•Point sources

•Array of point sources,

•Theory of pattern multiplication
•Dipole antenna
 Two isotropic point sources of same amplitude and phase
separated by a distance d w.r.t origin of co-ordinate axis

φ is measured d is normalized by λ/2π

CCW
dr=βd

Source 1 is retarded by ½
drcos φ and source 2 is
advanced by ½ drcos φ

Total field at a large distance r in the direction of φ is

Ψ Ψ Ψ= drcos φ
− j j
E = E 0e 2 + E 0e 2
E0= Amplitude of E field
Due to source 1 Due to source 2
 The result field can be written as
+ jψ − jψ
e 2 +e 2 ψ dr
E = 2 E0 = 2 E0 cos = 2 E0 cos( cos φ )
2 2 2
If d=λ/2 , dr=π,

⎛π ⎞
En = cos⎜ cos φ ⎟ Field pattern E versus φ
⎝2 ⎠
 Source 1 at origin

Total field is given by jψ − jψ

jψ jψ
jψ e 2 +e 2 ψ
E = E0 + E0e = 2E 0e 2 ( ) = 2 E0e 2 cos( )
2 2
jψ
Normalizing by 2E0 ψ ψ ψ
E=e 2 cos( ) = cos( )∠
2 2 2
Two isotropic point source of same amplitude but opposite phase

Total field in φ direction

Relative Field pattern
General case of two isotropic point sources of equal amplitude and
any phase difference

Total phase difference Ψ between the fields from source 2 and

source a at a distant point in the direction φ

+ signs indicates source 2 is advanced by δ,

Total field E is given by

After normalizing by 2E0

When δ=0 , Equal and same phase, δ=1800 or π equal but

opposite phase,
δ=900 or π/2 equal but quadrature phase,
Total field is given by

ξ
 Theory of Pattern Multiplication

Both sources 1 and 2 have Field pattern E0 = E0/ sin φ

Field pattern of the array

Theory of pattern Multiplication

Total Field E is then given by

 f(θ,φ)= Field pattern of individual source
fp(θ,φ)= Phase pattern of individual source
F(θ,φ)= Field pattern of array of isotropic source
Fp(θ,φ)= Phase pattern of array of isotropic source
Field pattern of
array of isotropic
Example source
⎛π ⎞
E = sin φ cos⎜ cos φ ⎟
⎝2 ⎠
Field pattern of
individual
source
d=λ/2, δ=0

Find the total field pattern

Find the total field pattern if pattern of an individual source is E0 cosφ
 Pattern Synthesis by pattern multiplication
A broadcasting station (500-1500 KHz frequency band ) requires a pattern in the
horizontal plane fulfilling the conditions as shown in below:
• Maximum field intensity in the 900 sector between NW and NE.
• No nulls in the pattern can occur in this sector.
• Null may occur in any direction in the complementary 2700 sector.
• Nulls must be present in due East and due SW directions in order to
prevent interference with other stations in these direction.
Solution
• Antenna producing this pattern is to consist of an array of four
vertical towers. Current in all towers are to be equal in magnitude
but the phase may be adjusted to any relationship.
• No restriction on spacing or geometrical arrangement of the tower
 We are interested in the horizontal
plane pattern each tower may be
considered as an isotropic point source.
Finding a spacc and phase relation of
four isotropic point source located in
the horizontal plane whch fulfils the
above requirement.
Field pattern for the array with d=0.3λ
By the principle of pattern multiplication, the total array pattern is the
product of this pattern and the primary array pattern
Total E field in the φ direction
(1)

(2)
Amplitude of all sources are unity, source 1 is the reference, source 2 is
advanced source 1 by Ψ, source 3 is advanced by 2 Ψ and so on

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)
Vector addition of fields at a
large distance from the linear
array of five isotropic point
source of equal amplitude with
source 1 as the phase center.

Same as a but with

midpoint of array
(source 3) as phase
center
 (7)

(8)

Ψ=0, equ. 8 will be indeterminate, so E=n as Ψ tends 0.

This is the maximum value that E can attain, hence the
normalized total field for Emax=n is

(9)

Equ 9 is know as array factor.

 Review of wave equations

Non-homogeneous helmholt’s wave equation for retarded

electric scalar potential
ρv
∇ V +k V =−
2 2

ε
Non-homogeneous Helmholt’s wave equation for retarded
magnetic vector potential

∇ A + k A = − μJ
2 2

Solution of V and A
~
~ Q ~
V (r ) = e − jβ r
~ μ J − jβ r
4πεr A(r ) = ∫ e dv
4π r
~ 1 ρ~ − jβr
V (r ) = ∫ e dv
4πε r
 Hertzian Dipole Antenna

A very small filament of current carrying element which produce fields

in a dielectric medium. ~ dq~
Current in phasor form I = = jωq~
dt
+ q~ P
Replacing Ĵdv by Ĩdzâz we can express the magnetic
~ θ r
l I vector potential as
~
~ μ I − jβ r
− q~ Az = ∫ e dz (1)
4π c r
If over the short dipole the current is same and r>>l , we can write the
eq.1 as ~ μ ~ − jβ r
Az = I le
In time domain form 4πr
~ μ
Az = I 0l cos(ωt − β r ) Where I(t)=I0cosωt
4πr
Wave propagating away from the dipole in r-direction with a phase
constant β, phase velocity of up=ω/β

à in spherical co-ordinate system

âz sinθâθ
Ã=âzAz
θ
μ ~ − jβ r r r cosθâr
= I le (cosθar − sin θr aθ )
4πr H = (∇ × A)
~ 1
μ
r 1 r aˆ r aˆθ r aˆφ r sin θ
H = ∇× A
μ r
∇× A =
1 ∂ ∂ ∂
r 2 sin θ ∂r ∂θ ∂φ
Ar rAθ (r sin θ ) Aφ
~
~ jβ I l ⎛ 1 ⎞
H= ⎜1 + ⎟ sin θe − jβr aˆφ
4πr ⎝ jβ r ⎠
To find electric field
~ 1 ~
E= ∇× H aˆ r aˆθ r aˆφ r sin θ
jωε
r 1 ∂ ∂ ∂
∇× H = 2
r sin θ ∂r ∂θ ∂φ
Hr rH θ (r sin θ ) H φ

~ ~
~ ηI l ⎛ 1 ⎞ jI lηβ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
E= ⎜ 1 + ⎟ cos θe − jβ r
ˆ
a + ⎜ 1 + − ⎟ sin θe − jβ r
aˆθ
2πr ⎝
2
jβ r ⎠ 4πr ⎝ jβ r β r ⎠
2 2
r

η is the intrinsic impedance of the dielectric medium.

Near zone fields

βr<<1, thus the term 12 , 13 are predominant and e-jβr ≅1

r r

Therefore
~
~ I l
H= sin θaˆφ
4πr 2

~
~ ηI l ⎛ 1 ⎞
E= ⎜1 + ⎟(2 cosθaˆ r + sin θaˆθ )
4πr ⎝
2
jβ r ⎠

Replacing Ĩ=jωq and η/β by 1/ωε, and (1+1/jβr )can be

approximated as 1/ jβr the E field expression can be written as

~ q~l ⎛ 2 cosθ sin θ ⎞

E= ⎜ aˆ r + 3 aˆθ ⎟
4πε ⎝ r 3
r ⎠
 1/r2 is referred as induction term.

Power density in near zone field

r 1 r r*
S = E×H
2
[ ]
2 2
Il )
= -j sin 2
θ a
32π r ωε
2 5 r

Purely reactive in other words the average power in the near zone
field is zero. –j indicates that the near zone region behaves like a
capacitor.
 Far Radiation fields
P is far away , βr>>1, 1/r term will be dominant,
~
~ jI β l − jβ r
H= sin θe aˆφ
4πr
~
~ jβη I l − jβ r
E= sin θe aˆθ
4πr
Far field propagates in the radial direction , transverse component ,
E and H are perpendicular to each other.
Eθ
= 377
Hφ
Normalized radiation pattern

Eθ (θ , φ )
Eθ (θ , φ )n = = sin θ
Eθ (θ , φ )max
θ=0

θ=900

θ=1800
 1
S = E×H =
2
*

2η
[
1 2
Eθ â r ]
2 2
I l
= β η sin θ â r
2 2

32π r
2 2

Real power and is directly radiated radially outward. It represent

average power/area.

Normalized power pattern f (θ , φ ) = sin θ

2

θ=0

θ=900
Pn
θ=1800
 r
Total power passing through Prad = ∫ s .ds
I l sin θ 2 2
( )
2 2 2
Prad =∫ β η r sin θdθdφ
32π r
2 2

I l β ηπ 3
2 2 2 2π
Prad = 2 ∫
sin θdθ ∫ dφ
32π 0 0
η 2π
Prad = β l I
2 2 2 η = 120π β =
λ
12 π
2 2
π ⎛l⎞ 2 2⎛ l ⎞
Prad = η ⎜ ⎟ I = 40π ⎜ ⎟ I 2
3 ⎝λ ⎠ ⎝λ ⎠
 Radiation resistance
Far region can be simulated by a resistance called radiation resistance
1 2
Prad = I Rrad
2
2
l⎞ 2 1 2
2⎛
40π ⎜ ⎟ I = I Rrad
⎝λ ⎠ 2
2
l⎞ 2⎛
Rrad = 80π ⎜ ⎟
⎝λ ⎠
 Directivity gain and Directivity
Directive gain as the ratio of power density radiated by the dipole to
the average power density
r
4πr 2 s
G= = 1.5Sin 2θ
Prad
When G is maximum is called directivity. D=1.5 =1.76dB
An electric dipole of length 50 cm is situated in free space
Imax=25 A,f=10 MHz. (i) Find E and H in the far zone. (ii) Pavg
and (ii) Rr
ω=2πf=6.283x107, β=0.209, I=25 A, L=0.5 m

~ j 0.208 − j 0.209 r
H= sin θe aˆφ
r
~ j 78.416 − j 0.209 r
E= sin θe aˆθ
r
2 2
I l
= β η sin θ â r
2 2

32π r
2 2
Average power density in the radial direction is

8.15 2
S r = 2 sin θ
r
Total power crossing a spherical surface at r
2
2⎛
l⎞ 2 2
Prad = 40π ⎜ ⎟ I = 68.25 W/m
⎝λ ⎠
Radiation resistance
2
l⎞ 2⎛
Rrad = 80π ⎜ ⎟ = 0.22Ω
⎝λ ⎠
 A SHORT DIPOLE ANTENNA
A center fed dipole antenna of length l such that βl<< 1
Expression of vector potentials

βl<<1, we can approximate R~r

Putting e-jβR in the above equation we can write

 The corresponding field are

Counterparts in the expression of a hertzian antenna the field intensities

Power radiated by the short antenna is one quarter of that for the
Hertzian dipole of the same length as long as (βl/6)cosθ<<1. The same
assumption yields the radiation resistance of the short antenna as
 A half wave dipole antenna
R P
λ/4
r Assuming current distribution on the antenna is
Iˆ = I 0 cos βz

-λ/4
At a point P(r,θ,φ) from the antenna , the magnetic vector potential is
λ
~ μ 4 cos β z
A( z ) = I0 ∫ e − jβR dz
4π λ R
−
4
P is far away from antenna R=r-zcosθ

e jβ z + e − jβ z
cos β z =
2
P is far away from antenna, R=r-zcosθ to account for the phase
shift and R≅r for the distance in the denominator

λ
jβ z − jβ z
~ μ e4 +e − jβ ( r − z cosθ )
A( z ) = I0 ∫ e dz
4π λ 2r
−
4
λ

=
μ
8πr
I 0e − jβ r
4
jβ z
∫ e +e
λ
(
− jβ z jβ z cosθ
e dz )
−
4
 After integration we will get
⎡ ⎛π ⎞⎤
⎢ cos⎜ cos θ ⎟⎥
~ μ − jβ r ⎝ 2 ⎠
Az = I 0e ⎢ ⎥
2πβr ⎢ sin θ
2
⎥
⎣⎢ ⎥⎦
Magnetic field intensity in far field region
⎡ ⎛π ⎞⎤
⎢ cos⎜ cosθ ⎟ ⎥
~ jβ ~
I 0 e − jβ r ⎢ ⎝ ⎠ aˆ
j 2
H= sin θAz aˆφ = ⎥ φ
μ 2πr ⎢ sin θ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎥⎦
 The corresponding electric field intensity is
⎡ ⎛π ⎞⎤
⎢ cos⎜ cosθ ⎟ ⎥
~
ηI 0 e − jβ r ⎢ ⎝ 2 ⎠ aˆ
j
E= ⎥ θ
2πr ⎢ sin θ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎥⎦
Average power per unit area radiated by the half-wave antenna is

1
S = E×H =
2
*
[ 1 2
2η
Eθ â r ]
⎡ 2⎛π ⎞⎤
⎢ cos ⎜ cos θ ⎟⎥
1 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ aˆ
= 2 2 ηI 0 ⎢ 2 ⎥ r
8π r ⎢ sin θ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎥⎦
Total power radiated by the half wave dipole antenna

⎡ 2⎛π ⎞⎤
2 ⎢ cos ⎜ cosθ ⎟ ⎥
ηI 0 π ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2π
Prad = 2 ∫0 ⎢ 2 ⎥dθ ∫0 dφ
8π ⎢ sin θ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦

After numerical integration , the value we obtained 1.219

1.219 2
Prad = ηI 0
4π
Radiation resistance of the half wave dipole antenna
1 2
Prad = I 0 Rrad
2
1 2 1.219 2
I 0 Rrad = ηI 0
2 4π
1.219
Rrad = η = 73.14Ω
2π
High value of radiation resistance makes a half-wave
dipole antenna very effective for radiating considerable
amounts of power.
P2. The amplitude of the electric field intensity broadside to a halfwave
dipole antenna at a distance of 15 km is 0.1 V/m in free space. If the
operating frequency is 100 MHz, determine the length of the antenna and
the total power that it radiates. Also writes the general expression for the
electric and magnetic field intensities in the time domain.
Hence the length of
f=100 MHz, ω=2πf=6.28319x108
rad/s the half wave dipole is
β=ω/c=2.094, λ=3m 1.5 m.
θ=900 and r=15 km, the maximum amplitude of the current is
2πr
I0 = E = 25 A
η0
Radiation resistance of the halfwave dipole antenna is 73.14 Ω, thus
the power radiated by the antenna is
1 2
Prad = I 0 Rrad = 22.86kW
2