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OTS Master's Level Projects & Papers STEM Education & Professional Studies

4-2021

Meditation and Cognitive Function Research Study

Darrin Landry

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Part of the Cognitive Psychology Commons, and the Educational Psychology Commons
MEDITATION AND COGNITIVE FUNCTION RESEARCH STUDY

by

Darrin Landry

B.S. June 2018, Old Dominion University

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of

Old Dominion University in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of

MASTERS OF SCIENCE

OCCUPATIONAL AND TECHNICAL STUDIES

BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY TRAINING

OLD DOMINION UNIVERSITY

APRIL 2021

Approved by:

Mickey Kosloski, Ph.D.

 ABSTRACT

MEDITATION AND COGNITIVE FUNCTION RESEARCH STUDY

Darrin Landry
Old Dominion University, 2021
Director: Dr. Michael Kosloski

Although research has shown that long-term guided meditation and mindfulness practices

improve attention, memory, and processing speed, the research on the effects of short-term self-

guided meditation on improving cognitive processing and memory is limited. This study

examined whether a brief self-guided meditation practice improved cognitive processing speed

and memory capacity. The participants engaged in a five-day program which consisted of taking

an online mental speed test and memory recall test, then meditated for 15 minutes a day, for five

days. After completing the five-day meditation program, the participants took the two cognitive

processing tests again. The results on the test scores showed an average increase in three points

in the mental test and two points in the memory test scores. A paired-sample equal variance t-test

determined there was no significant statistical difference made by the five-day meditation

experiment. These findings in this study build on the knowledge and understanding of the impact

of short-term meditation.

Keywords: Meditation, Cognitive processing, Working memory capacity, Short-term meditation

practice.
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Copyright, 2021, by Darrin M. Landry, All Rights Reserved.

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This thesis is dedicated to Harry and Jean Landry. My loving parents who patiently encouraged

the pursuit of education throughout my life.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

There are many people who have contributed to the successful completion of this

dissertation. I extend many, many thanks to my committee members for their patience and hours

of guidance on my research and editing of this manuscript. The untiring consistent efforts of my

major advisor Mickey Kosloski, Ph.D. deserve special recognition. Thank you so much for all

your help over the years. All my professors and adjuncts in the Darden Department of Education,

especially Dr. John Baaki, thanks for your professionalism and teachings.

A special mention goes out to my family and friends, especially Jaimee Campbell, who

have supported and encouraged me throughout this journey to getting a Master’s Degree.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 .................................................................................................................................. 1
INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................... 1
Problem Statement.................................................................................................................................... 3
Research Questions................................................................................................................................... 3
Background and Significance ................................................................................................................... 3
Limitations ................................................................................................................................................ 5
Assumptions ............................................................................................................................................. 5
Definition of Terms .................................................................................................................................. 6
Overview of Chapters ............................................................................................................................... 9
CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF LITERATURE ............................................................................ 9
Benefits of Meditation .............................................................................................................................. 9
Benefits of Meditation on Cognitive Functioning .................................................................................. 11
Benefits of Meditation Measured by Changes in Brain Structure and Activity ..................................... 12
Benefits of Meditation Measured by Cognitive Performance Tests ....................................................... 13
SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................................... 16
CHAPTER III: METHODS AND PROCEDURES ................................................................ 17
Participants ............................................................................................................................................. 17
Instrument Design................................................................................................................................... 18
Statistical Analysis ................................................................................................................................. 19
Summary................................................................................................................................................. 21
CHAPTER IV: FINDINGS........................................................................................................ 21
References .................................................................................................................................... 29
Appendices ................................................................................................................................... 39
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List of Tables

Table 1 ................................................................................................................................22
Table 2 ................................................................................................................................23
Table 3 ................................................................................................................................24
Table 4 ................................................................................................................................24
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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Meditation, defined as a contemplative, self-regulatory practice that induces a state of

relaxation or altered state of awareness, has many benefits attributed to its practice (Alexander et

al., 2003; Bertone, 2020; Zeidan et al., 2010). There is a growing body of scientific research

being conducted concerning these benefits in overlapping areas such as psychological health,

well-being, and cognitive function (i.e., the mental processes of attention control, working

memory, processing speed, long-term memory, perception, reading comprehension and problem-

solving.)

Studies examining the effects of meditation on psychological health indicate decreases in

anxiety levels, addictive behaviours, depression, stress-cortisol levels, and blood pressure (Baer

et al., 2003; Chung, et al., 2012; Germer et al., 2005; Hayes et al., 2004; Manocha et al., 2011;

Schreiner, & Malcolm, 2008; Singh et al., 2007). Research studies have also demonstrated a

relationship between meditation and increased performance in cognitive function such as

awareness, attention, memory, and mental processing speed (Badart et al., 2018; Chambers et al.,

2008; Ebaid et al., 2017; Heeren et al., 2009; Jha et al., 2007; Mrazek et al., 2013; Rothschild, et

al., 2017). These benefits tend to impact each other; for example, improvements in

psychological health have been shown to improve cognitive function (Bunce et al., 2008;

Llewellyn et al., 2008). Similarly, improvements in one area of cognitive function have an effect

on other areas, such as gray-matter volume, sleep quality, blood flow in the brain, and

psychomotor speed (Cranson et al., 1991; Hölzel et al., 2011; Jedrczak et al., 1986; Pagnoni &

Cekic, 2007; Sun et al., 2013).

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This study focused on the effects of meditation on two areas of cognitive function:

processing speed and working memory. Processing speed is defined as the speed at which one

processes information (Lichtenberger & Kaufman, 2012). Working memory is defined as a small

amount of information that can be held in the mind for cognitive tasks (Nelson, 2014). The term

is often used in the field of psychology to describe and measure intelligence, information

processing, learning, and problem-solving (Jha et al., 2010). It is differentiated from long-term

memory which is the vast amount of information accumulated during one’s life.

The body of research reviewed generally examined the benefits of formal meditation

programs lasting eight weeks or longer, or where the participants had years of meditation

practice prior to the study (Hall, 1999; Helber et al. 2012; Jha et al., 2010; Katherine et al. 2010;

Monk-Turner, 2003). For example, one popular mindfulness based program used by

psychologists and some medical treatment facilities called the Mindfulness-based stress

reduction program (MBSR) lasts eight weeks, followed by a one day six-hour session (Carmody

& Baer 2009). Several studies have been conducted on the effects of a meditation program called

Transcendental Meditation (TM). The participants practice for periods ranging from six months

to 20 months (Alexander et al., 2003). These programs require extensive time and financial

commitment, and as a result, lack accessibility to a wide population.

It is important to investigate whether shorter programs of meditation, practiced for a brief

period each day, can improve cognitive function. A short-term self-guided program is available

to a wider population than formal, long-term, supervised meditation program. To some the

former would be more affordable. Demonstrated meditation benefits could extend to job

performance, student test taking, and overall well-being. This research study examined the
 3

meditation benefits on cognitive function of an informal, short, self-guided meditation session

lasting five days.

Problem Statement

Long-term meditation programs lasting eight weeks or longer have established positive

physical and mental benefits of practicing meditation. (Baer et al., 2003; Chung, et al., 2012;

Germer et al., 2005; Hayes et al., 2004; Jha et al., 2010; Manocha et al., 2011; Schreiner, &

Malcolm, 2008; Singh et al., 2007). These are often long-term formal programs guided by a

qualified coach or experienced meditator.

The purpose of this study was to determine relationship between a self-guided short-term

meditation program and its impact on memory capacity and cognitive processing speed. Does a

short-term self-guided meditation program show any improvements in memory capacity or

cognitive processing speed?

Research Questions

RQ1: Does short-term self-guided mediation practice impact cognitive processing speed?

RQ2: Does short-term self-guided meditation practice impact working memory?

Background and Significance

The earliest records of meditation practice (dating back to around 1500 BC) were

found in India within the Vedic schools of Hindu traditions for the spiritual path to

enlightenment (Wynne, 2007). The Chinese Taoists and Indian Buddhist practices began to

develop their own systems in the sixth and fourth centuries BC (Wynne, 2007). Meditation

practices tend to fall into two broad categories; one is an attentional concentrative focus method,

in which one focuses on a thought or activity. The other is a “day-dreaming” type process that
 4

involves the practitioner passively observing and allowing any thoughts and feelings to arise

without any judgements or analysis. This usually involves staying in the present moment as a

passive observer. The latter is often referred to as mindfulness. The distinction between the two

is minor because they both involve some degree of attention control. Several formal systems

have evolved from each category.

Popular concentrative focus methods include mantra meditation, Transcendental

Meditation, Yoga breath-focusing meditations, and Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR)

(Alexander et al., 2003; Bertone, 2020). Mindfulness methods include the Mindfulness-based

stress reduction program, Integrative body–mind training (IBMT), movement meditation, and the

practice of Hatha Yoga (Tang et al., 2007; Zeidan et al., 2010).

Research on the benefits and effects of meditation are growing. Research on long-term

meditation has shown that it decreases anxiety and depression and increases feelings of well-

being (Baer 2003; Schreiner & Malcolm 2008). When it comes to cognitive function, research

studies have shown improved performance with regards to attention, awareness, memory, and

mental processing (Jha et al., 2007; Jha et al., 2010). Many of these meditation courses involve

programs that last anywhere from eight to 24 weeks. Some meditation programs involve

concentrated retreats that involve full-time commitments lasting two to seven days. For many,

committing to lengthy periods of time, or committing to the financial requirements needed, is not

feasible. This begs the question, is it possible to obtain these benefits with only one week of

meditation practice? If one can improve memory, attention control, mental processing speed, and

increased feelings of well-being, then this would apply to many areas of a person’s life. A

person’s job performance, students’ test taking skills and scores, and general mental and physical

well-being could improve with briefer meditation sessions. There is a business philosophy for
 5

improvement in Japan called Kaizen in which involves small continuous improvements in

workplace practices and personal efficiency (Masaaki, 1986). Small improvements over time

make big improvements overall, but what about small improvements over shorter time periods?

It may mean the difference between achieving a higher grade, time shaved off a time-consuming

work project, or the difference in a competitive promotion. Olympic athletes win events and

races by fractions of an inch or hundredths of a second. Small increments can mean a lot. Small

segments of meditation may mean important improvements in one’s life.

Limitations

The limitations of this study are as follows:

1. This study was limited to a sample of college students currently attending a single

southeastern four-year university.

2. This study was limited by the quality and duration of the participants’ meditation sessions,

since it was self-guided and the researcher was not able to monitor their sessions.

3. The test scores of the participants were self-reported.

4. The online testing score was capped at 100. If a participant scored 100 on the pre-test, there

was no way to accurately measure growth for those that scored 100 on their post-test.

Assumptions

In this study there were several factors and conditions that were assumed to be true and

factual.

The assumptions were as follows:

1. A change in test scores following meditation was a result in meditation.

2. The participants answered the forms and survey questions honestly and accurately.

3. The participants completed the full five-day program.

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4. The participants have responded truthfully and to the best of their ability.

Definition of Terms

Cognitive processing speed, is defined as the speed at which one processes information for

cognitive tasks or cognitive functions (Ebaid et al., 2017)

Electroencephalography (EEG) is a test that measures and records the electrical activity of the

brain by placing electrodes on the scalp. These signals are then translated into wave frequencies

on an EEG recording. These waves can then detect brain synchronization or any disorders that

may be occurring in certain regions of the brain. (Izzetoglu et al., 2020)

Functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) has been used successfully to monitor

cognitive states and brain activity. Using head-worn electrode sensors, the technique employs

near-infrared light and advanced signal processing to allow real-time, in-task monitoring. The

system not only determines changes in cognitive states by tracking blood hemoglobin levels in

the brain, but also filters non-relevant artifacts, such as the probes' own motion, rendering the

collected data even more accurate. The brains of people can be scanned to see which part of their

brains are being activated, and which portions of the brain receive an increase in blood flow.

(Izzetoglu et al., 2020)

d2-concentration and endurance test is a timed test that assesses selective attention. This test

is used in many areas of psychology, which allows for measurements of attention, concentration,

processing speed, and rule compliance (Moore, & Malinowski, 2009).

Integrative body–mind training (IBMT) - created by Yi-Yuan Tang of Dalian University of

Technology in the 1990’s. The program integrated traditional Chinese medicine practices with

progressive body relaxation, mental imagery, and guided mindfulness training. Tang has used

this form of mindfulness for some of his research studies. (Tang et al., 2007)
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Meditation is the practice of directing the attention of the mind, in order to relax the body and

calm the mind, which can lead to altered states of consciousness. These mental states positively

improve psychological balance and overall well-being. The practice tends to divide into two

types of methods: a narrow concentrative focus method and a broad, non-focusing, “day

dreaming” type method. The concentrative method can be used on any type of focusing theme

like the breath, exercise, visual images, affirmations, prayers, sounds, etc. The non-focusing

method requires one to simply be passively observant, yet let go of any thought, feeling, analysis

or judgement that comes into consciousness. (Alexander et al., 2003; Bertone, 2020; Zeidan et

al., 2010)

Mindfulness is moment-by-moment focus of awareness of current experiences that are observed

without analysis or judgement. This process can be done in sitting stillness or during low

cognitive load activities like eating, walking, or practicing yoga. (Baer 2003)

Mindfulness-based stress reduction program (MBSR) is an eight-week program in which

practitioners receive training in mindfulness meditation techniques linked with certain physical

stretches and yoga exercises for three hours a day for eight weeks, followed by a one-day retreat.

(Schreiner & Malcolm 2008).

Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR) This program focuses on tensing major muscle groups

for a short period of time, then relaxing them. Over a period of time, the practitioner will become

aware of the body and the condition it is in. Stress induces tension in the body. By practicing

PMR one learns to become aware of unnecessary muscle tension and return to a relaxed state.

(Mallya & Fiocco 2016)

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Sahaja Yoga (SY) meditation is a Hindu-based self-realization technique that attempts to obtain

a state of mental silence and enlightenment through focusing on the present moment. (Dodich et

al. 2019)

Stroop color word task (SCWT) is a neuropsychological test that measures the ability to inhibit

cognitive interference. An example would be the ability to inhibit habits in order to achieve a

goal that has cognitive interference. An example would be the actual Stroop Color Word Task

test. The test goal is to read out loud and name a physical color when it is used to spell the name

of a different color. The test can measure multiple cognitive functions such at attention,

processing speed and cognitive flexibility. (Scarpina, & Tagini, 2017; Stroop, 1935).

Transcendental Meditation is a program in which the participant focuses on a mantra for 20

minutes a day, twice a day, for one week. Formal programs consist of coaches that guide the

participant through the process efficiently and effectively. (Goodman et al., 2003)

Working memory is defined as a small amount of information that can be held in the mind for

cognitive tasks. (Jha et al., 2010)

Working Memory Capacity (WMC) is the mental capacity to maintain and manipulate relevant

information towards a goal, without becoming distracted by irrelevant information over short

periods of time. (Jha et al., 2010)

Yoga-sutras an ancient text that guides the practice of yoga today. The exact date of its creation

is unknown, but has been calculated to have been created between 200 BC and 200 AD by a

person named Patanjali. He traveled throughout India studying and observing the different

systems of yoga that were being practiced then. He put his observations into 200 scientific

principles and philosophies that provided an analysis and structure that is still regarded as one of

the most comprehensive and authentic texts on yoga. (White, 2019)

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Overview of Chapters

The purpose of this study was to determine if a short-term, informal program of self-

guided meditation may lead to improvement in cognitive function. Chapter II is a review of

literature that will provide a framework of current research studies concerning the benefits of

meditation and in support of the research questions. Chapter III provides a description of the

methods, procedures, and tools used to gather data for this research study. Chapter IV presents

the findings of this study, and Chapter V provides a summary of the study, conclusions, and

future recommendations.

CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Some cultures have been practicing meditation for centuries, and there have been many

claims and assertions for the benefits of meditation. Both the practice of meditation, and the

research as to its benefits, have been growing. This literature review investigates the benefits of

meditation with respect to improvement of cognitive functions.

Benefits of Meditation

A variety of research studies have concluded that meditation is correlated with a wide

scope of benefits including physical, psychological, and cognitive. The benefits of these

meditation interventions are often found together in one study. For example, Sumpter et al.

(2009) conducted a mindfulness meditation intervention on 17 female detainees in a correctional

facility. The initial testing consisted of self-reporting of medical symptoms, emotional control

indicators, and anxiety disorder behaviors. The study found meditation correlated with a

reduction in anxiety disorders like nail-biting and difficulty sleeping, which have effect on

overall mood and well-being. More importantly, the meditation participants also experienced a

reduction in inappropriate aggressive behaviors after completing the seven-week program.

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Singh et al. (2007) found similar results with three individuals who had a history of

verbal and physical aggressive behaviors. These patients’ behaviors required them to be removed

from society and placed in a hospital. The intervention involved a six-week mindfulness

meditation program that consisted of two sessions per day for six weeks, followed by an audio

self-directed program. This meditation program guided the patients to quickly divert their rising

anger responses, from an upsetting event to a neutral focus point that dissipated their anger.

Following the meditation treatment program, the patients demonstrated the ability to control

themselves and not respond aggressively. They were allowed to integrate back into their

communities and were monitored each month for four years after the intervention. The follow up

four-year assessment found no physically aggressive incidents with any of the three patients.

(There were three incidents of verbal aggression by two out of the three participants; these

incidents were minor and were not serious enough to be readmitted into the hospital.) The

authors of this study recommended that this practice be seriously considered as an integral part

of treatment for psychological issues because of its low cost and ease of implementation.

Research has been conducted in the field of psychology to assess the benefits of

meditation programs that have been integrated into treatment programs. Some studies have

concluded that mindfulness objectives involving awareness, concentration, and detached

observation practice, have been shown to help patients become aware of their state of mind, and

separate themselves from painful issues they have experienced (Lau & McMain, 2005; Myra et

al., 2005). The integration of a meditation program into psychological treatment has shown

decreased depression, anxiety, and anger in patients (Baer et al., 2003; Germer et al., 2005;

Hayes et al., 2004; Manocha et al., 2011; Schreiner, & Malcolm, 2008; Singh et al., 2007).
 11

In these studies, the integration of a meditation program correlated to positive impacts on

physical and emotional well-being, self-regulation, and mental health. Meditation interventions

of various lengths and styles have also been shown to have a positive effect on cognitive

functioning (MacLean et al., 2010; Prätzlich et al., 2016; Zeidan et al., 2010)

Benefits of Meditation on Cognitive Functioning

Cognitive processes are defined as any of the mental activities that are involved in the

acquisition, interpretation, storage, and use of knowledge (Benjafield et al., 2010). This

encompasses a wide scope of mental activities such as attention, perception, learning, problem-

solving, memory, comprehension, and reasoning. Cognitive functions such as working memory,

planning, task switching, inhibitory control, and attention control are often referred to as

executive functions. Meditation research has increased in the field of cognitive neuroscience for

its potential positive effects on these mental functions and processes (Lutz et al., 2009).

Studies that evaluate the improvement of meditation on cognitive function tend to focus on

processing speed, brain wave activity, or task completion. One study by Kozasa et al. (2012)

found that regular meditators have more efficient use of their brains, compared to non-meditators

conducting the same mental task. Participants of the study were broken into two groups: one

group had never meditated before (naïve group); and a group that had an average of eight years

of meditation experience (experienced group). The researchers used two tests to measure

cognitive function: the Stroop color word task (SCWT) and functional near infrared spectroscopy

(fNIRS). The SCWT determines accuracy in completing a timed, mentally challenging task. The

fNIRS monitors electrical activation and blood flow of the brain during activities. The results of

this study showed that the experienced group were more accurate on the SCWT than the naïve

group, and that they used their brains more efficiently. The naïve group required more activation
 12

of their brains and more blood flow to certain regions of the brain than the experienced group.

The naïve group did not perform as well as the experienced group on the same tests.

Benefits of Meditation Measured by Changes in Brain Structure and Activity

Some studies have shown that long-term meditation leads to structural changes in the

brain (Davidson et al., 2003; Lutz et al., 2004). Davidson et al. (2003) conducted a study of 25

subjects that were tested before, right after, and four months after an eight-week MBSR program.

The researchers used electroencephalography (EEG) to observe electrical brain activity in both

the experimental and control group. They also used the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory test to

measure individual traits and states of anxiety. The meditation group showed greater activation

of the left side of their brains which are associated with adaptive responses to negative or

stressful events. Individuals who show greater activation in these regions of their brains have

been shown to adapt quicker to negative occurrences (Davidson et al., 2000). The meditation

group also showed lowered anxiety levels than the non-meditative group.

Lutz et al. (2004) reported that certain brain-wave patterns, high-amplitude gamma

frequencies in particular, coordinate and synchronize in participants during meditation. They

monitored the brain-wave activities of meditators and non-meditators during states of rest, and

during mental concentrative sessions. Long-time meditators had larger increases in synchronous

brain-wave patterns than the non-meditators during the activities. They also reported that the

meditation group had calmer brain waves (more alpha and theta brain waves) during resting

states than the non-meditators. These results suggest that long-term meditators have

neurologically transformed their brains through training.

Cotier et al. (2017) found through magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) that elderly people

who meditated for eight weeks showed an increase in brain activity in specific regions of their
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brains. These regions of their brains were less active before the meditation program began.

Luders (2014) and Sun et al. (2013) found that meditation reduced the cognitive decline in

elderly individuals and improved several areas of cognitive function. Three different studies

found that a meditation practice showed an increase in gray-matter density and neurological

changes in regions of the brain that control attention, self-regulation, and self-awareness (Dodich

et al., 2019; Hölzel et al., 2011, Pagnoni & Cekic, 2007).

Benefits of Meditation Measured by Cognitive Performance Tests

A common finding within many studies of meditation involving cognitive performance is

related to increased performance on attention tasks by meditators (Badart et al., 2018; Chambers

et al., 2008; Jha et al., 2007; Kozasa et al. 2012; Moore, & Malinowski, 2009). Long-term

meditation has been shown to benefit attention control, the exclusion of irrelevant information,

working memory capacity, and anxiety control (Badart et al., 2018; Chambers et al., 2008;

Chandla et al., 2013; Hasher et al., 2007; Jha, et al., 2007; Moore, & Malinowski, 2009). Tang

et al. (2007) conducted a study on 40 Chinese undergraduate students who participated in what

the researchers called a five-day IMBT program. This study involved an integration of Chinese

tradition meditation practices, progressive-relaxation, and the MBSR program. In addition to

increased attention control, their study also showed a decrease in anxiety, depression, anger,

stress-related cortisol levels, and fatigue. They also reported an overall increase in positive mood

scores with meditation participants.

Some studies have shown that meditation improves certain cognitive executive functions.

Moore and Malinowski (2009) conducted a study with 25 experienced meditators from a

Buddhist center and a control group of 25 non-meditators. All the experimental group

participants had gone through a basic Buddhist six-week mindfulness course at a minimum. The
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control group was 25 non-meditators. By using the d2-Concentration and Endurance Test, and

the SWCT test, their study showed that meditation practices improve cognitive flexibility.

Cognitive flexibility in this case involved the ability to switch between different mental tasks.

The test results indicated that the meditators performed significantly better than the non-

meditators on all assessments of attention control.

Rothschild et al. (2017) conducted a study to see if mindfulness meditation could

improve cognitive processing speed and satisfaction with Army life. After the participants

finished an eight-week course, followed by an additional 16 weeks of supervised meditation,

they found that information processing speed was increased (though satisfaction with Army-life

was not). Hall (1999) separated an undergraduate psychology class at Hampton University into

two groups: a meditation group and a non-meditation group. Both groups’ overall grade point

average (GPA) did not differ at the beginning of the 16-week semester. Hall found at the end of

her study that students who meditated before and after study sessions had a higher GPA than the

control group who did not meditate. Mrazek et al. (2013) found a reduction in distracting

thoughts, an increase in working memory capacity (WMC), and an increase in the

comprehension scores on the Graduate Record Examination in 48 undergraduate students at the

University of California Santa Barbara, following a two-week MBSR program.

MacLean et al. (2010) used visual discrimination of determining line-length differences,

sustained attention testing, and perceptual sensitivity over time, to assess cognitive functioning.

Their process involved a three-month meditation retreat, where the experienced participants

meditated for five hours a day. They tested both the control group and experimental group pre-

training, mid-training, and post-training. The meditation participants started showing a greater

degree of discriminating the difference between the length of lines than the control group at the
 15

mid-training assessment. The meditation group showed significantly higher discrimination

ability than the control group, post-training and five months after the experiment. Their study

also added that meditation improves core cognitive processing such as WMC and nonverbal

intelligence.

Jha et al. (2010) also observed that mindfulness meditation training affected WMC. The

study examined how mindfulness meditation training could reduce the stresses and detriments

that U.S. military personnel experience during pre-deployment training. First, the study validated

that the pre-deployment training cycle, and the stresses of upcoming deployments, caused a

decrease in WMC. The experimental group attended an eight-week modified mindfulness-based

stress reduction (MBSR) program, which was created by an officer who had extensive training in

MBSR and other forms of meditation training. Their study found that the mindfulness training

program reduced stress and caused improvements in WMC. They also found that more time

spent in the mindfulness training correlated to greater increases in WMC.

Most of the research studies reviewed here were conducted with meditation programs

lasting eight weeks or more. Research into whether a shorter-term program of mediation would

indicate improvements on cognitive processing is limited. Izzetoglu et al. (2020) used the fNIRS

and the SCWT to assess the improvement of attention, cognitive activity, and behavioral

performance measures in 21 college students who were first-time meditators. Their findings

showed improvement in cognitive processes such as attention control, memory, processing time,

perception, and reasoning, after a single 22-minute meditation session. Tang et al. (2007) found

that an IBMT meditation practice of five days, for 20-minute sessions per day, increased

attention control and decreased stress-related cortisol. The long-term impact of these studies is

unknown.
 16

Prätzlich et al. (2016) conducted a study to see if the researchers’ expectations influenced

the outcome of meditation interventions. The study, conducted over a three-day period, had four

groups of participants: two that meditated, and two that did not. Each of the two groups was

separated into two more groups: one received positive comments about the benefits of

meditation; the second group received negative comments about meditating. Interestingly, each

group had performance outcomes that matched the comments and expectations they received.

The positive expectation groups, both meditators and non-meditators, had increased

performance, and the groups who were given negative suggestions had decreased performance.

The study concluded that benefits associated with meditation were correlated more to the content

of the words spoken by the researchers during the sessions than the fact of the meditation itself.

However, the meditators also reported that the mediation sessions produced a heightened state of

awareness, an increase in self-regulation, and a better ability to calm themselves, which the

researchers indicated warranted further study.

SUMMARY

Studies of varying lengths, programs, techniques, and tasks have demonstrated the

benefits of meditation on physical, emotional, and cognitive operations. Though researchers have

used different methods of meditation to test its benefits, the meditative systems share a common

element: the practice of controlling the direction and subject of an individual’s thoughts and

attention. Meditation practice leads to more efficient use of the mind, higher attention control,

neurological structural changes within the brain, calmer resting states of the brain, improved

cognitive processing speed, higher grade point averages, and increased working memory

capacity.
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CHAPTER III: METHODS AND PROCEDURES

The purpose of this study was to examine whether a self-guided five-day meditation

program would improve cognitive processing speed and memory capacity as measured by online

tests. The study was formed to assesses if cognitive processing speed and memory capacity test

scores completed before and after five days of mediation showed improvement by statistical

significance.

Chapter III details the population, instrument design, methods of data collection and

statistical analysis.

Participants

The main target participants were adults 18 to 75 years old, regardless of gender. No socio-

economic status requirements were required by the study. Undergraduate and graduate students

were sought through a southeastern university emailing system. Adults from the corporate

workforce were recruited via social/professional networking groups. Adults from the corporate

workforce were required to be 18 years or older. There were no educational requirements, but

those with a college degree were preferred.

Old Dominion University students (ODU subjects) and contacts of the researcher already

identified through social/professional networking groups (non-ODU subjects) were the focus of

efforts to recruit participants. ODU subjects enrolled in science, technology, engineering and

math (STEM) Education and Professional Studies courses at the undergraduate and graduate

level were the primary focus, and were contacted via email solicitation sent through the

respective class professors. Other subjects were solicited through 1) networking site

messaging/posts, and 2) direct emails to individuals (known to the researcher through

professional networks).
 18

Instrument Design

Two online tests were used to assess and score cognitive processing speed and working

memory capacity. For cognitive processing speed, a five-minute timed online Mental Speed Test

1 from Psychology Today was used. The test consisted of word and image pairs and simple

mathematical equations that required a correct or incorrect button response. If the word and

image matched, the participant was to select either correct or incorrect. The same response was

required for simple mathematical equations that were either correct or incorrect. Response time

and accuracy are recorded and assessed by the website. The website summarizes a percentage of

correct responses that were provided by the participants to the researcher for analysis. To assess

memory capacity, the researcher used an online test called the Memory Test Challenge which

consisted of a series of images that appeared at timed intervals. Images that repeated required the

touching of the keyboard space bar (or tapping the screen for tablets and smart-phones).

Response time and accuracy recall were scored and assessed by the Memory Loss website test.

The participants were asked to take the tests once before starting the meditation program and

once again after meditating for 15 minutes a day for five days. After each test their scores were

provided to the researcher by the subjects by filling in their scores on the perspective Google

Form. The scores were assigned a letter-number designator, then organized on an excel

spreadsheet. A paired-sample t-test was performed to understand the difference between the two

scores.

There are a vast number of ways to meditate. For this study, the meditation method used

was a simple breath-focusing technique. The instructions on the study’s website directed the

participant to set a timer for 15 minutes, then focus the mind on this breathing process; inhale for

four seconds, hold the breath for four seconds, exhale for eight seconds, and finally hold the
 19

exhale for four seconds. This process is repeated until the timer signals the fifteen minutes are

completed. This is one of the oldest and simplest techniques for meditation which can be traced

back to the yoga-sutras which were organized and recorded by Pantanjali, dated approximately

around 200 BC (White, 2019). That text is still referenced for Yoga and meditation today.

Methods of Data Collection

The results of the participants’ initial and post-meditation self-reported test scores were

recorded on two separate Google Forms that were accessed on the study’s web page. Instructions

on how to complete the study and all forms necessary for the study were available on the

research study’s website. Google Forms recorded those entries in a response section. This data

was only accessible to the study’s researcher. Any identifying data of the participant was

immediately converted to a number-letter identifier to keep the participants confidential

throughout the study. The researcher compiled the data from the forms into an Excel

spreadsheet.

Statistical Analysis

Two research questions were constructed for this experiment.

RQ1: Does a self-guided short-term mediation practice impact cognitive processing speed?

RQ2: Does a self-guided short-term meditation practice impact working memory?

To find the answer to these two research questions, this experiment involved an online

test to measure cognitive processing speed before and after meditating for five days. The

independent variable for this experiment was the initial test scores taken by the participants

before beginning one week of meditating for 15 minutes each day. The dependent variable was

the test scores taken by the participants after five days of meditation. To address research RQ1,

cognitive processing speed, a five-minute timed online Mental Speed Test 1 from Psychology
 20

Today was used (Mental Speed Test - Version 1, n.d.).. The test consisted of word and image

pairs and simple mathematical equations that required a correct or incorrect button response. If

the word and image matched, the participant was to select either correct or incorrect. The same

response was required for simple mathematical equations that were either correct or incorrect.

Response time and accuracy are recorded and assessed by the website.

To address RQ2, memory capacity, the researcher used an online test called the Memory

Test Challenge (Free Short Term Memory Test, 2013) which consisted of a series of images that

appeared at timed intervals. Images that repeated required the touching of the keyboard space bar

(or tapping the screen for tablets and smart-phones). Response time and accuracy recall were

scored and assessed by the Memory Loss website test.

Statistical analysis was performed on the quantitative data collected from the participants

submitted scores. Inferential statistics were performed using Microsoft Excel Data Analysis. The

first analysis was performed to determine whether there was any change in the scores after one

week of meditating. The second analysis was performed to determine whether any such

difference was significant and reliable. A paired-sample equal variance t-test was used to

determine if there was a significant difference between the mean of each of the two groups of

scores (before and after meditation). A third data screening statistics paired-sample equal

variance t-test calculation was done without the scores that had reached the perfect score of 100.

10 total sets of scores had reached 100, four in the mental test and six in the memory test. The

reason for the removal was the total cap on the highest score possible was 100. By eliminating

the scores of 100 in the second data screening calculations, potential false increases were

removed.
 21

Summary

Research has shown that formal guided meditation practices consisting of eight weeks or

more impact cognitive processing speed and working memory (Badart et al., 2018; Chambers et

al., 2008; Ebaid et al., 2017; Heeren, A., Van Broeck, N., & Philippot, P., 2009; Jha et al., 2007;

Mrazek et al., 2013; Rothschild, et al., 2017).

This study was conducted to determine if five days of self-guided meditation practice for 15

minutes would impact cognitive processing skills or working memory. Participants took two

online tests, meditated for 15 minutes a day for five days, took the two online tests again, and

then self-reported their scores onto a Google Form provided by the study’s main website. The

data from Google Forms was then used on an Excel spreadsheet to calculate an equal variance t-

test to present the findings.

CHAPTER IV: FINDINGS

The purpose of this study was to determine if a five-day self-guided meditation course

would impact cognitive processing and working memory. 42 participants completed the study,

with an average increase of; three points in the mental test and two points in the memory test

scores. A paired-sample equal variance t-test determined there was no significant statistical

difference made by the five-day meditation experiment.

Data Analysis and Results

The independent variable in this study was the meditation conducted for 15 minutes a day

for five days. The dependent variable were the changes in cognitive processing speed and

working memory, which were measured by the differences between the participants first pre-

meditation online test scores, and the second set of test scores done after meditating for five

days. Two research questions were constructed for this experiment.

 22

RQ1: Does a self-guided short-term mediation practice impact cognitive processing speed?

RQ2: Does a self-guided short-term meditation practice impact working memory?

To address Research Question 1, the first paired-sample equal variance t-test included all

the scores recorded. Table 1 presents the paired-sample equal variance t-test results that was used

to test the significance of the differences between the pre-and post-meditation scores. The Mental

Test 1 had a mean of 85.44 (M = 85.44, p = 0.13). The results indicated that there was no

significant difference of improvement in scores from the pre-meditation mental test to the post-

meditation mental test.

Table 1

Mental Test Paired Sample t-test equal variances with scores of 100 included.

Mental Test 1 Mental Test 2

Mean 85.44 88.85
Variance 210.65 155.38
Observations 41.00 41.00
Pooled Variance 183.02
Hypothesized Mean Difference 0.00
df 80.00
t Stat -1.14
P(T<=t) one-tail 0.13
t Critical one-tail 1.66

To address research question two (RQ2) the first paired-sample equal variance t-test

included all the scores including those participants that reached the top score of 100. Table 2

presents the paired-sample equal variance t-test results that were used to test the significant

differences between the pre-and post-meditation scores that were submitted. The Memory Test 1

had a mean of M = 83.1. The Memory Test 2 had a mean of (M = 86.94, p = 0.09). The results
 23

indicated that there was no significant difference of improvement in scores from the pre-

meditation memory test, to the post-meditation memory test.

Table 2

Memory Test Paired Sample t-test equal variances with scores of 100 included.

Memory Test 1 Memory Test 2

Mean 83.11 86.94
Variance 168.10 123.54
Observations 36.00 36.00
Pooled Variance 145.82
Hypothesized Mean Difference 0.00
df 70.00
t Stat -1.35
P(T<=t) one-tail 0.09
t Critical one-tail 1.67

Data Screening

The second statistics paired-sample equal variance t-test calculation was done without the

scores that had reached the perfect score of 100. 10 total sets of scores had reached 100, four in

the mental test and six in the memory test. The reason for the removal was the highest score

possible was 100, thereby providing a situation whereby measuring any growth indicated by a

score of higher than 100 was not possible. By eliminating the scores of 100 in the second data

screening calculations, potential false increases were removed.

To address RQ1 in relation to potential false increases due to the cap of a total score of

100, four test scores were removed from the total pool of 42 submitted scores. Table 3 presents

the paired-sample equal variance t-test results. The Mental Test 1 had a mean of M= 84.32. The

Mental Test 2 had a mean of (M = 87.65, p = 0.15). The results indicated that there was no

significant difference of improvement in scores from the pre-meditation mental test to the post-

meditation mental test.

 24

Table 3

Mental Test results in which the potential false increases were removed.

Mental test 1 Mental Test 2

Mean 84.32 87.65
Variance 220.95 157.35
Observations 37.00 37
Pooled Variance 189.15
Hypothesized Mean Difference 0.00
df 72.00
t Stat -1.04
P(T<=t) one-tail 0.15
t Critical one-tail 1.67

To address RQ2 in relation to potential false increases due to the cap of a total score of

100, six test scores were removed from the total pool of 42 submitted scores. Table 4 presents

the paired-sample equal variance t-test results. The Memory Test 1 had a mean of M = 82.77. The

Memory Test 2 had a mean of (M = 86.57, p = 0.10). The results indicated that there was no

significant difference of improvement in scores from the pre-meditation memory test to the post-

meditation memory test.

Table 4

Memory Test results in which the potential false increases were removed.

Memory test 1 Memory Test 2

Mean 82.77 86.57
Variance 168.77 122.02
Observations 35.00 35
Pooled Variance 145.39
Hypothesized Mean Difference 0.00
df 68.00
t Stat -1.32
P(T<=t) one-tail 0.10
t Critical one-tail 1.67
 25

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary

The purpose of this study was to determine if a five-day self-guided meditation course

would impact cognitive processing and working memory. All 42 participants completed the

study, with an average increase in three points in the mental test and two points in the memory

test scores. A paired-sample equal variance t-test determined there was no significant statistical

difference made by the five-day meditation experiment.

Conclusions

As mentioned above, the literature reviewed generally examined the benefits of formal

guided meditation programs lasting eight weeks or longer, or where the participants had years of

meditation practice prior to the study (Hall, 1999; Helber et al. 2012; Jha et al., 2010; Katherine

et al. 2010; Monk-Turner, 2003). Many of these long-term programs were guided by a coach or

trainer for the duration of the study. Long-term meditation programs lasting eight weeks or

longer have established positive physical and mental benefits of practicing meditation (Baer et

al., 2003; Chung, et al., 2012; Germer et al., 2005; Hayes et al., 2004; Jha et al., 2010; Manocha

et al., 2011; Schreiner, & Malcolm, 2008; Singh et al., 2007).

This five-day meditation experiment did not show any impact on cognitive processing

speed or memory. Although the participants scores increased by an average of three points on the

mental test and two points on the memory test, these changes were not shown to be statistically

significant. These findings were inconsistent with two other short-term mediation studies done

by Tang et al. (2007) and Izzetoglu et al. (2020). There were several key differences between this

study and the experiment conducted in China by Tang et al. (2007). Their study integrated
 26

several additional components. A preparation session was conducted the day before the

experiment began that was guided by a certified meditation coach. The coach mentored

participants in body relaxation techniques, breathing techniques, and mental imagery. The

participants were following a guided meditation CD that included daily instructions and music.

The coach selected the time of day and the place that the group would consistently meditate. The

participants were also monitored by a trainer during each session, and a post-meditation question

and answer discussion was conducted each day. The authors acknowledged the importance of

having a coach monitor the sessions and provide corrective information and guidance. After

each session, the trainers could answer any questions the participants may have had. These

trainers monitored the participants for any body language cues exhibited during the sessions that

would indicate a participant was having trouble meditating. Another note of significance was that

all the participants meditated as a group each day. These authors noted the value of group

dynamics facilitating the outcome of the meditation sessions. They believed this increased the

efficiency of meditating, if done together in a group setting (Tang et al., 2007).

The use of a guided mediation podcast was one key difference between this study and the

study conducted by Izzetoglu et al. (2020). Their study consisted of the participants sitting in a

chair, taking four tests, meditating following a guided 22-minute podcast, then taking the four

tests again. Their Stroop tests were done immediately after the podcast session. These authors

found an increase in brain hemoglobin oxygenation and a decrease in systolic blood pressure.

They found an increase in scores after the 22-minute meditation session. The technical analysis

techniques of that experiment were not done in this study. The lack of a guided meditation

podcast and immediate testing conducted after the meditation session could be the factors

contributing to the difference in results between their experiment and this one.
 27

Several additional factors could have affected the results of this study. The meditation

sessions were not monitored as most of the more formal meditation programs were. That was the

intended goal of this study, to see if a self-guided meditation program only lasting five days

could impact cognitive function and memory. The lack of a coach or mentor during the

meditation sessions may have affected the quality of the meditation, which in turn, could have

affected the impact of meditation on these two mental functions. A guided meditation podcast or

a coach may be a necessary component, especially for first-time meditators, to ensure a higher

quality meditation session. Alcohol consumption, sleep quality, and other potential confounding

stress factors were not monitored throughout the week of the experiment. These unmonitored

factors could have also affected the outcome of the study (Beaunieux, et al., 2014; Vitiello,

1997). Sleep quality and duration were not monitored during the experiment. A lack of sleep or

poor sleep quality could have been a factor in the results of the experiment (Ratcliff, 2009).

Recommendations

Future studies on the short-term effects of meditation on mental functions could benefit

on having the meditation sessions controlled daily by a meditation facilitator. The validity of

whether the participants actually meditated correctly for a whole week could be established with

a facilitator. Alcohol consumption, sleep quality and duration, as well as external and internal

stress factors should be monitored during the length of future experiments. This could reduce

variables that could adversely affect the outcome of the study. A coach or program monitor may

be needed to address meditation difficulties and record the factors listed above that could affect

test results.

Establishing the quality of the meditation session itself through feedback devices that

monitor brain-wave frequency and other electrical feedback devices could establish the level of
 28

quality that the participant reaches during the meditation sessions. This could accurately detail

who reached a meditative state and to what level and duration they maintained the session each

day. This would track the authenticity of any impact on test scores that occur. The use of music

while meditating could be a factor in focusing during meditation, especially for first-time

meditators. This could be a variable in which future research might pursue. And lastly, future

participants may need to be recruited from a formal medical treatment program or a formal

guided meditation program for all these recommendations to be fully and realistically applied.
 29

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Appendices

Appendix A- Introduction Letter

Welcome to our research study. Thank you for participating. This study is being

conducted to find out if a brief meditation session consisting of five, 15-minute sessions for five

days, will improve cognitive processing. You will take a few tests that take about 90 seconds

each, meditate for 15 minutes for five days, fill out a quick survey after each session, and on the

final day, take those tests again. This should only take about 20 minutes out of each day.

Research has shown that long-term meditation and mindfulness practices improve focus,

attention and memory, the research on the effects of short-term meditation on improving

cognitive processing is limited. This study will help provide information and knowledge for the

benefits of short-term meditation sessions. Meditation is defined as a contemplative, self-

regulatory practice that induces a state of relaxation and may produce altered states of awareness.

Meditation practices tend to fall into two broad categories; an attentional concentrative focus

method or an awareness-based process that involves the practitioner observing and allowing any

thoughts and feelings to arise, without any judgements or analysis.

There are many techniques of mediation. It is often beneficial to experiment and find a

method or technique that works best for you. For this study to be consistent, we would like you

to follow the procedure we outline in the how to meditate instructions.

 40

Here is the plan for your week:

1. Fill out the Consent form here.

2. Take the Pre-Training tests here, before you begin meditating.

3. Meditate every day for 15 minutes. The process to follow can be found here.

4. On the fifth day after meditating, take the Post-training tests here.

5. On the fifth day fill out the completion survey.

 41

Appendix B- How To Meditate Instructions

How to meditate
1. Pick a consistent time. Many chose the morning after a good night’s rest, before
the day gets going. Evening times may not be ideal, due to a stressful, long day
or fatigue from work.
2. Find a comfortable position. Sitting is often the best to prevent yourself from
falling asleep. A common occurrence with first-time meditators. Keep your back
upright and straight. Feet are flat on the floor, hands resting comfortably on your
thighs. When you are ready, close your eyes to reduce visual distractions.
3. Set your countdown timer to 15 minutes, with a pleasant alarm to sound at the
end of your session.
Start your session by focusing on the relaxing breath exercise.
4. The relaxing Breath or the 4-4-8-4 (forty-four eighty-four) Breath:
4.1 Inhale for 4 seconds.
4.2 Hold your breath for 4 seconds.
4.3) Exhale for 8 seconds.
4.4) Hold your breath for 4 seconds.
Repeat
You count the seconds in your head by saying “one-thousand one, one-thousand
two, etc.”
5. The wandering mind.
In the beginning, you may be able to focus well on your breath because the
technique is new. As soon as your mind becomes use to it, it may start to wander.
It is very common for the mind to wander to different things, other than focusing
on your breath. The key is to not get frustrated, or turn it into a forceful process.
This wandering mind is not a personal defect or disability, it is a survival
mechanism.
 42

Relax, acknowledge what thought comes to mind, and return to focusing on your
breathing. You will get better at focusing, the more you practice it. Some find it
helpful to have a notepad and pen within arm’s reach, to write down what comes
into your mind, if it is important to note or remember. This way, if it is important,
and you have it recorded for future reference, it will allow the mind to stop
reminding you about it.

Any external distracting sounds can be used as a reminder for you to focus on
the breath. Your mind may start day-dreaming, and an external sound may bring
you out of that day-dream and back to the present moment.
6. Enjoy the process, feel good about it, no matter how “well” you performed it.
 43

Appendix C- Websites for the Research Study

Meditation study website

https://sites.google.com/odu.edu/diao/home
Mental processing speed test website
https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/tests/iq/mental-speed-test-version-1
Memory test website
https://www.memorylosstest.com/free-short-term-memory-tests-online/
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Appendix D- Email Solicitations to Students

Dear Professors [enter names here],

I am writing to seek participants for a short research study into whether 15 minutes of
meditation per day for five days can improve memory and cognitive processing. I would be
grateful if you would please forward the below to your students, and any other party you think
may be interested in participating. Thank you in advance.

Dear Students:

Please see below information about how you can participate in a voluntary research study that
will test whether 15 minutes of meditation per day for five days can improve memory and
cognitive processing. All participants will be entered to win a $25 Amazon Gift Card. Your
participation in this study is voluntary and anonymous. You must be 18 years or older to
participate.

What will the study entail? The study participants will take two brief three-minute online
tests, then meditate for 15 minutes per day for five days and repeat the tests, taking note of all
test results and recording them in an online form.

How much time will it take? A few minutes to read the brief instructions, take the online
tests, and record the results; and 15 minutes per day for five days for the meditation.

Where can I find out more details about the study, and how to participate? Detailed
information about the study, how to participate, and where to write for further information or
questions, is found here: https://sites.google.com/odu.edu/diao/home

Warmest regards,
Darrin Landry
 45

Appendix E- Email Solicitations to Work Force Staff

Target Audience: Professional Networks of known individuals at the supervisory level

Subj: Meditation Research Study Seeks Participants (You Could Win a $25 Amazon Gift Card)

Dear Colleagues,

I am writing to seek participants for a short research study into whether 15 minutes of meditation per
day for five days can improve memory and cognitive processing. I would be grateful if you would
please forward the below text to those you think might be interested in participating, on a voluntary
basis. Thank you in advance for circulating this email amongst your staff and colleagues.

Dear [staff]:

Please see below information about how you can participate in a research study that will test whether
15 minutes of meditation per day for five days can improve memory and cognitive processing. Your
participation in this study is voluntary and anonymous.

All participants will be entered to win a $25 Amazon Gift Card. You must be 18 years or older to
participate.

What will the study entail? The study participants will take two brief three-minute online tests, then
meditate for 15 minutes per day for five days, then repeat the tests, taking note of all test results and
recording them in an online form.

How much time will it take? A few minutes to read the brief instructions, take the online tests (each
takes approximately three minutes), and record the results; and 15 minutes per day for five days for
the meditation.

Where can I find out more details about the study, and how to participate? Detailed information
about the study, how to participate, and where to write for further information or questions, is found
here: https://sites.google.com/odu.edu/diao/home

Warmest regards,
Darrin Landry