ENGINEERING UTILITIES 2

HISTORY OF SEWAGE TREATMENT

 MINOAN CULTURE (1500-1700 B.C.E): FIRST ADVANCED WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM, WITH TERRACOTTA
PIPES USED IN KNOSSOS FOR BATH DRAINAGE AND EARLY FORMS OF FLUSH TOILETS.

 ANCIENT ROME (C. AD 100): INTRODUCTION OF FLUSHED COMMUNITY LATRINES AND DIRECT SEWAGE
CONNECTIONS FOR THE WEALTHY; PUBLIC BATH WATER USED TO FLUSH WASTE (EARLY GREYWATER
REUSE).

 MIDDLE AGES: AFTER THE FALL OF ROME, SOCIETIES REVERTED TO RURAL METHODS OF WASTE DISPOSAL.
CHAMBER POTS BECAME COMMON AGAIN.

 19TH CENTURY: IN LONDON, POOR SANITATION LED TO HIGH DEATH RATES (EIGHT DEATHS DUE TO
DISEASE FOR EVERY ONE DUE TO OLD AGE OR VIOLENCE).

 FIRST SEPTIC TANKS: ORIGINATED IN FRANCE, CREDITED TO JEAN-LOUIS MOURAS, INITIALLY USED FOR
TREATING SEWAGE FROM ENTIRE COMMUNITIES.

HISTORY OF SEWAGE TREATMENT IN THE PHILIPPINES

 17TH CENTURY: INTRAMUROS (WALLED CITY) DESIGNED BY THE SPANIARDS WITH EUROPEAN PLUMBING
STANDARDS. FILIPINO PLUMBERS MAINTAINED SYSTEMS IN TOWNS AND ELITE HOMES.

 20TH CENTURY:

o 1902: PLUMBING TRADE RECOGNIZED, WITH THE CITY OF MANILA AS A MODEL COMMUNITY.

o 1935: FORMATION OF THE NATIONAL MASTER PLUMBERS ASSOCIATION OF THE PHILIPPINES

(NAMPAP).

o 1955: REPUBLIC ACT NO. 1378 (PLUMBING LAW) SIGNED.

o 1999: APPROVAL OF THE REVISED NATIONAL PLUMBING CODE.

BUILDING PLUMBING SYSTEM - INTRODUCTION

 PLUMBING & SANITARY SYSTEMS: CRUCIAL FOR HYGIENE, SAFETY, AND COST-EFFECTIVENESS.
APPROXIMATELY 8% OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION COSTS ARE ATTRIBUTED TO PLUMBING.

 KEY ISSUES:

o DRINKING WATER MAY STILL BE UNSAFE DUE TO CORROSION, CONTAMINATION, POLLUTANTS, ETC.

PRINCIPLES OF AN EFFECTIVE PLUMBING SYSTEM:

 A GOOD PLUMBING SYSTEM SUPPLIES SAFE DRINKING WATER, REMOVES WASTE EFFICIENTLY, AND
MINIMIZES FAILURES THROUGH QUALITY ASSURANCE.

COMMON PLUMBING ISSUES (AND SOLUTIONS):

1. DRIPPING FAUCET: FIX WITH TEFLON TAPE.

2. RUNNING TOILET: INSPECT THE BALLCOCK.

3. CLOGGED TOILET: USE A PLUNGER.

4. SLOW/CLOGGED DRAINS: BAKING SODA + VINEGAR + HOT WATER FOR NEUTRALIZATION.

5. WATER HEATER NOT WORKING: REQUIRES REPAIR.

6. LEAKY PIPES: OFTEN NEED REPLACEMENT.

7. LOW WATER PRESSURE: COULD INDICATE A LARGER ISSUE.

 8. SEWER LINE ISSUES: MAINTAIN A MINIMUM SLOPE OF 2CM FOR EVERY 100M.

9. EXPENSIVE WATER BILLS: ADDRESS HIDDEN LEAKS OR INEFFICIENCIES.

10. DOWNSPOUT AND GUTTER ISSUES: REGULAR MAINTENANCE REQUIRED.

TYPES OF PLUMBING SYSTEMS

1. POTABLE WATER SYSTEM: DELIVERS TREATED WATER TO BUILDINGS VIA A MONITORED METER.

2. SANITARY DRAINAGE SYSTEM: REMOVES WASTEWATER THROUGH VENTED PIPES TO COMMUNITY

SEWERS.

3. RAINWATER DRAINAGE SYSTEM: CARRIES RAINWATER AWAY FROM BUILDINGS, OFTEN THROUGH
GUTTERS AND UNDERGROUND PIPES.

SOURCES OF POTABLE WATER:

1. SURFACE WATER: INCLUDES RIVERS, LAKES, AND WETLANDS.

2. GROUNDWATER: WATER FROM AQUIFERS BENEATH THE EARTH’S SURFACE.

3. STORM WATER: FROM RAIN OR SNOWMELT.

4. WASTEWATER: TREATED WATER FROM DOMESTIC, INDUSTRIAL, AND COMMERCIAL USE.

5. SALTWATER: REQUIRES DESALINATION, TYPICALLY VIA REVERSE OSMOSIS.

6. ICE CAPS: POTENTIAL FRESHWATER RESERVES BUT DIFFICULT TO ACCESS.

FACTORS FOR SELECTING WATER SOURCES:

1. QUANTITY: ADEQUATE FOR THE DESIGN POPULATION.

2. QUALITY: FREE FROM HARMFUL TOXINS AND IMPURITIES.

3. DISTANCE: CLOSER SOURCES REDUCE PROJECT COSTS.

4. TOPOGRAPHY: EVEN TERRAIN REDUCES THE NEED FOR EXPENSIVE INFRASTRUCTURE.

5. ELEVATION: HIGHER SOURCES ALLOW FOR GRAVITY FLOW, REDUCING THE NEED FOR PUMPS.

REVIEWER NOTES:

 HISTORICAL CONTEXT: THE EVOLUTION OF SEWAGE SYSTEMS IS IMPORTANT FOR UNDERSTANDING

MODERN PRACTICES, ESPECIALLY THE INNOVATIONS FROM THE ROMAN ERA AND HOW SANITATION
REGRESSED IN THE MIDDLE AGES.

 PHILIPPINE PLUMBING: STRONG FOCUS ON DEVELOPMENT SINCE THE SPANISH ERA, WITH THE COUNTRY
ADOPTING U.S. STANDARDS IN THE EARLY 20TH CENTURY.

 SYSTEM PRINCIPLES: KEEP THE EMPHASIS ON PROPER PLANNING AND REGULATION, WHICH IS CRUCIAL FOR
BOTH SAFETY AND LONG-TERM COST-EFFECTIVENESS.

 COMMON ISSUES: PRACTICAL SOLUTIONS TO EVERYDAY PLUMBING PROBLEMS ARE INCLUDED—USEFUL

FOR QUICK REFERENCE DURING MAINTENANCE.
BUILDING PLUMBING AND DRAINAGE SYSTEM

DEFINITION OF TERMS

 BACKFLOW: THE FLOW OF WATER OR OTHER SUBSTANCES INTO THE DISTRIBUTING PIPES OF A POTABLE
SUPPLY FROM ANY SOURCE OTHER THAN ITS INTENDED ONE.

 BACK SIPHONAGE: THE FLOWING BACK OF CONTAMINATED OR POLLUTED WATER FROM A PLUMBING
FIXTURE INTO A POTABLE WATER SUPPLY DUE TO NEGATIVE PRESSURE IN THE PIPE.

 BATTERY OF FIXTURE: A GROUP OF TWO OR MORE ADJACENT FIXTURES DISCHARGING INTO A COMMON
HORIZONTAL WASTE PIPE OR SOIL BRANCH.

 BRANCH: ANY PART OF THE PIPING SYSTEM OTHER THAN THE MAIN RISER OR STACK.

 BRANCH VENT: A VENT CONNECTING ONE OR MORE INDIVIDUAL VENTS WITH A VENT STACK.

 BUILDING DRAIN: THE LOWEST PART OF A DRAINAGE SYSTEM THAT RECEIVES DISCHARGE FROM SOIL,
WASTE, OR OTHER DRAINAGE PIPES INSIDE A BUILDING AND CONVEYS IT TO THE BUILDING SEWER
STARTING 3 FEET OUTSIDE THE BUILDING WALL.

 CAULKING: PLUGGING A MATERIAL (E.G., OAKUM LEAD) POUNDED INTO THE ANNULAR SPACE.

 CATCH BASIN: A RECEPTACLE WHERE LIQUIDS ARE RETAINED LONG ENOUGH TO ALLOW SETTLEABLE
MATERIAL TO DEPOSIT.

 CLEANOUT: THE ACCESS POINT FOR A SEWER LINE, USED FOR CLEANING AND UNCLOGGING.

 CROSS CONNECTION: A PHYSICAL CONNECTION OR ARRANGEMENT BETWEEN TWO SEPARATE PIPING

SYSTEMS (ONE WITH POTABLE WATER, THE OTHER WITH WATER OF UNKNOWN SAFETY OR
CONTAMINANTS).

 DOMESTIC SEWAGE: WATER-BORNE WASTES FROM ORDINARY LIVING PROCESSES, FREE FROM INDUSTRIAL
WASTES, SUITABLE FOR SATISFACTORY DISPOSAL WITHOUT SPECIAL TREATMENT.

 FERRULE: A METALLIC SLEEVE JOINED TO A PIPE OPENING, ALLOWING FOR CLEANING OR INSPECTING THE
PIPE.

 FIXTURE: A RECEPTACLE CONNECTED TO A PLUMBING SYSTEM WHERE WATER OR WASTES MAY BE

COLLECTED OR RETAINED FOR DISCHARGE INTO THE PLUMBING SYSTEM.

 FIXTURE UNIT: A MEASURE OF THE LOAD EFFECTS OF WATER REQUIREMENTS ON THE PLUMBING SYSTEM,
EXPRESSED ON AN ARBITRARY SCALE.

 FLUSH TANK: A TANK LOCATED ABOVE OR INTEGRAL WITH A WATER CLOSET OR SIMILAR FIXTURE FOR
FLUSHING EXCREMENT.

 GRADE: THE SLOPE OR FALL OF A LINE OF PIPE IN REFERENCE TO A HORIZONTAL PLANE, USUALLY
EXPRESSED AS FALL PER FOOT OR METER LENGTH OF PIPE.

 GREASE INTERCEPTOR: A DEVICE INSTALLED IN A SANITARY DRAINAGE SYSTEM TO INTERCEPT FATS, OILS,
AND GREASES (FOG) FROM WASTEWATER DISCHARGE.

 INDIVIDUAL VENT: A PIPE INSTALLED TO VENT A FIXTURE TRAP, CONNECTING WITH THE VENT SYSTEM
ABOVE THE FIXTURE AND TERMINATING IN THE OPEN AIR.

 INVERT: THE LOWEST PORTION OF THE INTERIOR PART OF ANY PIPE OR CONDUIT THAT IS NOT VERTICAL.
  LATERAL: A SECONDARY PIPELINE IN PLUMBING OR A COMMON SEWER THAT ONLY RECEIVES SEWAGE
FROM BUILDING SEWER SERVICE CONNECTIONS.

 LAVATORY: A FIXTURE DESIGNED FOR WASHING HANDS OR FACE, ALSO CALLED A WASH BASIN.

 OFFSET: A DEVIATION OR CHANGE IN DIRECTION OF A PIPE FROM ITS STRAIGHT PATH.

 PIPE: A CYLINDRICAL CONDUIT OR CONDUCTOR, DENOTED BY ITS INTERIOR DIAMETER (ID).

 PRIVY: AN OUTHOUSE OR STRUCTURE USED FOR DEPOSITING EXCREMENT.

 PVC (POLYVINYL CHLORIDE): USED FOR POTABLE WATER PIPING (COLOR-CODED BLUE) AND DRAINPIPES
(COLOR-CODED GRAY, ORANGE, OR BROWN).

 RISER: A VERTICAL WATER SUPPLY PIPE EXTENDING TO CONVEY WATER INTO PLUMBING BRANCHES OR
FIXTURES.

 ROUGHING-IN: INSTALLING PIPING AND FITTING PARTS OF A PLUMBING SYSTEM PRIOR TO THE
INSTALLATION OF FIXTURES.

 SERVICE PIPE: THE PIPE FROM THE STREET WATER MAIN OR OTHER WATER SOURCE TO THE BUILDING.

 SEWAGE: WASTEWATER CONTAINING ANIMAL OR VEGETABLE MATTER AND POSSIBLY CHEMICALS.

 SEWER: A PIPE OR CONDUIT FOR CARRYING SEWAGE.

 SOIL PIPE: CONVEYS DISCHARGE WATER FROM FIXTURES (E.G., TOILETS) TO THE BUILDING DRAIN OR
SEWER.

 STACK VENT: AN EXTENSION OF A SOIL OR WASTE STACK ABOVE THE HIGHEST HORIZONTAL DRAIN
CONNECTED TO THE STACK.

 TRAP: A FITTING THAT CREATES A LIQUID SEAL TO PREVENT BACKFLOW OF FOUL AIR OR METHANE GAS
WITHOUT AFFECTING SEWAGE FLOW.

 VENT STACK: A VERTICAL VENT PIPE INSTALLED PRIMARILY TO PROVIDE AIR CIRCULATION TO AND FROM
ANY PART OF THE DRAINAGE SYSTEM.

 VENT SYSTEM: PIPES INSTALLED TO ENSURE AIR FLOW IN THE DRAINAGE SYSTEM AND PREVENT TRAP SEAL
SIPHONAGE OR BACK PRESSURE.

 WASTE PIPE: A PIPE CONVEYING WASTEWATER FREE OF FECAL MATTER.

 WYE: A HOSE CONNECTION WITH TWO GATED OUTLETS, PERMITTING TWO CONNECTIONS FROM A SINGLE
SUPPLY LINE.

PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE PLUMBING SYSTEM

 ALL PREMISES INTENDED FOR HUMAN USE MUST HAVE A SUPPLY OF PURE WATER, NOT CONNECTED TO
UNSAFE SOURCES, AND PROTECTED FROM BACKFLOW OR BACK-SIPHONAGE.

 PLUMBING FIXTURES AND DEVICES MUST BE SUPPLIED WITH ADEQUATE WATER PRESSURE AND VOLUME,
FUNCTIONING WITHOUT UNDUE NOISE.

 PLUMBING SHOULD BE DESIGNED TO USE THE LEAST AMOUNT OF WATER NECESSARY FOR PROPER
FUNCTION AND CLEANING.

 WATER HEATERS AND STORAGE DEVICES MUST BE DESIGNED TO PREVENT DANGERS LIKE EXPLOSIONS DUE
TO OVERHEATING.

 BUILDINGS WITH ACCESS TO PUBLIC SEWERS MUST CONNECT PLUMBING FIXTURES TO THE SEWER SYSTEM.
  EACH DWELLING UNIT MUST HAVE AT LEAST ONE WATER CLOSET, KITCHEN SINK, LAVATORY, AND A
BATHTUB OR SHOWER FOR BASIC SANITATION AND HYGIENE.

 FIXTURES SHOULD BE MADE FROM NONABSORBENT MATERIALS, INSTALLED IN VENTILATED SPACES.

 DRAINAGE SYSTEMS MUST PREVENT CLOGGING, HAVE SUFFICIENT CLEANOUTS FOR MAINTENANCE, AND BE
FREE FROM FOULING.

 ALL PIPES SHOULD BE DURABLE AND APPROVED, DESIGNED BY REGISTERED MASTER PLUMBERS.

 FIXTURES CONNECTED TO DRAINAGE SYSTEMS MUST HAVE WATER-SEALED TRAPS TO PREVENT FOUL AIR.

 VENT TERMINALS MUST EXTEND TO OPEN AIR AND PREVENT CLOGGING OR RETURN OF FOUL AIR.

 PLUMBING SYSTEMS SHOULD BE TESTED TO REVEAL LEAKS OR DEFECTS.

 NO HARMFUL SUBSTANCES SHOULD ENTER THE DRAINAGE SYSTEM, AND BACKFLOW PREVENTION MUST BE
IN PLACE.

 WATER CLOSETS MUST BE LOCATED IN WELL-LIT AND VENTILATED SPACES.

 IN AREAS WITHOUT SEWER SYSTEMS, SUITABLE SEWAGE TREATMENT METHODS (E.G., SEPTIC TANKS) MUST
BE USED.

 PLUMBING SYSTEMS MUST BE MAINTAINED BY REGISTERED MASTER PLUMBERS.

THREE TYPES OF PLUMBING SYSTEM

1. WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM: CONSISTS OF PIPING AND FITTINGS THAT SUPPLY WATER FOR DRINKING,
CLEANING, AND OTHER USES.

2. SANITARY DRAINAGE SYSTEM: CONVEYS SEWAGE AND LIQUID WASTE TO A DISPOSAL POINT, EXCLUDING
PUBLIC SEWER SYSTEMS.

3. STORM DRAINAGE SYSTEM: COLLECTS CLEAR WATER DRAINAGE FROM RAIN, SURFACE RUNOFF, COOLING
SYSTEMS, AND DIRECTS IT TO A DISPOSAL POINT.

TYPES OF DRAINAGE SYSTEMS IN BUILDINGS

1. SURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM: USES NATURAL SLOPES AND GRAVITY TO TRANSPORT RUNOFF FROM ROADS
AND BUILDINGS INTO STORM SEWERS OR WATER BODIES.

2. SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM: COLLECTS AND REMOVES WATER FROM BELOW GROUND, INSTALLED
UNDER THE SOIL TO REMOVE EXCESS WATER AT THE ROOT LEVEL.

3. SLOPE DRAINAGE SYSTEM: USES PIPES ANCHORED INTO A SLOPE TO MOVE WATER AWAY FROM
STRUCTURES.

4. DOWNSPOUT AND GUTTER SYSTEM: CARRIES WATER FROM ROOFTOPS TO THE GROUND OR SEWER LINES.

TYPES OF SEWAGE DISPOSAL

1. CESSPOOL: A HOLE IN THE GROUND THAT ALLOWS RAW SEWAGE TO LEACH INTO THE SOIL.

2. PRIVY: A SEALED VAULT WITH A SHELTER FOR SEWAGE COLLECTION, WITH SIMILAR DISPOSAL METHODS TO
CESSPOOLS.

3. SEPTIC TANK: A RECEPTACLE USED FOR THE DECOMPOSITION OF ORGANIC SEWAGE MATERIALS.
 4. PUBLIC SEWER LINE: A GOVERNMENT-OPERATED SEWAGE SYSTEM CONVEYING WASTE TO A TREATMENT
PLANT.

FLUID FLOW AND ITS PROPERTIES

 FLUID: A SUBSTANCE WITH PARTICLES THAT MOVE EASILY, ALLOWING IT TO CHANGE SHAPE WITHOUT
BREAKING MASS (E.G., LIQUIDS, GASES).

 VISCOSITY: A FLUID’S RESISTANCE TO FLOW; THICK FLUIDS LIKE HONEY HAVE HIGH VISCOSITY, WHILE
WATER HAS LOW VISCOSITY.

 FLUID DYNAMICS: THE STUDY OF FLUIDS IN MOTION, WHICH INCLUDES AERODYNAMICS AND
HYDRODYNAMICS.

 NEWTONIAN FLUIDS: FLUIDS THAT FOLLOW NEWTON’S LAW OF VISCOSITY, SUCH AS WATER AND
HYDROGEN.

 NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS: FLUIDS THAT DON’T FOLLOW NEWTON'S LAW, LIKE OOBLECK AND FLUBBER.

BUILDING WATER FLOW CALCULATIONS

FLOW METER

A FLOW METER IS A DEVICE USED TO MEASURE THE VOLUME OR MASS OF A GAS OR LIQUID. KNOWN BY VARIOUS
NAMES SUCH AS FLOW GAUGE, FLOW INDICATOR, OR FLOW RATE SENSOR, FLOW METERS ALL SERVE THE PURPOSE
OF MEASURING FLOW. FLOW METERS ARE USED IN OPEN CHANNELS (LIKE RIVERS AND STREAMS) AND, MORE
COMMONLY, IN PIPES TO MEASURE GASSES AND LIQUIDS. THEY IMPROVE THE PRECISION, ACCURACY, AND
RESOLUTION OF FLUID MEASUREMENTS.

OPEN CHANNEL

AN OPEN CHANNEL IS A WATERWAY, CANAL, OR CONDUIT WHERE A LIQUID FLOWS WITH A FREE SURFACE.

OPEN CHANNEL FLOWMETER

AN OPEN CHANNEL FLOW METER IS USED TO MEASURE THE FLOW RATE OF FLUIDS IN OPEN CHANNELS OR
PARTIALLY FILLED PIPES (E.G., RIVERS OR WASTEWATER CHANNELS). UNLIKE CLOSED PIPE SYSTEMS, OPEN
CHANNELS ALLOW FLUID TO FLOW FREELY, INFLUENCED PRIMARILY BY GRAVITY.

FLOW METERING METHODS USED IN OPEN CHANNELS

1. WEIRS

A WEIR IS A STRUCTURE PLACED ACROSS AN OPEN CHANNEL TO MEASURE FLOW BY THE HEIGHT OF THE WATER
OVER THE WEIR.

COMMON TYPES OF WEIRS:

A. V-NOTCH WEIRS
USED FOR SMALL FLOWS, THESE WEIRS ARE SENSITIVE TO LOW FLOW RATES AND OFFER HIGH ACCURACY IN
MEASURING SMALL TO MODERATE FLOWS.

PROS:

 MORE SENSITIVE TO LOW FLOWS, MAKING IT IDEAL FOR PRECISE LOW-FLOW MEASUREMENT.

 HIGHLY ACCURATE FOR SMALL TO MODERATE FLOW RATES.

 EASIER TO MAINTAIN CALIBRATION IN LOW-FLOW CONDITIONS.

CONS:

 ACCURACY DECREASES AT HIGHER FLOWS.

 MORE COMPLEX TO CONSTRUCT AND CALIBRATE.

 PERFORMANCE CAN BE AFFECTED BY DEBRIS ACCUMULATION.

FLOW RATE FORMULA FOR V-NOTCH WEIR:

THE FLOW RATE CAN BE CALCULATED USING SPECIFIC FORMULAS PROVIDED BASED ON THE WEIR’S GEOMETRY AND
FLOW CONDITIONS.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
A TRIANGULAR WEIR HAS A VERTEX ANGLE OF 60° AND THE WATER HEAD MAINTAINED AT 700MM. IF THE WEIR
COEFFICIENT IS 2.1, DETERMINE THE DISCHARGE OF WATER FROM THE WEIR.

B. RECTANGULAR WEIRS
SUITABLE FOR A WIDER RANGE OF FLOWS AND SIMPLER CONSTRUCTION THAN V-NOTCH WEIRS.

PROS:

 EASIER TO CONSTRUCT AND CALIBRATE.

 SUITABLE FOR MODERATE TO HIGH FLOW RATES.

 ACCURATE MEASUREMENTS FOR HIGHER FLOWS.

CONS:

 LESS SENSITIVE TO LOW FLOWS.

 SEDIMENT OR DEBRIS CAN AFFECT PERFORMANCE.

FLOW RATE FORMULA FOR RECTANGULAR WEIR:

Q=23C2GHQ = \FRAC{2}{3}C \SQRT{2GH}Q=32C2GH

SAMPLE PROBLEM 4:
A RECTANGULAR WEIR HAS A LENGTH OF 500MM AND A CONSTANT HEAD OF 200MM. WHAT IS THE
DISCHARGE/FLOW RATE?

C. TRAPEZOIDAL WEIR
A TRAPEZOIDAL-SHAPED WEIR THAT PROVIDES GRADUAL TRANSITIONS IN WATER FLOW, REDUCING TURBULENCE
FOR MORE ACCURATE FLOW MEASUREMENTS.

PROS:

 IMPROVED ACCURACY.

 VERSATILE FOR DIFFERENT APPLICATIONS.

 REDUCED EROSION.
  EASIER MAINTENANCE AND COST-EFFECTIVE.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3:
CALCULATE THE DISCHARGE THROUGH A TRAPEZOIDAL NOTCH THAT IS 1.2M WIDE AT THE TOP, 0.45M AT THE
BOTTOM, AND 0.3M HIGH, WITH A WATER HEAD OF 0.225M AND A COEFFICIENT CDC_DCD OF 0.60.

2. FLUMES

FLUMES ARE CHANNELS DESIGNED TO CONTROL AND MEASURE FLOW.

TYPES OF FLUMES:

A. PARSHALL FLUMES
KNOWN FOR ACCURACY AND EASE OF INSTALLATION, EFFECTIVE FOR MEDIUM TO LOW FLOWS.

FREE FLOW VS. SUBMERGED FLOW:

 FREE FLOW: OCCURS WHEN THERE’S NO BACKWATER RESTRICTING FLOW. ONLY THE UPSTREAM DEPTH IS
NEEDED FOR FLOW RATE CALCULATION.

 SUBMERGED FLOW: OCCURS WHEN DOWNSTREAM WATER LEVELS RESTRICT FLOW, REQUIRING
MEASUREMENTS FROM BOTH UPSTREAM AND DOWNSTREAM.

FREE FLOW FORMULA:

Q=C⋅HANQ = C \CDOT HA^NQ=C⋅HAN
WHERE CCC IS THE FREE-FLOW COEFFICIENT, HAHAHA IS THE HEAD, AND NNN IS THE FLUME-SPECIFIC EXPONENT.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2:
FOR A 6FT PARSHALL FLUME OPERATING UNDER FREE FLOW CONDITIONS WITH A HEAD OF 3.5FT, CALCULATE THE
FLOW RATE.

SUBMERGED FLOW FORMULA:

THE SUBMERGENCE RATIO (S) IS CALCULATED AS S=HAHBS = \FRAC{HA}{HB}S=HBHA (UPSTREAM AND
DOWNSTREAM WATER LEVELS).

SAMPLE PROBLEM 5:
USING PARSHALL FLUME EQUATIONS, DETERMINE THE FLOW TYPE AND DISCHARGE FOR A 36-INCH FLUME WITH
UPSTREAM DEPTH HAHAHA OF 1.5FT AND DOWNSTREAM DEPTH HBHBHB OF 1.4FT.

B. H-FLUMES
USED FOR VARYING FLOW CONDITIONS, PROVIDING ACCURATE MEASUREMENTS OVER WIDE RANGES.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 6:
CALCULATE THE FLOW RATE IN AN H-FLUME WITH A DISCHARGE COEFFICIENT OF 0.60, LENGTH CONSTANT OF 1.8,
AND WATER DEPTH OF 0.80M.

C. TRAPEZOIDAL FLUMES
COMMONLY USED IN IRRIGATION AND CHANNELS WITH HIGH DEBRIS CONTENT DUE TO THEIR FLAT-BOTTOM
DESIGN.

BENEFITS:

 COST-EFFECTIVE AND ADAPTABLE TO VARIOUS SITE CONDITIONS.

 SIMPLE TO INSTALL AND OPERATE.

D. PALMER-BOWLUS FLUME
DESIGNED FOR OPEN CHANNELS AND CIRCULAR CONDUITS, OFTEN USED IN STORM DRAINS AND SEWERS.
3. CURRENT METERS

DEVICES THAT MEASURE WATER FLOW VELOCITY.

COMMON TYPES OF CURRENT METERS:

1. MECHANICAL CURRENT METERS:

USE BLADES OR CUPS TO MEASURE VELOCITY BY ROTATION.

2. ELECTROMAGNETIC CURRENT METERS:

USE ELECTROMAGNETIC PRINCIPLES WITHOUT MOVING PARTS FOR VELOCITY MEASUREMENT.

4. STAGE-DISCHARGE RATING CURVES

THIS METHOD MEASURES THE WATER LEVEL (STAGE) AND USES ESTABLISHED CURVES TO RELATE STAGE TO
DISCHARGE, OFTEN REQUIRING PERIODIC CALIBRATION.

5. ULTRASONIC AND ACOUSTIC SENSORS

USE SOUND WAVES TO MEASURE WATER LEVELS AND FLOW VELOCITY, OFTEN NON-CONTACT METHODS SUITED
FOR VARIED CONDITIONS.

6. HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE SENSORS

MEASURE WATER COLUMN PRESSURE TO DETERMINE DEPTH AND FLOW RATE, USUALLY COMBINED WITH OTHER
MEASUREMENT METHODS.

7. FLOW GAUGES AND INTEGRATED SYSTEMS

COMBINES MULTIPLE SENSORS FOR COMPREHENSIVE FLOW MEASUREMENT, OFTEN FEATURING REMOTE
MONITORING SYSTEMS.