+ 1

+ 3 - 3 - 2 -
I
+ 2
Electrochemical series

K+ F-

I
<
potassium
>
fluoride
↑

Nat <
sodium so >
sulfate Room Temperature (25 )
%

white
Cart >
calcium NOj <
nitrate F- -
gas (pale yellow)

Mgt CI chloride
(greenish yellow)
-
< Cl
magnesium gas

Alt Br
J
c aluminium bromide Br >
liquid (orange
silver

In2
+
> zin I < iodine I' < solid (purplish black)

3 OH ,
Fezt >
-
ferum/iron grey hydroxide liquid (brown
sn't I
stanum/tin 3 silver
More reactive COs" >
carbonate
gas (purple)
pp2
+

plumbam / leads grey 02- oxide

H
+

hydrogen POP phosphate

crit > coppers brown 1)
Magnesium Chloride

Agt >
argentum/silver MgCl2
Aut- aurum/gold
> 2)
Copper (11) sulfate

NHy" >
-
ammonium CuSO4

Atoms
Describe structure of an atom (3)
neutron

· Atom consists of a
positively-charged nucleus .

( *protone e- orbit/shell
iron
There

no
are

charge
positively charged protons
in it.
Negatively charged
and neutrons

e- orbit
which

the nucleus
have

in

electron shell .

mass/nucleon number PN :
Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
↑

23
MN : Total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
.

A
11

>
proton / atomic number

Nat-gainer
lose e- 23
23 +
+

11 p Na

·
11p Ip

12n 12n

10e 12e

Isotopes

& NaNa Atoms of the same element which have same

proton number but different mass number
 Salts
i

compound made of the & -ve ions Cionic compounds

1)
All KT
,
Nat
,
HHyt ,
NOz are soluble

2) All Soy are soluble except PCB-

> barium

↓
calcium
plumbum
Clead)

plumbum
3) x
All Galides (F- Cl Br If soluble
, , ,
are
except P A

argentum (silver)

4) All carbonates insoluble Kt Hat HH,T

are
except , ,

5) All hydroxides are insoluble except It ,

Nat
,
NHyl CA2t (partially
,
soluble

Gas Test

↑.
02

Hz
Lighted Splint
CO2 Lime Water
cloudy /milky
NH3 Damp red litmus turn into blue
paper

bleached

Dampblitmuspapera
the litmus paper is

to colourless
purple
acidified (VI)
potassium mag anate
 Cation Test (Al kali) -

p =

precipitate

II I
* * * *
Ions IOH Excess NH3 Excess

+
k

Nat

Wp
Ca2
+
Wp
change
-

No

+ Wp Up Wp
Mg2 WP

3+
wp up
A, Dissolve to form wp

↓
in excess

+ wp
In 2 colourless solution wp soluble in excess to form colourless solution

2t Green P
I= Insoluble but GP GP (surface
brown))
in excess turns brown on surface turn
oxidise
Fest Red brown P
Insoluble in excess Red Brown P Red Brown P

Sp2t

wp
pb2
+

Dissolve in excess to form colourless solution wp Wp

+
H

Cu2
+
light blue p
Insoluble in excess Light blue P Insoluble in excess to form dark blue solution

Agt

Aut

+
Cr3 Green P
Dissolve to form solution Green P GP
grey green

Test ( 1)
#ame ions + re

=
group ,

Test Observation How ? -

Use a nichrome wire to dip into the solution and

Coz it the the bunsen burner and

remove
, place wire near

observe

soup
Wp
the colour change
a
Lit -
D red warm
I PA
+
C1- C1 Wp Na
yellow
: - +

+
cold
K W
Br silver nitrate solution Br :
Cream P - + lilac

I- I
: Yellow P Cat -
orange red warm

Use oxidising agent :

SO3 sulfites acidified Bat-

potassium maganate (VI) purple to colourless light green

then place Cut ~

cold
NOs add NaOH on
NIts
- >
blue
green
gas
,

and damp red

paper blue)
aluminium foil warm (turn litmus

carefully
I *
Properation of Salts

can't be used inSoy2 halides ? L Soluble Kt Nat HHut-acid

Why plumbum and >
-

, ,
+ alkali

it will insoluble both.

not make a difference in the result as plumbum is in >
- others -
acid + metal (m)

observation -
acid + metal carbonate (mc)

-
acid + metal oxide (mo)

4)
Insoluble >
-

use 2 soluble solutions (precipitation/ double decomposition

Water Hy0

test
purity
-

determine boiling pointtobeoa

boiling
&
point
·

salts
·
↓
melting point (impurity )

Chemical test to test H20 .

2
Anhydrous Cobalt (1) chloride
-

1 .

Anhydrous copper (#) blue to

pink

~
white >
-
blue
dry

distilled water

impurity
·
no

!
why distilled water is used in
partical chemistry over tap water ?

because distilled water contains fewer impurities

Water from natural resources

Hey ,
what's in water ?

>
-

river
-

dissolved O2

> well metal compound (Pb Hg compound)

-
-

plastic
>
sea
-

ground
>
-

sewage
-

harmful microbes

nitrates from fertiliser

&
phosphates from fertiliser detergents
-

Eutrophication
·
the nitrate &
phosphates from fertilisers the
promote growth of algae on the surface of the river

will block
algae the sunlight
·

no sun
algae
x
~ W

3
fish
may
dislbecause of
deoxygenation
 Water H20

-
Useful substance in water

dissolve O2 (respiration for aquatic eye)

·

·
metal compounds (provide essential minerals for life =
Cat (

except heavy metal compound

-
Harmful substance in water

metal compound (toxic Pb2t mercury

·
=
,

plastic Charm aquatic life :

turtle will sufocate eating plastic ,
assume they are jellyfish
·

sewage (contain harmful microbes that cause disease =

choleral
·
nitrates &
phosphate (cause entrophication >
-

deoxygenation of water

Filtration

·
-

-
vojv
O-

1) sedimentation & filtration

↓
remove insoluble substance
sink the substances
into water

2) carbon >
-

remove the taste & odour

3) chlorination - add chlorine (to kill microorganisms)

#Fertilisa
es potassium
↓

nitrogen phosphorus
-

to make proteins
-

to make genetics materials

to make chlorophy It

Ammonium salts

NHy"
3-
PO4

(NHuls POy -

(14 x3) + (1x(2) + 31 +

(16x4) = 149

x 100 =
= 9

NHy NOs -

(14 x2) + 4 +
(16x3)
8 X 100
80
Calculate for the :

1) aluminium nitrate Al (NOs)y =

27 + (14x3) +
(16x9)

-3 x 100 =
13

2)
phosphoric acid HsPOy =
(1x 3) + 30 +
(16x4)

- *100 =
3

3)
copper (H) sulfate (16x4)
CuSO4
=
64 + 32 +

= x 100 =
40

4)
copper (1) sulfate CuzSOn =
(64x2) + 32 + (16x4)

=
+ x 100 = 71

5) sodium chloride NaCl = 23 +

35

= x100 =
40

6)
magnesium chloride
C +BER
MgCl2
= 26

7) ammonium chloride NHy(l = 14 +

(1x4) + 35

-
x100 =
26

8)
:
zinc oxide InO 16

-100
80
=

9) carbonate K [Oz (39x2) (16x3)

potassium
+
= + 12
,

= x100 =
57

10) iron (11) hydroxide Fe(OH)2 = 56 + 16 +

(1x2)

-x100 =
76
Endothermic

reaction that take in thermo from the surrounding leading to decrease of the temperature of the
energy ,
a

surrounding (absorb heat from surrounding)

1) H2O (NHyCl
Dissolving salt NOz)
:
ammonium in NHy
,

2) Solid Liquid > Gas

S > L G
sublimation
melting boiling S
Solid > Gas
-

3) see
decomposition(useheat
Thermal to break down substan
energy Deposition

*
=
CaCOs c
CaO + CO2
.

4)rg
14 photosynthesis
Exothermic

reaction that transfer thermo

energy to the surrounding ,
leading to an increase of the
temperature of the surrounding
(release heat to the surrounding
: 1) Gas >
Liquid < Solid
condensation freezing

2) Most reaction -
acid HCl NaOH NaCI H2O
involving > + >
- +

3) / combustion
Burning Mg + 2H( +
Mg((z +
H20
4)
Rusting

level
Energy diagram
*
Endothermic Exothermic
↑
:
Represent the
following reaction
using level diagram
product R
Mg + 2H(1 >
MgCl2 +
H20
-

P
/
#H = - ...
kJ/mo
X
AH = +... kJ/mol
R Mg + 2H()

"p 1 H =
-
... 100k5/mol
reactant
Mg(12
+
H20
~

Profile Diagram
Energy
Endothermic Exothermic * Ea activation
energy
=

I inf
↑
↑

Deffinition that
Ed minimum the
colliding particles must have in order to react
=

energy
P

⑭
R W ~

* AH
anthalpy change of reaction
=

transfer of thermal
energy during a reaction
 H -
(1 + Na -
0 -
H - Na - C + H -
0 -
H

1 H = -

52k5/mol

Why AH is
negative
? (Exothermic)

released formation
more
energy is
during of bond compared to
energy
absorbed to break the bond

Why AH is
positive ? (Endothermic)

more
energy
is absorbed
during formation of bond compared to
energy
released to break the bond

Enovalent
bon
ding x
~
ant Covalent structure
,

Gro
electrons
sharing
>
& used for
low
boiling lubricant
-

melting point
-
!
&
low electrical conductivity

:
Exp :
Chlorine Cl
② Diamond
gas ,

*
-
·
XX S
used for
>
Single covalent
bonding # cutting tools
-

① X

⑨
Cl ·
a
·
XX

Ionic
bonding

↑
and lose electrons
gain

&
high boiling
>
melting points

high electrical
conductivity

:
Exp :
Sodium chloride ,
NaCI

A
late of Reaction ,

>
-

HCl + HaOH >

-
NaCl +
H2O
NaCl

W
To -HC

2 conditions 1) The two collide with sufficient (Ea)

particles must
:

energy

2) Head to head O 50
collision

>
-

Factors that affect Rate of Reaction :

1)
Temperature :
The particles move faster with
higher RE . More
proportion of particles will achieve Ea
.

Collision) ↑. of collision) ↑.
FOC
(Frequency of FOSC
(Frequency successful RORY.

2) Total surface (more for collide

area
space particle to

3) Increase
pressure (gas)

4) Concentration The number of volume ↑ FOCA FOSCA RORN

particles unit
:
per
.
. .

5) (reduce
Catalyst minimum
energy for collision )
 Acid ,
Bases and Salt Preperation,
-

4 (Ht)
Acid :
a substance that
produces hydrogen ions in water .

Examples acid acidweak

trong =
=

chloride
x
(i)
hydrochloric acid (HC1) ethonic acid (CHyCOOH) /CHuO2 (vinegar]
>
- nitrate

(ii) Nitric acid (HNO3)

(Sulphuric) >
- sulfate
(iii) Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)

~
Phosphoric acid (HyPO4) Practice 1 :
Predict the substance
-

Properties of Acid
#hemical ionic compound
II & zinc +
hydrochloric acid >
-

zinc chloride +
hydrogen
~ (1)
C &
Acid metal
salt+hydrogen copper (1) carbonate sulphuric acid sulfate
- +
+ >
copper
+
CO2 +
H20
-

Eg 2HCl Mg(12
+
He & oxide acid nitrate
magnesium nitric
magnesium water
+ > > +
Mg
: -
+ -

H2SOn + 2Na-
>
NazSOn
+
He & magnesium hydroxide
H +
hydrochloric acid >
-

magnesium chloride + water

& Acid + metal carbonate >

-
salt + carbon dioxide + water ⑤
copper
(1) carbonate +
nitric acid >
-

copper (II) nitrate

+
carbon dioxide + water

Eg
:
MgCOs -
& zinc carbonate acid sulfate
2H + CO2 sulphuric 102
+
+ +
H >
-
zinc +
water +

2HNOz +
NazCO3 >
-

NaNOz +
CO2 + H2O ⑦ Iron +
hydrochloric acid - iron (1) Chloride +
He
& -
&

& bases / Alkali (neutralisation] ⑧ oxide acid MgCl2

+ H2O
Acid
Magnesium hydrochloric
>
+ -
salt + water + >
-

& acid
Eg HNOs NaOH
DaNOy H2O Calcium hydrochloric chloride H20 dioxide
+
: >
- +
carbonate + >
-
calcium + +
carbon
=
-
&

H2SO4
=>
+
Ca(OH) z >
-
CaSOn + 2H20 ⑳ Magnesium + sulfuric acid >
-

magnesium sulfate +
He
&
>
-

H +no +2nC1z +
H20

Alkali : a soluble base that produces hydroxide (OH) in water

Bases =
Examples :
Soluble bases (NaOH ,
KOH
,
Ca(OH)n] * Ammonium :
NHyt (salt)

Insoluble bases ((u0 ,

etc. ) * Ammonia : NH
3 (gas)
Chemical Reactions

&

&
Alkali

Alkali +
+ Acid

Ammonium
>
-

salt
salt

>
-
+
water

salt
(Neutralisation]
+ water + ammonia
in
(purgent vene me
 im
tractice hydroxide +
ammonium nitrate -> sodium nitrate + water +
ammonia

NaOH +
NHy NOz >
-
NaNOs + H20 + NH
3

② potassium hydroxide + ammonium sulfate-

potassium sulfate + water
+ ammonia

KzSOr 2H20 +
2NH3
2 KOH t
(NHy)2SO4 >
- +

③ sodium hydroxide +
ammonium chloride >
-
sodium chloride + water + ammonia

>
+ NHyCl
-
NaCI +
NaOH H20 +
NH3

Practice
-

1) Aluminium Sulfuric acid aluminium

hydrogen
- >
-
sulfate +

Al H2SO4 Al SO4

2) acid
zinc
hydroxide + sulfuric -> zinc sulfate + water

3)
Copper (1) Carbonate + sulfuric acid >
-

copper (E) sulfate + carbon dioxide + water

apter
Chemical boading :

·
Lesson obj :

compare ionic ,
covalent
,
metallic bond
Eg :
Na metal

sea G
# Ionic bond formed between
by Fransfer positive and
is of electrons
negative ions
.
=
-
--

7 gO
I
Nat of electr i s

S
=
a formed between
valent bond is
by sharing of electrons two non-metals . - -

3)
bond formed between and
e of a
electrons .
Metallic is
by the eletrostatic attraction positive ions

Dot-and-cross

#
A Ionic bond-Electron Transfer
·
:
rules :
First shell max =
2e-ovalence electron =
outmost shell e-

Ionic
compound metal Second shell 8e- Not
~
· non-metal
eg
: + ~
max = :
-
-

guration
i

,
Hal Third
Es shell Se-
~ : ~
max =

[First 20 elements) -

2 . 8 .
8 . 2

~
Al-13 protons
eg
:

~
ot-and-cross
⑳configuratio n

1) Ca20 (Car 10]

+
20 : 18 02 : 8 :

·"

"