Review of Vector calculus, electrostatics & magnetostatics

Part-1: Vector Calculus

Scalars And Vectors
A scalar has only magnitude. Quantities such as time, mass, distance, temperature, entropy,
electric potential, and population are scalars.
A vector has both magnitude and direction. Vector quantities include velocity, force,

We represent a vector by a letter with an arrow on top of it, such as
 and  , or by a letter in
displacement, and electric field intensity.

boldface type such as A and B. A scalar is represented simply by a letter—e.g., A, B, U, and V.

EM theory is essentially a study of some particular fields. A field is a function that specifies a
particular quantity everywhere in a region.
1.1 UNIT VECTOR
⤿ magnitude of a vector A is a scalar written as or |A|.
⤿ A unit vector aA along A is defined as a vector whose magnitude is unity (i.e., 1) and its

 
direction is along A, that is,

a = =
| | A
⤿ Thus, we may write A as  = Aa , which completely specifies A in terms of its
magnitude A and its direction a . A vector A in Cartesian (or rectangular) coordinates

(A , A , A ) or A  + A  + A 
may be represented as

Figure 1.1 (a) Unit vectors  ,    ,(b) components of A along  ,    .

where A , A  A are called the components of A in the x, y, and z directions respectively;
 ,    , are unit vectors in the x, y, and z directions, respectively. For example,  is a

⤿ The unit vectors  ,    are illustrated in Figure 1.1 (a), and the components of A
dimensionless vector of magnitude one in the direction of the increase of the x-axis.

along the coordinate axes are shown in Figure 1.1 (b).

⤿ The magnitude of vector A is given by

= 
 +
 +

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 A  + A  + A  
⤿ and the unit vector along A is given by

 =

 +
 +


1.2 VECTOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

If A = (Ax, Ay, Az) and B = (Bx, By, Bz). Then,

C= A + B = (Ax + Bx) ax + (Ay + By) ay + (Az + Bz)az.

D = A - B = A + (-B) = (Ax - Bx)ax + (Ay - By)ay + (Az - Bz)az.

Three basic laws obeyed by any given vectors A, B, and C, are summarized as follows:

1.3 VECTOR MULTIPLICATION

 Scalar (or dot) product: A • B  Scalar triple product: A • (B X C)
 Vector (or cros) product: A X B  Vector triple product: A X (B X C)
A. Scalar (Dot) Product (SP)
 The dot product of two vectors A & B is given by
A.B=ABcosѲAB=AxBx+ AyBy+AzBz
 A and B are said to be orthogonal (or perpendicular) with each other if A•B = 0.

(i). Commutative Law: .  = . 

 The scalar product obeys the following:

(ii). Distributive Law: . ( + ) = .  + . 

(iii). .  = || = A
 .  =  .  =  .  = 0 ( !" #$%ℎ#'#()
 .  =  .  =  .  = 1 ( !" *$(("()
B. Cross Product(CP)

  
 The cross product of two vectors A & B is given by

+ = (
 ,-. )/ = 0A+ A1 A2 0

B+ B1 B2
where / is a unit vector normal to the plane containing A and B.

(i). It is not Commutative: + ≠ +

 The cross product has the following basic properties:

It is anticommutative: + = −+

(ii). Distributive Law: +( + ) = + + +
(iii). + = 0
 + =  +  =  + = 0 ( !" *$(("()
 + =  ,  + =  ,  + = 
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 C. Scalar Triple Product(STP)

. (+) = . (+) = . (+) (61 $ 'ℎ% *"$78%% #)

The scalar triple product of three vectors A, B & C is defined as

C C C
. (+) = 0A+ A1 A2 0
B+ B1 B2
D. Vector Triple Product (VTP)
For vectors A, B & C, we define the vector triple product as follows by using the "bac-cab" rule.

1.4 COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR

Given a vector A,

. =
!#,-. = |||. |!#,-. #$
. = . .

The scalar component AB of A along vector B is

The vector component :. of A along B is the scalar component multiplied by a unit

vector along B; that is, :. =
. . = (:. . ).
NB: vector A can be resolved into two orthogonal components: one component :.
parallel to B, another (A -:. ) perpendicular to B

(a) Scalar component
. , (b) Vector component :. .

Figure 1.2 Components of A along B:

1.5 Co-ordinate Systems and Transformation

Three best-known coordinate systems are Cartesian, circular cylindrical, and spherical.

1.5.1 Cartesian Co-ordinate System (2cs)

A point P in Cartesian Co-ordinate System (2CS) can be represented as (x, y, z)

The ranges of the coordinate variables x, y, and z are

A vector A in 2CS can be written as (A , A , A ) or A  + A  + A 

1.5.2 Circular Cylindrical Co-ordinate System (3cs)

√ A point P in 3CS is represented as ;(<, ∅, 2) as shown in Figure 1.3 below. Where, ⍴ is
the radius of the cylinder passing through P or the radial distance from the z-axis: ∅ is

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 called the azimuthal angle & is measured from the x-axis in the xy-plane (CCW); and z is
the same as in the Cartesian system.
√ The ranges of the variables are given below

(a) (b)
Figure 1.3 Point P and unit vectors (a) in the 3CS (b) in spherical coordinate systems.
√ A vector A in 3CS can be written as

Where > , ∅   are unit vectors along ρ - , φ - and z − directions.

√ Unit vectors > , ∅   are mutually orthogonal. Thus,

.

√ The relationships between the variables (x, y, z) of the 2CS and those of the 3CS ( ρ , φ , z )
as derived from Figure 1.4 are

This is called transforming a point from Cartesian (x, y, z) to cylindrical ( ρ , φ , z ) co-ordinates, and
( ρ , φ , z ) → ( x , y , z ) transformation respectively.
√ The relationships between the unit vectors are obtained geometrically from Figure 1.5

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 (a) (b)
Figure 1.4 Relationship between
(a) (x, y, z) and ( ρ , φ , z ) (b) (x, y, z) , ( ρ , φ , z ) and (r,Ѳ,Ф)

Figure 1.5 Unit vector transformation:

(a) Cylindrical components of ax, (b) Cylindrical components of ay

√ In matrix form, the transformation of vector A from ( A x , A y , A z ) to ( A ρ , A φ , A z ) is

√ The inverse of the transformation from ( A ρ , A φ , A z ) ) to ( A x , A y , A z ) is obtained as

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 1.5.3 Spherical Co-ordinate System (Scs)

 A point P in SCS can be represented as (r, Ѳ, Ф) as shown in Figure 1.3(b).

 We notice that r is defined as the distance from the origin to point P or the radius of a
sphere centered at the origin and passing through P; Ѳ (called the colatitude) is the
angle between the z-axis and the position vector of P; and Ф is measured from the x-
axis (the same azimuthal angle as in 3CS).
 the ranges of the variables are

 A vector A in SCS is written as (
? ,
@ ,
∅ ) or
? ? +
@ @ +
∅ ∅ .

Where ? , @  ∅ are unit vectors in the direction of increasing r-,Ѳ-and Ф
respectively.

 The unit vectors ? , @  ∅ are mutually orthogonal. Thus,

 (x, y, z) in 2CS are related to variables (r, Ѳ, Ф) of a SCS as

 The above point transformations are from Cartesian (x, y, z) to spherical (r,Ѳ,Ф)co-
ordinates, and ( r , θ , φ ) → ( x , y , z ) transformation respectively.
 The unit vectors relationship is given by

 The components of vector A = ( A x , A y , A z ) and A = ( A r , A θ , A φ ) are related to each

other as follows:

By collecting like terms,

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  In matrix form, the ( A x , A y , A z ) → ( A r , A θ , A φ ) vector transformation and the
inverse transformation ( A x , A y , A z ) → ( A r , A θ , A φ ) are performed according to the
following respectively as

And

 Alternatively, we may use the dot product. For example,

NB: in point or vector transformation, the point or vector has not changed; it is only expressed
differently. Thus, for example, the magnitude of a vector will remain the same after the
transformation and this may serve as a way of checking the result of the transformation.
The distance between two points is usually necessary in EM theory. The distance d between two
points with position vectors r1 and r2 is generally given by

EXAMPLE 2.1:
Given point P (-2, 6, 3) and vector A = yax + (x + z)ay,
(i). Express both P and A in 3CS and SCS.
(ii). Evaluate A at P in the 2CS, 3CS and SCS.

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In the 2CS, A at P is A = 6ax + ay

For vector A, Ax = y, Ay = x + z, Az = 0. Hence, in the 3CS,

But + = <!#∅ & 1 = < ∅ and substituting these yields

At P, < = +  + 1  = √40 = 6.324  ∅ = 108.43H

> = 1!#∅ + (+ + 2) ∅ = 6!#108.43 + (−2 + 3) 108.43 = −0.9487

Or Simply,

∅ = −1 ∅ + (+ + 2)!#∅ = −6 108.43 + (−2 + 3)!#108.43 = −6.008

 = 0

Thus,  =
> > +
∅ ∅ +
  = −0.9487> − 6.008∅ (  3KL M#$7)

Similarly, in the SCS,

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But + = $ ,!#∅, 1 = $ , ∅ & 2 = $!#,. Substituting these yields

At P $ = +  + 1  + 2  = 7, , = %NO P(+  + 1  )⁄2R = 64.62H & ∅ = %NO S T = 108.43H

? = 1 ,!#∅ + (+ + 2) , ∅ = 6 64.62!#108.43 +  64.62 108.43 = −0.8571

Or simply,

@ = 1!#,!#∅ + (+ + 2)!#, ∅ = 6!#64.62!#108.43 + !#64.62 108.43 = −0.4066

∅ = −1 ∅ + (+ + 2)!#∅ = −6 108.43 + !#108.43 = −6.008

 =
? ? +
@ @ +
∅ ∅ = −0.8571? − 0.4066@ − 6.008∅ (  LKL M#$7)

Thus,

Note that |A| is the same in the three systems; that is,

Exercise:
(1) Transform the point P (0,−4,3) from 2CS to 3CS and SCS.
(2)Transform the Q vector to 3CS and SCS.
(3) Evaluate Q at the point P (0,−4,3) in the three coordinate systems.

(4) Express the following vectors in 2CS:

(a) A=⍴zsinФa⍴+3⍴cosФaФ+⍴cosФsinФaz (b) B=r2ar+sinѲaФ
Ans: (1) T(4, 270°, 3), T(5, 53.13°, 270°)

(4)

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 1.6 Constant Co-ordinate Surfaces
 Surfaces in 2CS, 3CS and SCS are easily generated by keeping one of the coordinate variables
constant and allowing the other two to vary.
 In 2CS, if we keep x constant and allow y and z to vary, an infinite plane is generated. Thus,
we could have infinite planes x=constant, y=constant, z=constant which are perpendicular to
the x-, y-, and z-axes, respectively, as shown in Fig 1.6a below.
 The intersection of two planes is a line. For example, x = constant, y = constant is the line
RPQ parallel to the z-axis. The intersection of three planes is a point. For example, x =
constant, y = constant, z = constant is the point P(x, y, z). Thus, we may define point P as the
intersection of three orthogonal infinite planes.
 If P is (1, -5, 3), then P is the intersection of planes x = 1, y = - 5 and z=3.

 The surfaces < = !#%%, φ =constant, z = constant are illustrated in Figure 1.6b below,
 Orthogonal surfaces in 3CS can likewise be generated.

where < = !#%% is a circular cylinder, φ =constant is a semiinfinite plane with its edge

 Where two surfaces meet is either a line or a circle. Thus, z = constant, < = !#%% is a
along the z-axis, and z = constant is the same infinite plane as in a Cartesian system.

intersection of the three surfaces. Thus, < = 2, φ = 60°, z = 5 is the point P (2, 60°, 5).
circle QPR of radius p, whereas z = constant, φ =constant is a semiinfinite line. A point is an

 The orthogonal nature of the SCS is evident by considering the three surfaces r = constant, θ
= constant, φ = constant which are shown in Figure 1.6c below, where we notice that
r=constant is a sphere with its center at the origin; Ѳ= constant is a circular cone with the z-
axis as its axis and the origin as its vertex; Ф= constant is the semiinfinite plane as in a
cylindrical system. A line is formed by the intersection of two surfaces.

Fig 1.6a: Constant x, y, and z surfaces Fig 1.6b: Constant p, φ , and z surfaces

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 Fig 1.6c: Constant r, Ѳ, Ф surfaces

In Summary;
In all 2CS, 3CS and SCS;

If three of the space variables vary, we get volume structure. i.e (3D)

If two vary but one kept constant, we get surface (plane). i.e (2D)

If only one vary but two of them are constants, we get line or circle. i.e (1D)

If none of them vary but all kept constants, we get point. i.e (no dimension)
eg: r = constant, Ѳ = constant is a semicircle passing through Q and P.

The intersection of three surfaces gives a point.

Also, a unit normal vector to the surface n = constant is ± an, where n is x, y, z, ⍴, Ф, r, or Ѳ.
eg: to plane y = 5 and to plane Ѳ = 20°, a unit normal vectors are ±ay and ±aѲ resp.

1.7 Differential Length, Area, And Volume

The differential elements in the Cartesian, cylindrical and spherical co-ordinates are resp.

A. Cartesian Coordinates(2CS):
 Differential displacement is given by
dl = dx ax + dy ay + dz az
 Differential normal area is given by (3 positive & 6 total options)

 Differential volume is given by

dv= dx dy dz
B. Cylindrical Co-ordinates(3CS):
 Differential displacement is given by
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 dl = d⍴ a⍴ + ⍴dФ aФ + dz az
 Differential normal area is given by (3 positive & 6 total options)

 Differential volume is given by

dv= ⍴ d⍴ dФ dz
C. Spherical Coordinates(SCS):

Differential displacement is given by
dl = dr ar + r dѲ aѲ + r sinѲ dФ aФ

Differential normal area is given by (3 positive & 6 total options)

Differential volume is given by

dv= r2 sinѲ dr dѲ dФ

1.8 LINE, SURFACE, AND VOLUME INTEGRALS

⤿ The line integral VX :. W is the integral of the tangential component of A along curve L.
Given a vector field A and a curve L, we define the integral VX :. W = V |:|!#,( as the
Y

line integral of A around L.

contour integral ∮ : . W which is called the circulation of A around L.

⤿ If the path of integration is a closed curve (as Fig a below), the integral becomes a closed

⤿ Given a vector field A continuous in a region containing the smooth surface S, we define the

Ψ = ∬||!#, ] = ∬ :. ^ ] ⟹ Ψ = ∬ . ]
surface integral or the flux of A through S (see Figure (b)below) as

⤿ For a closed surface (defining a volume), the surface integral becomes ∮ : . ] which is
where, at any point on S, an is the unit normal to S.

referred to as the net outward flux of A from S.

⤿ We define the integral V <` a as the volume integral of the scalar <v over the volume v.
⤿ NB: a closed path defines an open surface whereas a closed surface defines a volume.

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 (a) (b)

Figure (a) Path of integration of vector field A

(b) The flux of a vector field A through surface S.

Example: Given that F=x2ax –xz ay –y2 az, calculate the circulation of F around the (closed) path
shown in Figure below.
Solution:
The circulation of F around path L is given by ∮d b. W = (Vc + V + Ve + Vf ) b. W
where the path is broken into segments numbered 1 to 4 as shown in the Figure.
For segment 1, y= 0 = z

Notice that dl is always taken as along +ax so that the direction on segment 1 is taken care of by
the limits of integration. Thus,

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By putting all these together, we obtain

d
1 2 5 1
g b. W = − + 0 − + = −
d 3 3 6 6

1.9 DEL OPERATOR(h)

The del operator, written as ∇, is the vector differential operator.

 The gradient of a scalar V, written, as ∇j

The operator is useful in defining:

 The divergence of a vector A, written as ∇. :

 The curl of a vector A, written as ∇x
 The Laplacian of a scalar V, written as ∇ j

l l l

In Cartesian coordinates,

∇=  +  + 
l+ l1 l2

In cylindrical coordinates,
l 1 l l
∇= > + ∅ + 
l< < l∅ l2

In spherical coordinates,
l 1 l 1 l
∇= ? + @ + 
l$ $ l, $ , l∅ ∅

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 1.10 GRADIENT OF A SCALAR(hV)
⤿ The gradient of a scalar field V is a vector that represents both the magnitude and the
direction of the maximum space rate of increase of V.

lj lj lj
⤿ For Cartesian co-ordinates (2CS):

∇V =  +  + 
l+ l1 l2 

lj 1 lj lj
⤿ For Cylindrical co-ordinates (3CS):

∇V = > + ∅ + 
l< < l∅ l2 
⤿ For Spherical co-ordinates (SCS):
lj 1 lj 1 lj
∇= ? + @ + 
l$ $ l, $ , l∅ ∅
⤿ For U and V are scalars and n is an integer, the following formulas on gradient are true

⤿ If  = ∇j, V is said to be the scalar potential of A.

(a) j = " N  2+ !#ℎ1 (b) n = < 2 !#2∅ (c) o = 10$   , !#∅
Example: Find the gradient of the following scalar fields:

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 1.11 DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR AND DIVERGENC THEOREM

∮ :. ]. The divergence of A at a given point P is

The net outflow of the flux of a vector field A from a closed surface S is obtained from the integral

 The outward flux per unit volume as the volume shrinks about P.
 A measure of how much the field diverges or emanates from that point.
 The limit of the field's source strength per unit volume (or source density); it is positive at a
source point in the field, and negative at a sink point, or zero where there is neither sink nor
source.
Hence,

where ∇j is the volume enclosed by the closed surface S in which P is located.

 In Figure (a) the divergence of a vector field at point P is positive because the
vector diverges (or spreads out) at P.
 In Figure (b) a vector field has negative divergence (or convergence) at P, and
 In Figure (c) a vector field has zero divergence at P.

Figure: Illustration of the divergence of a vector field at P; (a) positive divergence, (b) negative
divergence, (c) zero divergence.

l
l
l

The divergence of A in the Cartesian, cylindrical & spherical coordinates is given respectively

∇.  = + +
l+ l1 l2

Note the following properties of the divergence of a vector field:

1. It produces a scalar field (because scalar product is involved).
2. The divergence of a scalar V, div V, makes no sense.
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3. ∇. (: + p) = ∇. : + ∇. p
4. ∇. (j:) = j∇. : + :. ∇j

∯ :. ] = ∭` h. : a ≡≡ ∮t :. ] = V` h. :a
From the definition of the divergence of A, we expect that

This is called the divergence theorem, otherwise known as the Gauss-Ostrogradsky theorem.
The divergence theorem states that the total out ward flux of a vector field A through the closed
surface S is the same as the volume integral of the divergence of A.

Figure: Volume v enclosed by surface S.

Since volume integrals are easier to evaluate than surface integrals, to determine the flux of A
through a closed surface, it is better to use the volume integral than the surface integral.

(b) Q = ⍴ sin Фa⍴ + ⍴2z aФ +zcosФ az

Example: Determine the divergence of these vector fields:
(a) P = x2yz ax + xz az
(c) v = w !#,? + $ ,!#∅@ + !#,∅
O
?
Solution:

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 1.12 CURL OF A VECTOR AND STOKES'S THEOREM
We defined the circulation of a vector field A around a closed path L as the integral ∮d  ⋅ y.
The curl of A is an axial (or rotational) vector whose magnitude is the maximum circulation of A per
unit area as the area tends to zero and whose direction is the normal direction of the area when the
area is oriented so as to make the circulation maximum. That is

and is determined using the right-hand rule. To obtain an expression for ∇+ from the above
where the area ∆S is bounded by the curve L and an is the unit vector normal to the surface ∆S

definition, consider the differential area in the yz-plane as shown in the following Figure.

Figure: Contour used in evaluating the x-component of ∇+ at point P(x0, y0, z0).

The line integral is obtained as

We expand the field components in a Taylor series expansion about the center point P(xo, yo, zo)

In general, the curl of A in Cartesian coordinates is summarized below

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In general, the curl of A in cylindrical coordinates is given below

In general, the curl of A in spherical coordinates is given by

Note the following properties of the curl:

The physical significance of the curl of a vector field is

 it provides the maximum value of the circulation of the field per unit area (or circulation
density) and indicates the direction along which this maximum value occurs.
 a measure of the circulation or how much the field curls around a point. For example,
Figure (a) below shows that the curl of a vector field around P is directed out of the page.
Figure (b) below shows a vector field with zero curl.

Figure: Illustration of a curl: (a) curl at P points out of the page; (b) curl at P is zero.
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Also, from the definition of the curl of A, we say the following relationship which is called Stokes's
theorem.
g ⋅ y = z(h × ) ⋅ |
d t

surface integral of the curl of A over the open surface S bounded by provided that A and ∇x: are
Stokes's theorem states that the circulation of a vector field A around a (closed) path is equal to the

continuous on S.
Note that whereas the divergence theorem relates a surface integral to a volume integral,
Stokes's theorem relates a line integral (circulation) to a surface integral.
Example1: Determine the curl of the vector fields:

(b) Q = ⍴ sin Фa⍴ + ⍴2z aФ +zcosФ az

(a) P = x2yz ax + xz az

Example2:

Figure for example 2

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Page | 21
 1.13 LAPLACIAN OF A SCALAR(h  j)

 The Laplacian of a scalar field V, written as h  } is the divergence of the gradient of V.

 Laplacian is a single operator which is the composite of gradient and divergence operators.

A scalar field V is said to be harmonic in a given region if its Laplacian vanishes in that region. In
other words, if ∇ 2 V = 0 is satisfied in the region. The solution for V is harmonic (it is of the form of
sine or cosine). This equation is called Laplace's equation.

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Example: Find the Laplacian of the scalar fields

 But the Laplacian of a vector field A, written as ∇ : is defined as the gradient of the

∇ : = h(h. :) − h~(h~:)
divergence of A minus the curl of the curl of A. i.e

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 1.14 CLASSIFICATION OF VECTOR FIELDS
A vector field is uniquely characterized by its divergence and curl. Neither the divergence nor
curl of a vector field is sufficient to completely describe the field. All vector fields can be classified
in terms of their vanishing or nonvanishing divergence or curl as follows:

Figure: Typical fields with vanishing and nonvanishing divergence or curl

A vector field A is said to be solenoidal (or divergenceless) if h.  = 0. Such a field has neither
source nor sink of flux. Hence, flux lines of A entering any closed surface must also leave it.
Examples of solenoidal fields are incompressible fluids, magnetic fields, and conduction current
density under steady state conditions, according to divergence theorem which is restated below
 ⋅ | = € (h ⋅ ) j = 0
t 

The divergence of a curl of A is zero. i.e ∇. (∇+:) = 0 for any vector A. Thus, a solenoidal field A
can always be expressed in terms of another vector F; that is,

If ∇.  = 0 then, ∯t  ⋅ | = 0 and  = ∇x‚

∇.  = 0 then, ∯t  ⋅ S = 0 and  = ∇x

For a magnetic flux density B and magnetic vector potential A,

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A vector field A is said to be irrotational (or potential) if ∇x = 0.That is, a curl-free vector
is irrotational. From Stokes's theorem,

Thus, for irrotational field A,

 the circulation of A around a closed path is identically zero or
 the line integral of A is independent of the chosen path.
 is also known as a conservative field.

In general, the curl of gradient of V (for any scalar V) is purely irrotational since ∇+ (∇j ) = 0.
Examples of irrotational fields include the electrostatic field and the gravitational field.

Thus, an irrotational field A can always be expressed in terms of a scalar field V; that is

if ∇x = 0, then g ⋅ y = 0 and  = −∇V

d
For an electric field intensity E and scalar electric potential V,
∇x‹ = 0 then, ∮d ‹ ⋅ y = 0 and ‹ = −∇V

For this reason, A may be called a potential field and V the scalar potential of A.
A vector A is uniquely prescribed within a region by its divergence and its curl. If we let

ρV can be regarded as the source density of A and ρ S its circulation density. Any vector A
satisfying the above equation with both ρV and ρ S vanishing at infinity can be written as the sum
of two vectors: one irrotational (zero curl), the other solenoidal (zero divergence). This is called
Helmholtz 's theorem. Thus, we may write

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