts challenging or seeking to reform the Democratic
Party led to the establishment of ‘white primaries’ in the 1880s, further blocking black electoral
participation. . . . Relatively low voter participation among African Americans was therefore a
consequence of direct attacks on their voting rights, not simply black voter ‘apathy.’ . . . African
Americans . . . were living under hostile political conditions that often made it impossible to vote for
candidates of their choosing.”
—Omar H. Ali, historian, In the Lion’s Mouth: Black Populism in the New South, 1886–1900, published in
2010
 African American political activism during Reconstruction differed from the political activism
described in the first paragraph of the excerpt because during Reconstruction African
Americans
A. emphasized pride in their cultural achievements
B. predominantly supported the Republican Party
C. were barred from holding office in state legislatures or Congress
D. mostly focused on building religious institutions instead of educational ones

41.Which of the following could best be used as evidence to support the argument in the
excerpt?
A. The industrialization of some segments of the southern economy
B. The efforts by some Progressive Era reformers to expand democracy
C. The requirement in many states at the time that citizens pay a tax before they could
vote
D. The advocacy of organizations such as the National Association of Colored Women’s
Clubs (NACWC)

42.Questions 42-43 refer to the following image.

Alfred R. Waud, “The Freedmen’s Bureau,” 1868

During Reconstruction, which of the following was a change that took place in the South?
A. Many African Americans found manufacturing employment.
B. Many White Southerners supported African Americans’ rights.
C. African Americans favored the Democratic Party.
D. African Americans were able to exercise political rights.
43.The image most strongly supports the argument that Reconstruction
A. led to the unfair punishment of White Southerners by the North
B. encouraged large-scale rebellions by former slaves
C. involved unconstitutional abuses of government power
D. temporarily altered race relations in the South

44.Questions 44-45 refer to the following excerpt.

“It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought
here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task
remaining before us—that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for
which they gave the last full measure of devotion—that we here highly resolve that these dead shall
not have died in vain—that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom—and that
government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.”
—Abraham Lincoln, Gettysburg Address, November 1863

Which of the following most directly contributed to the conflict referred to in the excerpt?
A. Disputes over taxation and representation
B. Tensions between isolationism and international engagement
C. Disagreements over whether to allow slavery in new territories
D. Debates about the role of religion in society and government

45.Lincoln’s main purpose in the excerpt was to

A. advocate racial equality
B. encourage the punishment of the South
C. propose expanded democratic voting rights
D. gain continued support for the war effort
46.Questions 46-48 refer to the following excerpt.
“[The Pullman Association owns] very nearly 4,000 acres [of land]. . . . We will not sell an acre under
any circumstances, and we will only lease to parties whom we are well satisfied will conform with
our ideas in developing the place. We will not allow any saloons or drinking-resorts in the town. We
shall do all we can to cultivate the better natures of our workmen. . . . My idea has always been that
it was to the employer’s interest to see that his men are clean, contented, sober, educated, and
happy. They make better workmen, and they develop the employer’s industries more. I shall try to
benefit humanity where it is in my power to do so. Here we shall have every attribute of a town
exemplified, and I hope to be able to provide each and every attraction that can be
desired—churches, schools, gymnasiums, [and] reading rooms.”
—George Pullman, industrialist, describing the creation of the Pullman company town in Illinois,
Chicago Tribune, 1881
Industrialists most likely created company-owned towns like the one described in the excerpt
because they wanted to
A. create a more productive workforce
B. promote a racially diverse community
C. provide a place for Native Americans to assimilate
D. encourage immigrant laborers to migrate from cities

47.Industrialists such as Pullman would most likely oppose which of the following
developments?
A. Demands by women to enter the workforce in clerical positions
B. Decisions by the federal government to enact laissez-faire policies
C. Attempts by business owners to merge companies into large trusts
D. Efforts by workers to collectively negotiate for better working conditions

48.Which of the following was a long-term response to the growing influence of industrialists in
the United States economy?
A. Nativists claimed that immigration to the United States needed to be restricted.
B. Farmers asserted that the government should not regulate transportation.
C. Progressive reformers called for federal legislation to limit the power of corporations.
D. Preservationists argued for creating national parks to allow for later resource
extraction.
49.Questions 49-50 refer to the following excerpts.
“All Indian peoples in the years after the Civil War saw their sovereignty erode. . . . Reformers
regarded Indian nations as legal fictions which the federal government should no longer recognize. . .
[Civilian and military leaders] disdained Indian sovereignty. . . . Reformers pushed the federal
government toward direct supervision of the lives of individual Indians. . . . The reform policy had
three basic components. The first was the suppression of Indian norms of family life, community
organization, and religion. . . . Reformers tried to educate Indian children in order to instill
mainstream American Protestant values in place of tribal values. Finally, reformers sought a policy of
land allotment that would break up communal landholding patterns and create private ownership. In
the end, Indians would be Christian farmers living in nuclear families on their own land. The
remaining lands could then be opened to white farmers. . . . The strength of Indian communities
during this period declined while the power of the federal bureaucracy that supervised them
increased.”
—Richard White, historian, “It’s Your Misfortune and None of My Own”: A New History of the American
West, published in 1991

“As reformers and federal officials alike recognized, the key to ‘assimilation’ was ‘detribalization,’ and
the key to ‘detribalization’ was eradication of the land base and communal practices that sustained
tribal culture. . . . Congress enacted the General Allotment Act (also known as the Dawes Severalty
Act) in 1887. . . . The act authorized the president to survey reservation lands, have them divided up
into allotments of up to 160 acres, and make them available to Indians family heads. . . . Reservation
land that was not subject to allotment . . . would be made available for purchase and white
settlement. . . .While effectively placing all Native Americans under the jurisdiction [control] of the
federal government (as opposed to their own tribal laws and institutions), . . . those who remained
on the shrinking reservations and maintained their tribal connections . . . continued to be excluded
from the ‘equal protection of the laws.’ . . . Try as the federal government might to penalize
reservation Indians through isolation and dependency, the reservation could in fact become a site of
cultural and economic creativity—and of resistance to the projects of the state. Indians regularly
traversed reservation boundaries, often in defiance of government regulations and [travel] pass
requirements, to visit one another and to exchange labor and goods, extending lines of
communication and interethnic relations . . . . In doing so, they deepened their own tribal
attachments while developing a sense of pan-tribal Indianness.”
—Steven Hahn, historian, A Nation Without Borders: The United States and Its World in an Age of Civil
Wars, 1830–1910, published in 2016
 The claims made by White and Hahn about United States policies toward American Indians in
the late nineteenth century are similar in that they both support which of the following
arguments?
A. The federal government sought to grant members of American Indian tribes United
States citizenship.
B. The United States Congress saw treaties as the best way to promote American Indian
economic development.
C. Federal officials desired to encourage the adoption of White American lifestyles by
American Indians.
D. The United States wanted to force American Indians to provide labor for agriculture
and mining.

50.Which of the following is a similarity between White’s and Hahn’s overall arguments in the
excerpts about interactions between American Indians and the United States in the late
1800s?
A. Both argue that the United States government desired to recognize the sovereignty of
American Indians.
B. Both claim that United States officials sought to restrict the authority of tribes over
individuals.
C. Both assert that American Indian community connections strengthened because of
United States assistance.
D. Both contend that new United States laws caused American Indians to abandon their
tribal identities.

Answer Key