2013 Mathematics Module Part 1

KITWE COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
PRIMARY TEACHERS’ DIPLOMA
MATHEMATICS EDUCATION
MODULE 1A
MATHEMATICS EDUCATION
Programme Coordinator: ……………………… Ms Mwansa M. C. M
Course Coordinator: …………………………… Mr. Mitti M.
Authors: …………………………………………. Mr. Mitti M.
Mrs. Kapena J.C.
Mr. Kapasa. J.
Mr. Muyangali M.
Mr. Shatewa C.
Mr. Mubanga P.
Mr. Zulu W.K.
Language Editor/s: …………………………….

Content Editor/s: ………………………………
Graphic Artist/Illustrator: ……………………
Instructional Designer/s: ……………………… Mr Kaoma Blackstone
Mr Musakalu N. Carlos
Mr Musonda M. Brian
Consultant: ……………………………………… Mrs Stella Kasase
© Kitwe College of Education 2010

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or means, electronic, mechanical,
recording, or otherwise without the prior written permission of the copyright owner.
Mathematics Education Section P.O. BOX 22596
Acknowledgements
The Open and Distance Education Unit of Kitwe College of Education would like to thank the
following:
 Directorate of Open and Distance Education (DODE) in the Ministry of Education for
authorizing the college to start the programme.
 We cannot forget to mention Mrs. Nyangu W.W. (Principal Education Officer – DODE
and Mr. Mtonga Chola (Senior Education Officer – DODE) for facilitating the training
of our staff in Open and Distance Learning.
VVOB – Zambia for technical and financial support

Contents
PRIMARY TEACHERS’ DIPLOMA, 1
How this Primary Teachers’ Diploma is structured ................................................. 1
Getting around this Primary Teachers’ Diploma 2

Timeframe ......................................................................................................................... 3
Unit 1 5
1.0 NATURE OF MATHEMATICS ................................................................................ 5
Introduction ............................................................................................................. 5
1.1 EDUCATIONISTS AND PSYCHOLOGISTS VIEW OF THE NATURE OF
MATHEMATICS .................................................................................................... 6
1.2 Definition of Mathematics................................................................................. 6
What is mathematics? .................................................................................... 7
Why should children study mathematics? ..................................................... 8
Responsibilities when teaching mathematics................................................. 8
1.3 application of mathematics in real life .............................................................. 8
teaching and learning aids .............................................................................. 9
importance of teaching/learning aids ............................................................. 9
qualities of a good teaching aid ................................................................... 10
factors determining the selection of teaching aids ....................................... 10
assignment.................................................................................................... 10
Unit 2 13
NUMBER AND NUMERATION .................................................................................. 13
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 13
A number is an abstract idea used to describe a quantity such as one, two, three,
four, and so on. ...................................................................................................... 13
A numeral is a written symbol used to represent a quantity such as 1, 2, 3 and so
on. We see numerals and not numbers. ................................................................. 13
Early number system ............................................................................................. 14
Expressing the Egyptian numeration into Hindu – Arabic.................................... 16
(d) HINDU-ARABIC NUMERATION ....................................................... 19
Unit 3 21
SET THEORY ................................................................................................................ 21
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 21
definition of sets .................................................................................................... 22
member of sets....................................................................................................... 22
number of elements in a set. .................................................................................. 22
SOLUTIONS ............................................................................................... 23
TYPES OF SETS ......................................................................................... 24

OPERATION OF SETS .............................................................................. 25
Union............................................................................................................ 26
Complement ................................................................................................. 28
Shading Sets In Venn Diagrams .................................................................. 28
SETS OF NUMBERS ........................................................................................... 34
NUMBER BASES ................................................................................................ 39
FROM ONE BASE TO ANOTHER ..................................................................... 41
addition and subtraction of number bases ............................................................. 42
MULTIPLICATION OF NUMBER BASES........................................................ 44
Multiplication in base twelve ....................................................................... 48
RECTANGULAR NUMBERS ............................................................................. 53
TRIANGULAR NUMBERS ................................................................................. 54
UNIT 4.0 58
The Four Operations ...................................................................................................... 58
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 58
Addition ................................................................................................................. 58
Properties ............................................................................................................... 58
Methods of Dealing with Addition ........................................................................ 59
Errors in Addition .................................................................................................. 61
Causes of Errors in Addition ................................................................................. 61
Recommended Remedial Work............................................................................. 61
SUBTRACTION .............................................................................................................. 62
Terminologies ........................................................................................................ 62
Properties ............................................................................................................... 62
Methods of Dealing with Subtraction ................................................................... 62
Errors in Subtraction ............................................................................................. 64
Causes of Errors in Subtraction ............................................................................. 65
Recommended Remedial Work............................................................................. 65
Multiplication ........................................................................................................ 66
Terminologies ........................................................................................................ 66
Properties ............................................................................................................... 66
Methods of dealing with Multiplication ................................................................ 66
Common Mistakes in Multiplication ..................................................................... 69
Causes of Error in Multiplication .......................................................................... 70
Remedial Measures ............................................................................................... 70
DIVISION ............................................................................................................. 70
Terminologies ........................................................................................................ 71
Properties of Division ............................................................................................ 71
Methods of Dealing with Division ........................................................................ 72
KITWE COLLEGE OF EDUCATION – Mathematics Module One Part 1
PRIMARY TEACHERS’ DIPLOMA,

Primary Teachers’ Diploma, Module 1A, has been produced by Mathematics
Education .All Modules produced by Mathematics Education are structured in the
same way, as outlined below.
How this Primary Teachers’ Diploma is

structured
The course overview
The course overview gives you a general introduction to the course.
Information contained in the course overview will help you determine:
 If the course is suitable for you.
 What you will already need to know.
 What you can expect from the course.
 How much time you will need to invest to complete the
course.
The overview also provides guidance on:
 Study skills.
 Where to get help.
 Course assignments and assessments.
 Activity icons.
 Units.
We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before starting
your study.
The course content

The course is broken down into units. Each unit comprises:
 An introduction to the unit content.
 Unit outcomes.
 New terminology.
 Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities.
1
Getting around this Primary Teachers’ Diploma

While working through this module you will notice the frequent use of margin
icons. These icons serve to “signpost” a particular piece of text, a new task or
change in activity; they have been included to help you to find your way around
this module.
A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize yourself
with the icons and their meaning before starting your study.
Activity Assessment Outcomes
Terminology Study skills Summary
2
Timeframe
The duration of the course is three (3) years. At the end of each term you
will be required to come for a contact/residential session for 10 days. You
will be expected to spend:
 4 hours of contact per week,
How long?
 2 hours tutorials per week
You are also advised to spend at least 10 hours of self study time per
week, for a period of three (3) years. This should give you a total of 1,
170 hours of self study time.
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 Demonstrate sufficient knowledge and skills in mathematics to enable

teachers teach with confidence.
 Use mathematics as a problem-solving tool and a means of communication.
Outcomes  Show the relationship between mathematics and real life and apply this to
teaching.
 Show the relationship between mathematics and other subjects and apply
this to teaching.
 Demonstrate an understanding of how learners learn mathematics.
 Devise mathematics learning experiences that enhance learning
opportunities according to pupils’ abilities and needs
 Demonstrate .ability to integrate cross cutting issues (e.g. H.I.V/A.I.D.S,
gender, environmental education, and SEN).in teaching of mathematics.
Apart from the assignments discussed above you will be

assessed as follows:
YEAR ONE
Assessments
2 written tests 20% each 40%
Promotion Examination in term 3 30%
YEAR TWO
2 written tests 20%each 40%
Promotion Examinations 30%
1 Teaching Practice 10%
YEAR THREE
2 written assignment 20%each 40%
Final examination in term ,3 30%
4
Unit 1
1.0 NATURE OF MATHEMATICS

Introduction
Think a little bit about the nature of mathematics. To do so you are expected to carry out a research
on various views several educationists and psychologists have advanced on the nature of
Mathematics
Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:
 Explain different views advanced by different educationists and

psychologists regarding the nature of mathematics..
 Define what mathematics is.
Outcomes
 Show the relationship between mathematics and real life.
 Show the relationship between mathematics and other subjects.
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1.1 EDUCATIONISTS AND PSYCHOLOGISTS VIEW OF THE NATURE OF

MATHEMATICS
Before you continue in this unit, spend some time to find out how different
educationists view the nature of mathematics.You refer to Reys et al (1984).
You will be expected to state how different educationists view
mathematics.Their divergent views can be categorized as (logiscists,Formalist,
platonists,Conventionalists,Empiricists andConstructivists)
Logicists
Contend that mathematics is simply logic
Formalists
Contend that mathematics is a formal game
Intuitionists
Human beings created mathematics in their minds
Platinists
Mathematics is not created but rather discovered from nature.
Conventionalists
Mathematics is more like a language and its truth is based on linguistic
conventions.
1.2 Definition of Mathematics

With the divergent views by different educationists, how would you define
mathematics?
Write your definitions on separate sheet of paper and compare them with the
following definitions.
 Mathematics is a science of numbers and space.
 It is systematized, organised and exact branch of science
 It is a science of measurements, quantity and magnitude
 It is the numerical and calculation part of man’s life and knowledge.
Clearly, we see that mathematics is a multifaceted subject, it may be

considered as a tool, a language, an art, a science and above all a way of
thinking.
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What is mathematics?
You have learnt mathematics and have taught mathematics, have you ever thought of
finding out what mathematics is? If you have ever done so, how have you defined
mathematics? Or what do you think constitute mathematics? Is mathematics
arithmetic, or is it a matter of computational skills?
As a teacher walking into the classroom, responsible for teaching a group of children
mathematics, what mathematics do you think you will be teaching, how will you teach
it and what mathematical knowledge will the children in my classroom have as they
begin each session.
To answer these questions, definitely you will identify what mathematics is.
You realise that it is not easy to give one simple straight forward definition or
description. The idea of mathematics will depend so much on your experiences and
your knowledge of the subject.
Let us look at what Ryes etal (1989), say about mathematics.
1. Mathematics as the study of patterns and relationships. You will be required to
make your learners become aware of recurring ideas and of relationship
between and among mathematical think that this provides a unifying thread
throughout the curriculum, for each topic is interwoven with others that have
preceded it.
2. Mathematics as a way of thinking, do you agree to the assertion that

mathematics provides us strategies for organising, analysing and synthesizing
data? How does mathematics influence your thinking?
3. Mathematics as an art. it is argued that mathematics is characterised by order

and internal consistency. You realise that most learners come to think of
mathematics as a confusing set of discrete facts and skills that must be
memorised. Because of the tendency to focus on developing the skills required
to “do” mathematics, we forget that children need to be guided to realise and to
appreciate the underlying orderliness and consistency.
4. Mathematics as a language.
How do you think mathematics becomes a language? Is it because of carefully
defined terms and symbols? Do you agree that, these terms and symbols
enhance ability to communicate about science and about other real-life
situations where you think mathematics takes a role of communication.
5. Mathematics as a tool. Examine your day to day activities; do you use
mathematics in your course of daily –life? If so, how? Therefore, how are you
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going to make your children come to appreciate why they are learning the
facts, skills and concepts?
From these descriptions outlined and many others, you may have thought of, is
it agreeable that mathematics is.
used in finding solutions to questions and problems which arise in everyday
life, in trades and professions?
Why should children study mathematics?

Generally, you will notice that in primary schools throughout the world much
time and effort is given to the study of mathematics. Why is mathematics
considered to be such an important subject? Only if you can answer these
questions, will you begin to consider ways of helping your learners to progress
in the subject.
In your everyday life, you are supposed to:
 Count and make simple calculations with numbers
 Know about money and be able to make simple calculations
 Measure and make simple calculations.
More over in the modern world, mathematics is being increasingly used
in science, technology, industry, government, education and economics.
To have people able to cope with demands of these subjects at higher
level, a proper foundation need to be provided at basic school.
Responsibilities when teaching mathematics

Having identified the need for children to learn mathematics, as a teacher you
have a great responsibility to:
 Equip the child to live effectively in this modern age of technology and
enable the learner to contribute to the social and economic development
of Zambia.
 Stimulate and encourage creativity and problem solving.
 Develop the mathematical ability of a learner to the learner’s full potential
and assist him/her to study mathematics as a discipline and to use it as a
tool to understanding other subject areas.
 Assist the learner to understand mathematical concepts in order that he/she
may comprehend his/her environment better.
1.3 application of mathematics in real life

Now that you have defined mathematics, why do you think mathematics is important in your
everyday life?
In your own words, list five areas where mathematics is used and compare with the following:
 In technology
8
 In agriculture
 In work places
 For domestic purposes
teaching and learning aids

Teaching aids are any kind of material whether audio or visual used by the
teacher to improve the quality of teaching and learning.
Teaching aids can help to make ideas and concepts clear and can help raise
learning from verbalism to true understanding. Teaching aids can also make
learning interesting and vivid.
The selection of a variety of teaching aids often follows the choice of methods
of teaching mathematics in schools.
Teaching aids enable learners to; understand basic number relationships, the
idea of place value, the inter relationships of the four basic operations of
addition subtraction
Multiplication and division, the geometrical properties of plane and solid
shapes and the various usage of number in real life.
In this section we identify and describe some of the teaching aids which can be
used in teaching basic school mathematics. You are therefore advised to spend
some time on this section because effective teaching basically depends on
methods and teaching aids used.
importance of teaching/learning aids
Before we look at various teaching aids, let us spend some time looking at the
importance of teaching aids.
1. They stand as a substitute in place of real life situation. Example, a chart of
a sphere.
2. They make learning real and practical.
3. They arouse pupils’ interest in learning.
4. They ease the teaching on the part of the teacher.
5. What is taught practically using teaching aids lasts longer in the pupils
mind than what is taught theoretically without teaching aids.
6. They involve learners in learning, example when teaching about fractions,
let the pupils come with oranges and allow them to cut the oranges in
pieces.
7. Teaching aids drawn on charts can be referred to at the pupils own time.
8. Teaching aids facilitate understanding of the basic mathematical ideas
especially if a variety of groups of objects are used.
9. Provide variety to teaching methods.
10. Learners are motivated hence pay attention
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11. Stimulate intellectual curiosity in pupils.

12. Retention of knowledge gained is consolidated.
qualities of a good teaching aid

1)Big enough to be seen by whole class.
2)It must be attractive enough to capture and hold the pupils attention.
3)If it is a chart it must be simple, should not have too much details which
will confuse the pupils. It should not be too cloudy and colourful.
4)Should make the message clear in relation to the topic to be taught.
5)Tell the truth, accurate and authentic.
6)Portable and durable, made from strong materials.
7)Not too expensive, something that can be easily be made by pupils.
8)Must be flexible- it can be used sometimes to teach more than one concept.
factors determining the selection of teaching aids

1. The method used.
2. The level of the class being handled.
3. The environment in which learning or teaching is taking place.
4. The ability of pupils.
5. The nature of the topic.
6. The facilities available in the school.
7. The time allocated to the period.
8. The knowledge of the teaching or learning aid by the teacher.
assignment
Question 1.For each of the following teaching/learning aid: write two concepts
learnt by using it.
1. Abacus
2. Clock face
3. Calendar
4. Number box
5. Geo board
6. Number strip
7. Hundred chart
8. Show pocket
9. Dot pattern cards
10. Hollow cubes
11. Protractor
12. Tape measure
13. Scale balance
14. Numeral card.
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Questions 2.What are the advantages and disadvantages of teaching aids?

Expected Answers
Concepts learnt:
1. Abacus
Adding and subtracting numbers

Teaching the concept of place value
2. Clock face telling time angles
3. Calendar dates days of the week
4. Number box Place value Counting
5. Geo-board Regular shapes Angles
6. Number Strip Counting Ordering numbers
7. Hundred Chart Addition Subtraction
8. Show Pocket Place value Addition
9. Dot pattern cards Number patterns Numerals
10. Hollow Cubes Volume/capacity Protractor
11. Measuring angles in degrees Drawing semi-circles Tape Measure
12. Linear measurement Scale balance Weighing and comparing objects
13. Introducing linear equations in one variable Numeral cards Building
number sentences
14. Matching
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Unit 2
NUMBER AND NUMERATION

Introduction
Do you think a number and a numeral are one and the same thing? In your teaching
experience, how have you been distinguishing numbers from numerals? Do you
agree that there is a difference between a number and a numeral?
A number is an abstract idea used to describe a quantity such as one, two, three,
four, and so on.
A numeral is a written symbol used to represent a quantity such as 1, 2, 3 and so on.

We see numerals and not numbers.

i. Differentiate a number from a numeral.
ii) Appreciate how numbers have evolved through civilizations.
Outcomes iii) Express numbers from one numeration system to another..
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Early number system

Among the earliest people to think about number systems were:-
EGYPTIANS
The Egyptian numeration system dates back to about 3,400 B.C. The system is
based on tally marks.
CHARACTERISTICS
i)The system is based on ten-ness (counting in tens).It corresponds to our present
day 10,100,1000, and so on.
ii) The system is based on the system of repetition in the use of symbols.
iii) The system is additive that is it uses the additive principle.
iv) The system is pictorial in nature.
v) The system has order in the way symbols are written.

The following are examples of the symbols that are used.
EGYPTIAN SYMBOL HINDU-ARABIC SYMBOL
10
14
100
1000
10000
100000
15
1000000
Expressing the Egyptian numeration into Hindu – Arabic
Activity 1
Express the following Egyptian Numerals into Hindu – Arabic
1. 1000 + 1000 +10 = 2010
2. 100 + 100 + 100 + 3 = 303
3. 1000 + 1000 + 100 + 100 +100 +10 +10 +1 = 2321
BABYLONIAN NUMERATION
The Babylonian numeration system was quite different from the Egyptian
numeration. The system had very little use because of its complication.
CHARACTERISTICS
i) Only two symbols were used for one and for ten.
ii) Symbol for one was also used as symbol for sixty.
iii) The system uses a gap or comma for place values.
IV) The system uses a basic group size of sixty (powers of 60).
v) Numbers from 1-59 were built up through the use of repetition
and addition.
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The following are examples of symbols that are used

Babylonian numeral Hindu- Arabic numeral
▼ 1
< 10
EXPRESSING ARABIC NUMBERS INTO BABYLONIAN NUMERATION

Write each of the following numbers in Babylonian numerals 560
SOLUTION
Since the number is less than 3600 but more than 60, we divide it by 60.
560 ÷ 60 = 9 r 20
=9 20
▼▼▼▼▼▼▼▼▼ <<
20 000Solution
Since the is more than 3600, first we find the number of 3600s, then the 60s from
the remainder
20000 ÷ 3600 = 5 r 2000
2000 ÷ 60 = 33 r 20
20 000 = 5 × 3600 + 33 × 60 + 20
20000 = ▼▼▼▼▼ <<<▼▼▼ <<
EXPRESSING BABYLONIAN NUMERALS TO ARABIC SYSTEM

1.▼ ▼▼ < <<
Solution
 1 × 603 + 2 × 602 + 10 × 601 + 20 × 600
 216,000 + 7,200 + 600 +20
 223,820
(c)ROMAN NUMERATION
Roman numeration seemed to have been used in business transactions as far as
1,600 A.D. in Western Europe. The reason for this was that it seemed simple to
understand and manipulation with numbers required little basic knowledge.
CHARACTERISTICS
i) The system uses the principle of repetition and addition.
ii) The system uses the principle of subtraction
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iii) By using the principle of subtraction, only a small symbol could subtract from
a big symbol.
iv) By using the principle of repetition, a symbol could be repeated up to the
maximum of three times, for large numbers more than 3999, the use of
multiplication symbol come into being. A bar placed over a symbol indicated
multiply the value of the symbol(s) by a thousand e.g.
M = 1000 × 1000
= 1000000
DCC = 700 × 1000

= 7000000
XM = 10 × 1000 + 1000
= 10,000 + 1,000
= 11,000
NOTE: Roman numeration system is in use today as can be seen on

opening pages of books, on the faces of clocks and when itemizing points.
ACTIVITY
1) Illustrate how Roman numerals are combined using the additive
principle.
2) Illustrate how further extensions of the subtractive property could lead
to ambiguous results.
3) Express the following into Hindu-Arabic face values:
(i) V
(ii) CXI
(iii) CX I
SOLUTIONS
1.VI, XV, LIV, CXI
2. IV, IX, XC,
3. (i) 5 x 1000 = 5000
(ii) 111 x 1000 = 111000
(iii) 110 × 1000 + 1 = 110001
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(d) HINDU-ARABIC NUMERATION

The Hindu-Arabic numeration system we use today has ten(10) basic symbols
called digits that is 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8, and 9.is called a decimal system.
CHARACTERISTICS
i)All numerals are constructed from the basic digits.
ii)The system uses place value.
iii)There is a symbol for zero
In base ten system, we can write a numeral to represent any number of objects
using only ten digits, 0 through 9.
Numbers in the system are based on groupings of ten, ten groups of tens or
hundreds; ten groups of hundreds or thousands and so on.
Each digit in a numeral has two functions:

i) Its position in the numeral names its place value.
ii) The digit itself names its face value; that is, it tells how many groupings
of ten are indicated. for example:-
5984 = 5 × 1000 + 9 × 100 + 8 ×10 + 4 ×1

= 5,000 + 900 + 80 + 4
This representation is called the expanded form.

The expanded form consists of the sum of the products resulting from
multiplying face values by place values.
Using exponents, products such as 10.10.10 and 10.10 can be written as
103
And 102 respectively,
In each case 10 is called a factor of the products.
Hence;-
5984 = 5.103 + 9.102 + 8.101 + 4.100 .
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Unit 3
SET THEORY
Introduction
It is quite interesting to note that sets have been looked at, at almost all levels of
education structure. The question is, have you ever thought or observed so? Why
do you think it is like this? In this unit we will look at what a set is, basic theory of
sets as well as set application and uses.
 Describing what a set is?
 Represent a set in different form
Outcomes  Use different set notation
 Apply word problem to sets.
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definition of sets
Before we proceed, there is need to understand what a set is, considering how many times
we have encountered sets, in your own words write down what you think a set is. What
comes to your mind when someone says a statement such as?
 A set of spoon, pots etc.
We therefore can define, a set as a collection of things or people such that we can definitely
decide whether a not a particular object belongs to that group.
member of sets
Items or objects that make up a set are what we call elements/members. It is denoted by ϵ i.e.
ϵ means “member of” ϵ and means is “not a member of” so we say;
Tuesday ϵ {days of week}
V= {a, e, i, o, u}, then we have hϵ V, meaning that h is not a member if the set of vowels.
Elements of a set will be represented as small letters, where as capital letters are used to
name sets.
EXAMPLE
Let A= {countries in Africa whose names ends with ‘a’} we write that;
i. Zambia ϵ A
ii. Botswana ϵ A
But Zimbabwe ϵ A
number of elements in a set.

The number of element in the set A = {a, b, c,} is 3. This can be written as n (A) =3, and read as ‘the
number of elements in set A is 3’
Example 1 If A={1,2,3} and B={ 2,4,6,8}, find (a) n(B) (b) n(A)
Solution
n(B) =4 n(A)=3.
A set can be represented
i. In form of a set builder notation
ii. Listing of elements
iii. Describing the members of the set.
iv. In diagram form
(a) Listing and describing a set

List of elements Describing a set
{a, e, i, o,u} {Vowels}
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{0, 1, 2...} {Whole numbers}

{Jan, June, July} {Names of month of the years begins in the letter y}
(b) Set builder notation
EXAMPLE:
Use set builder notation to represent the set.
i. prime numbers less than 10
ii. first ten whole numbers
SOLUTIONS
i. Prime numbers less than 10. if we list the elements we have {2,3,5,7}
In set builder notation we shall have
P={x: 2≤x≤7, xϵP}
ii. First ten whole numbers we list the element ; {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}
i.e. W={x: 0 ≤ x < 10, xϵW}
(c) Venn diagram

Consider A= {a, e, i, o, u}, then as Venn diagram we have.
This type of diagram is referred to as the Venn diagram

(d) Number line
You can still show a set of numbers on a number line.
Example;
X={x: x>0, x ϵ R}.
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TYPES OF SETS
Let us now look at different type of sets. Considers the sets below:
A={a,b,c,d,e} and B={1,2,3,4,5}, C={4,5,1,2,3}
What do you say about the set A, B and C?
Note that n (A) =5 and n (B) and n(C) =5
i. Equivalent Sets
Two set A and B are said to be equivalent if they have the same number of element
but element are different example above where.
n(A)=5 and n(B)=5, but they different elements, then we say A and B are
equivalent.
ii. Equal Sets
Sets are said to be equal if they have the same element. For instance set A and C
above where we are given that set A and C have the same element.
iii. Large Sets And Infinite Sets
When a set is large and its element can be placed in an obvious order, we often list
just the first few and last element with dots between.
Example; A= {a, b, c, d..............., y, z}. Of course you will be expected to fill in the
other element if asked to do so.
Some set never end. We say they are infinite; an example is the set of {positive
integer} which can be written as {1, 2, 3, 4...............}
iv. Empty Set
Sometimes a set will have no elements. Examples are {triangle with four sides},
{odd numbers ending in 0}. The set with no element is called the empty set or null
set and is denoted by { }
v. Subset
Suppose that P= {a, b, c} and Q= {b, c}. It is part of P and is called a proper subset
of P, we denote by Q С P. It is simply all sets that can be formed from a given set.
An empty set is also a set of any set. Now try to establish some other subset of P
{{a} ,{b} ,{c} ,{a,b} ,{a,c} {,b,c} ,{1,2,3,} { }}. This set makes up what is called a set of
subset.
24
vi. Number of Subset in a Set.

Set Number subsets Number
of elements of subsets
{ } 0 { } 1 2⁰
[a} 1 {a}, { } 2 2¹
2
{a1, a2, a3} 2 {a1, a2}, {a1}, {a2}, { } 4 2
3
{a1, a2, a3} 3 {a1, a2, a3}, {a1, a2}, {a1, a3}, { }, {a2, a3,}, {a1}, {a2}, {a3} 8 2
....... ........ .................. ........ .........
{a1,a2,...an} N {a1, a2, ...an},...,{ } - 2n
Example
A set X has 128 subset. How many elements have the set?
Solution: 2n=128
2n=27
n=7
Set X has 7 elements
Activity
a. Find the number of subset a set of 10 elements has?
b. If a set has 32 elements, how proper subsets will the set have?
c. How many elements will a set with 2 proper subset have?
OPERATION OF SETS
i. Intersection
Consider the set R={d,e,f,g,h} and S={e,g,k,h} note that e and g all element of both sets.
Let’s say T= {e, g} then T is a subset of both R and S. T is called the intersection set of
R and S. They symbol n is used for intersection, we write T=RnS. We can also show
this in the Venn diagram.
25
The shared regions in figure 2 represent the intersection of two sets.

Consider also set E={2,4,6} and F={3,5} that E and F have no set and are written EnF=Ф
.2 .6 . 3
.4 .5
When set have no common elements we say the sets are disjoint
Union
The set W= {d, e, h, g, h, k, n} is formed by putting together the elements of the sets R and S.
It is the union of R and S. The symbol U is used for union, and we write W=RnS. We can
illustrate this in a Venn diagram as,
R S
26
To form the union of the two sets A={m,n,p,r} and B= {t,y,p,m,w} we write all the element
of A and the add those elements of B which are not done To form the union of the two sets
A={m,n,p,r} and B= {t,y,p,m,w} we write all the element of A and the add those elements of
B which are not done already.
The Universal Set
Activity
1. Draw a Venn diagram to show the set {p, q, r, s, t} and {q, r}
2. F={food}, V={vegetable}
(I) Draw a Venn diagram to show F and V
(II) Enter in your diagram the element butter, carrots, bread and
potatoes
(III) Which is true, VCF or FCV
3. Write down all the subset of {u, y}
4. Draw a Venn diagram and show
(i) A∩B (II) AUB
5. From the diagram, thus the following
(i) n(P) (ii) n(Q) (III) (P ∩ Q) (iv) n(PUQ)
The universal set is the set of all elements which are being considered. It is denoted
by the symbol E. For example , if the whole numbers from 1 to 9 are all being
considered , then E={1,2,3,4................,9} in a Venn diagram the universal set is
usually represented by a rectangle.
27
Complement
The compliment of a set A contains all the elements of the universal set which are
not in A. The compliment of A is denoted by A’
Example: if E={1,2,3,4,...............,9} and A={3,6,9}, then A’= {1,2,4,5,7,8} how then can
you represent compliment of a set in the Venn diagram.
Show the A’ in the diagram below;
E A
Fig 1.2
Considering that you have looked at union and intersection of sets, can you find
the following using figure 1.2
(i) AUA′=
(ii) A∩A′=
Shading Sets In Venn Diagrams

Let’s now look at how we can share sets in Venn diagram.
(a) UNION: to shade the area represent PUQ, first you need to shade the area
representing P and then also shade the part represent the area of Q. The total area
shaded represents the union of the sets.
Example
(b) Intersection: having shaded the union, can you suggest how the intersection for
two sets
28
You can also shade the area representing P∩Q, by shading area representing P as well
as shading area representing Q, then intersection will be represented by the area that
has both shading.
Example: show A∩B in the Venn diagram
1. State the compliment of each of the following sets

(i) E={even numbers}, where Ԑ ={whole numbers}
(ii) M={males}, where Ԑ ={people}
Given the Venn diagram
List elements of
(i) E
(ii) R
(iii) R′
(iv) T
(v) T′
2. Shade the following on the Venn diagram.
(i) H′
(ii) N′
(iii). H′∩N′
29
Activity
(iii) E={even numbers}, where Ԑ ={whole numbers}
(iv) M={males}, where Ԑ ={people}
2. Given the Venn diagram
List elements of
(vi) E
(vii) R
(viii) R′
(ix) T
(x) T′
3. Shade the following on the Venn diagram.
(iii) H′
(iv) N′
(iii). H′∩N′
3. Shade the following on separate Venn diagram

(i) (AUB)’ and A′∩B′
(ii) A′UB′ and (A∩B)′
From the result what is your comment?
30
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(v) E={even numbers}, where Ԑ ={whole numbers}
5. Given the Venn diagram
List elements of
(xi) E
(xii) R
(xiii) R′
(xiv) T
(x) T′
6. shade the following on the Venn diagram
(iii) H
31
PROBLEM USING VENN DIAGRAM
Venn diagrams are a useful tool in solving problems such as logic, it is important at this
point that you take extra interest to see how logic problem can be easily resolved using
sets.
Example: In a class of 25 pupils, 22 passed a mathematics examination 19 passed an

English exam and 17 passed both show the informal in a Venn diagram. How many
passed neither examination.
SOLUTION:
The problem above can be so easily resolved using the Venn diagram. As the problem is
here, you realise that you cannot so easily find the solution in its form, hence need to
show it in the Venn diagram.
Let M=passed maths
E=passed English
32
Then n (M) =22, n (E) =19 n (M∩N) =17 =28
To see how many passed neither examination we simply check for (MUE) ′ to than n
(MUE) ′=4
Activity
1. In a survey of 80 college student, the number studying various subjects were:

mathematics 32, physics 27, chemistry 24, physics and chemistry 17, mathematics
and physics 20, mathematics and chemistry 16, all three subject 14. Show this
information in a Venn diagram. How many studied.
i. Mathematics only.
ii. Mathematics and physics but not chemistry.
iii. None of the three subjects
2. Some of the result of a survey among 70 second students is shown in the Venn
diagram.
E= {Student question in the survey}
C= {Student who went to the cinema}
T= {Student who went to the theatre}
P= {student who went to a pop-concert}
Calculate the number of students

(i) who had been to the cinema
(ii) in CUP
(iii) in C∩T, explain the meaning of your answer
(iv) in PU(C∩T)
(v) in (CUTUP)’ explain the meaning of your answer.
3. Using the Venn diagram below and given that n(P)=15, n(Q)=19 and n(P∩Q)=7
i. What is the value of X,Y,AND T

ii. What is n (PUQ)?
33
SETS OF NUMBERS
OBJECTIVES:
By the end of the topic, you should be able to:-
 Demonstrate sufficient knowledge in classifying numbers in different

sets to enable you teach with confidence from grades 1 to 9.
 Define the various sets of numbers for teaching purposes.
 Show an understanding of order of operations to be performed when
teaching the various sets of numbers to basic school level learners
For teaching purposes, we begin by introducing the set of whole numbers to

basic school level learners. These will serve as the universal set from which
the different sets of numbers that will be discussed in this topic will be
extracted.
1. Whole numbers
Whole number start with zero plus counting numbers. They are denoted in
set form as W= {o, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ……..} the four operations are each introduced to
basic level learners using the set of whole numbers. These make use of the
symbols +, - , ×, and ÷ to combine numbers.
2. Natural numbers
Natural numbers are counting numbers. The first natural number is 1. We

denote the set of natural numbers as
N= {1, 2, 3, 4,……}, natural numbers are a subset of the set of whole numbers.
3. Even numbers
Even numbers are natural numbers that end in 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8. We denote

even numbers in set
34
Form as {0, 2, 4, 6, 8 …}. Even numbers are a subset of natural numbers.

These numbers are divisible by 2
4. Odd numbers
Odd numbers are natural numbers that end in 1, 3, 5, 7, or 9.We denote the
set of odd numbers as {2, 3, 5, 7, 9…}. Odd numbers are also a subset of
natural numbers. These numbers leave a remainder of 1 when divided by 2.
35
5. Factor
A factor of a given number is any number that divides a given number

exactly without leaving a remainder. For example, the number 12 can be
divided exactly by 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12. These are the factors of 12.
6. Prime numbers
A prime number is a natural number that has two factors, itself and 1 only.
The first prime number is 2. One is not a prime number because it has only
one factor itself.
7. Integers
Integers are positive and negative whole numbers including zero. We

denote integers in the form as Z = { ….- 2, - 1, 0, 1, 2, ….}
Integers are appropriately displayed using a number line.

8. Rational numbers
Rational numbers are expressed in the form , where a and b are integers
and that
b ≠ 0. Any decimal number can be put in this form. For example ,0.56 =
= . Any integer can be written in the form where b = 1. For example, 33
= Hence the set of integers is a subset

of the set of rational numbers.
9. Irrational numbers
Irrational numbers cannot be expressed in the form , where a and b are

integers .Examples are
π, , , cos43º. For calculations we must use approximations such as
3.142 for π and 2.236 for .
10 Highest Common Factors
When given two or more natural numbers, we can be asked to find the
Highest Common factor (H.C.F.).For example:
The factors of 42 are 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 14, 21, 42
36
The factors of 56 are 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 14, 28, 56

The common factors of 42 and 56 are: 1, 2, 7, 14
Therefore H.C.F. of 42 and 56 is 14.
37
11. A number as the product of primes

We can equally express a number as a product of its prime numbers. For
example, express 40 as a product of prime numbers in ascending order.
Solution
We begin by dividing by the smallest prime number i.e 2 and keep on

progressing until the quotient is 1
2 40
2 20
2 10
5 5
1
2 ×2 × 2 × 5
Using index form, we can write 40 = 23 × 5

12. Multiples
A multiple of any number is obtained by multiplying natural numbers by that
number. For example, if we multiply the natural numbers 1,2,3,4,… by 7 we get
7,14,21,28,… These are multiples of 7.
13. Lowest Common Multiple (L.C.M.)
Lowest Common Multiple (L.C.M.) of two or more numbers is the smallest
multiple into which each of the given numbers divide without leaving a
remainder. For example:-
The multiples of 6 are {6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42}
The multiples of 9 are {9 , 18 , 27, 36, 45,…}
Therefore L.C.M. of 6 and 9 is { 18 }
14. Order of operations

Order of operations can be performed as follows.
i) Multiplication and Division must be done before Addition and Subtraction.
ii) Calculations inside the brackets must be worked before any other
calculations.
38
NUMBER BASES
OBJECTIVES:-By the end of this topic you should be able to :
i) Deal with work on number bases starting with base two up to base twelve.
ii) Translate one number base to another with less difficulties.
iii) Perform the four operations on different number bases discussed in this
topic.
We begin by making you become familiar with work on number bases starting
with base two up to bases twelve.
1. Binary numbers
In this number system, only two digits are considered namely 0 and 1. All other
counting in binary system is carried out in form of powers of two.
Write down the meanings of the following binary numbers:
i) 111two
ii) 1011two
We can change numbers expressed in binary system to decimal form and vice-
versa for example:
Express 10101two to denary system.

10101two = (1 × 24) + (0 × 23 ) + ( 1×22) + (o × 21) + ( 1 × 20 )
= ( 1 × 16) + ( 0 × 8) + ( 1 × 4 ) + (0 × 2 ) + ( 1 × 1 )
= 16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1
= 21ten
Convert 26ten to binary system:
2 26
2 13 r 0
2 6 r1
2 3 r0
2 1 r1
0 r1
therefore 26ten = 11010two

ACTIVITY 1
1) Write the meanings of the following numbers in binary form :
a) 1100two b) 1111two
39
2) Write the following binary numbers in decimal form;

a) 1011011two b) 11110000two
3) Express the following numbers from decimal to binary form:
a) 129ten b) 260ten
SOLUTIONS
1(a) One eight and one four
(b) One eight, one four, one two and one unit.
2 (a) 91 (b) 240
3 (a) 10000001 (b) 100000100
CHANGING NUMBER BASES

1. Whenever we want to change any number in any base to base ten, called
denary system, we must take into account the powers of its base.
Example 1:
Change 143five to base ten.

143five = (1 × 52 ) + (4 × 51 ) + (3 × 50 )
= (1 × 25) + (4 × 5) + (3 × 1)
= 25 + 20 + 3
= 48ten
Example 2:
Convert 1325eight to base ten

1325eight = (1 × 83 ) + ( 3 × 82 ) + ( 2 × 81 ) + ( 5 × 80 )
= (1 × 512) + (3 × 64) + (2 × 8) + (5 × 1)
= 512 + 192 + 16 + 5
= 725ten
2. We can change a number in base ten to a number in another base using the
method of division.
Example;
Convert 152ten to base five
40
5 152
5 30 r 2
5 6 r 0
5 1r 1
0r1
Therefore 152ten = 1102five

From one base to another
FROM ONE BASE TO ANOTHER

First we change the given number in a particular base to denary. Secondly,
change the denary number to the required base.
Example:
Convert 112three to binary
Solution
112 three = 1 x9 + 1 x 3 + 2x1 =14
14 ten = 1110two
ACTIVITY 2
Change each of the following numbers in a particular base, to the base
indicated:-
i) 234ten to base eight
ii) 475eight to base four
iii) 1325eight to base five
iv) 240six to base eight
SOLUTIONS
i) 352eight
ii) 10331four
iii) 4342five
41
iiv) 140eight
addition and subtraction of number bases

Like in binary system, we can add and subtract two numbers expressed either in
the same base or in different number bases.
If we are adding two numbers expressed in different bases, we should first
change one of the two numbers to base ten and then change the denary number to
the base of the other number and thereafter carry out the addition.
For example:
Calculate 213four + 144 five, giving your answer in base five.
Solution
First change 213four to base ten and then to base five as shown:
213four = (2 × 42 ) + ( 1 × 41 ) + ( 3 × 40 )
= (2 × 16) + (4) + (3 × 1)
= 32 + 4 + 3
= 39ten
5 39
5 7r4
5 1r2
0r1
Therefore 39ten = 124five
And so 124five + 144five = 323five
We apply the same procedure when we want to subtract two numbers expressed
in different number bases. For example:
Express 31ten – 21eight as a number in base two
Solution:
First change 21eight t o base ten as shown:
21eight = (2 × 81 ) + (1 × 80 )
= 16 + 1
= 17ten
Then subtract 17ten from 31ten as shown:
42
31ten
- 17ten
14ten
Now change 14ten to base two using the method of division as shown
2 14
2 7r0
2 3r1
2 1r1
or 1
Therefore 14ten = 1110two

Then 31ten – 21eight = 1110tw
43
ACTIVITY 3
1. Evaluate 1100two + 100two giving your answer in base eight.
2. If 413five – X five = 140five. Find X.
3. If 43x + 44x = 142x. Find the value of x
4. Simplify and express in base eight 217eight – 433five.
SOLUTIONS
1) 20eight
2.) 223 five
3.) x = five
4.) 31 eight
MULTIPLICATION OF NUMBER BASES

Multiplication of number bases is done using long multiplication method. Care
must be taken concerning the number bases involved in the problem. For
example:
Find the product of 43five by 44five giving your answer in base three.
SOLUTION:
43five
× 44five
3 3 2five
+ 3 3 2 0five
4 2 0 2five
We now convert 4202five to base ten as shown:

4202five = (4 × 53 ) + (2 × 52 ) + (0 × 51 ) + (2 × 50 )
= (4 × 125) + (2 × 25) + (0 × 5) + (2 × 1 )
= 500 + 50 + 0 + 2
= 552ten
44
Then we change 552ten to base three using the method of division as shown:
3 552
3 184 r 0
3 61 r 1
3 20 r 1
3 6r2
3 2r0
0r2
552ten = 202110three
Therefore product of 43five by 44five = 202110three
ACTIVITY 4
Find the product of 112three and 133five giving your answer in base ten.
Solution:
602
DIVISION OF NUMBER BASES

This is done using long division method. Problems normally arise when carrying
out division of number bases, perhaps changing both the divisor and dividend
into base ten and then carry out the division and most importantly change the
quotient to the required base would do.
For example:
Divide 10011001two by 10001two giving your answer in base five.
Solution:
First change the dividend to base ten as shown:

10011001two = (1 × 27 ) + (1 × 24 ) + (1 × 23 ) + (1× 20 )
= (1 × 128) + (1 × 16) + (1 × 8) + (1 × 1)
= 128 + 16 + 8 + 1
= 153ten
45
Now change the divisor to base ten as shown:

10001two = (1 × 24) + (1 × 20 )
= (1 × 16) + (1 × 1)
= 16 + 1
= 17ten
Then divide 153ten by 17ten as shown:
9
17 153 (long division method)
-153
0
Change the quotient to base five as shown:
5 9
5 0r4
0r1
= 14five
Therefore 10011001two ÷ 10001two = 14five
ACTIVITY 5
Evaluate 143five ÷ 3 five

SOLUTION
31 five
Base twelve
Twelve is base of duo-decimal scale. In this scale, we require twelve symbols and
so we must invent two. If we call these t for ten and e for eleven, we count:
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,,t,e.
Translating numbers expressed in base twelve to any other base
We do this by first converting the base twelve numbers to base ten. Then change
the base ten numbers to any base required using the method of division.
For example:
1. Convert 3t4twelve to base eight
46
Solution
3 t 4 twelve = (3 × 122) + (10 × 121) + (4 × 120)
= (3 × 144) + (10 × 12) + (4 × 1)
= 432 + 120 + 4
= 556ten
Then change 556ten to base eight as shown:
8 556
8 69 r 4
8 8r5
8 1r0
0r1
= 1054eight
Addition and subtraction of numbers expressed in base twelve

If we are adding numbers expressed in base twelve, we should ensure that the
digits that constitute the sum do not exceed twelve. For example:
1.Find the sum of t894twelve and e97etwelve :
Solution
t 8 9 4 twelve
+ e 9 7 e twelve
1 t 6 5 3twelve
When we want to carry out subtraction of two numbers expressed in base twelve,
we should ensure that what we borrow from one digit is twelve and not ten as is
generally known.
47
For example:
1.Calculate 357twelve – 319twelve
Solution
357twelve
-319twelve
3ttwelve
Multiplication in base twelve

When carrying out multiplication in base twelve, ensure that you do not have any
digit in your product that exceeds twelve.
For example:
1. Calculate 5tttwelve × 4etwelve
Solution
5 t ttwelve
× 4 etwelve
54e2
+1 e 7 4 0
2 5 0 3 2twelve
ACTIVITY 6
Convert 659ten to base twelve
2. Calculate 42etwelve + 9tttwelve giving your answer in base twelve
3. Find the product of tet twelve by t7twelve.
SOLUTIONS
1) 46e
2) 1219twelve
3) 9832t twelve
48
NUMBER PATTERNS
OBJECTIVES: By the end of the topic you should be able to:-
i) Demonstrate the ability in grasping how numbers form patterns.

ii) Develop interest in working with numbers and be able to engage learners to use
the same in problem-solving.
iii) Demonstrate sufficient knowledge and skills on number patterns to enable them
teach with confidence from grades 1-7.
Let us begin our discussion by examining patterns with prime numbers and display
the work as follows:
Primes Difference
2 1
3 2
5 2
7 4
11 2
13
Would you continue the list as far as possible?

Is there a pattern or not?
Now, let us examine the following sequence of numbers:
7, 37, 337, 3337, 33337, 333337, ,…
Are they all Prime numbers?
If so is the next number in the sequence a prime number?
Check this pattern:
2+ 1 = 3
(2 ×3) + 1 = 7
(2×3× 5) + 1= 31
(2 ×3×5 × 7) + 1= 211
(2 × 3 × 5× 7 × 11) + 1 =
49
Are all the answers prime numbers?

If you continue the sequence will you always get a prime number? Justify your answer.
Twin primes differ by two. How many twin primes can you find between 1 and 100?
Activity 1
Make a list.
Solution
3, 5, 11, 13, 41, 43, 71 73,
State three (3) examples to justify the statement, “every even number greater that two is
a sum of two primes”
Activity 2
What digits can a prime number end in?
Solution
1, 3, 7 and 9
What remainder can you get when a prime number is divided by six?
What is the smallest number which is divisible by four different prime

numbers?
SQUARE NUMBERS
Be in pairs to play the following game. You will need 20 bottle tops and a sheet of
paper on which to keep the scores. At the top of the piece of paper list all the numbers
from two to twenty.
Below this draw two columns with your name at the top of one and your opponent’s at
the top of the other.
You begin by choosing a number of bottle tops and giving them to your opponent.
Cross this number off the list as it cannot be used again. Your opponent must now try to
arrange the bottle-tops into a square.
If he is successful then he/she gains a point in your column. Your opponent now
chooses a number of bottle tops and gives them to you. Continue in this way until all of
the numbers have been used. Play the game two or three times.
Now answer the following questions.
i) Which numbers can be made in this way?
ii) What are they called?
50
MULTIPLICATION TABLE
Make a multiplication table like the one below:
X 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 1 2 3 4
2 2 4 6
3 3 6 9
4 4
10
(i)Where are the square numbers?

FINDING THE SUMS OF CONSECUTIVE ODD NUMBERS
Try this:
1= 1
1+3=
1+3+5=
1+3+5+7=
And so on.
What do you notice?
Try this:
1×3= 2×2=
2×3= 3×3=
3×5= 4×4=
4×6= 5×5=
And so on
51
What do you notice?

Use this to calculate 99 × 99 without using paper and pencil.
How did you do this?
Write down your rule. Use counters to demonstrate why the rule in (iii) above works.
Now try this:
1×5= 3×3= 1×7=
2×6= 4×4= 2×8=
3×7= 5×5= 3×9=
4×8= 6×6=
What do you notice this time?
Are the following true?
632 = (60 × 66) + 32
352 = (30 × 40) + 52
362 = (32 × 40 ) + 42
37 × 43 = 402 – 32 = 1591
38 × 42 = 402 – 22 = 1596
39 × 41 = 402 – 12 = 1599
Why? Can you make a general rule about this?

How could these help you with mental arithmetic?
Activity 3
Use your rules to rewrite the following:
422, 692, 212, 782, 1122
56 x 64, 73 x 67, 32 x 28
SOLUTIONS
1.422 = 40×44 + 22
2.60×78 + 92
3.20×22 + 12
4.20×86 +82
5.110×114 + 22
6.56×64 = 602 - 42
7.73×67 = 702 – 32
8.32 ×28 =302 - 22
52
Try and work out the answers without paper and pencil.
Investigate the reduced numbers of the square numbers. Are there any patterns?
RECTANGULAR NUMBERS
(1) Use of a game
Be in pairs to play the game. You will need 20 bottle tops and a sheet of paper on which to
keep the scores. At the top of the piece of paper, list all the numbers from two to twenty.
Below this draw two columns with your name at the top of one and your opponent’s at the
top of the other.
You begin by choosing a number of bottle tops and giving them to your opponent. Cross
this number off the list as it cannot be used again. Your opponent must now try to arrange
the bottle tops into a rectangle. If he/she is successful then he/she gains a point which is
entered in his/her column on the score sheet. If, however, he/she is unsuccessful then you
gain a point in your column. Your opponent now chooses a number of bottle tops and gives
them to you. Continue in this way until all of the numbers have been used. Play the game
two or three times.
Now answer the following questions:
i) Who usually won the game, the first player or the second player?
ii) Did you find some numbers were better to use than others? If so, which numbers?
iii) Do you recognize these numbers?
How would you use this activity with a group of primary school learners?
Use of dot diagrams
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 4 6 8 10
i) Is two rows of 3 the same as three rows of 2? Explain.

ii) What name is given to the numbers represented by the dots above?
53
Adding consecutive even numbers

Try this:
0+2= 2+4=
4+6= 6+8=
8 + 10 = 10 + 12 =
12 + 14 =
And so on.
Multiplying two consecutive natural numbers

Try this:
1×2= 2×3=
3×4= 4×5=
5×6=
And so on.
TRIANGULAR NUMBERS
(i) Use of dots
Use a set of dots and continue the following sequence of triangles:
.
. . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
1 3 6 10
Use a set of dots to represent the 6th and 7th triangular numbers
(ii) Adding consecutive natural numbers
Try this:
0+1= 1
1+ 2 =
1+2+3=
1+2+3+4=
and so on
What do you notice about the sums obtained by adding consecutive natural numbers?
54
We call this sequence of numbers, the triangular numbers.
(iii) Use of formula

a) Use a set of dots to find a formula for the nth triangular number.
b) Investigate the sequence of reduced numbers of the triangular numbers.
Are there any patterns in (b) above?
PENTAGONAL NUMBERS
USE OF DIAGRAMS
Continue the sequence 1,5,12,…by counting the dots above.

Following the same pattern, produce sequences of hexagonal and septagonal numbers.
(ii)FINDING THE SUMS OF TRIANGULAR AND SQUARE NUMBERS
We display the work in a table as shown:
55
Triangular numbers
0 1 3 6 10 15 21 28 36 45 55
Square numbers1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100 121
Pentagonal numbers
1 5 12 22 35 51 70 92 117 145 176
Extend the table up to the 20th pentagonal number. Why is zero (0) considered on the
sequence of triangular numbers in the table above?
Copy the following table and answer the questions which follow:
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Triangular Numbers 1 3 6 10
Square Numbers 1 4 9 16
Pentagonal Numbers 1 5 12
Hexagonal Numbers 1 6
Octagonal Numbers 1
i) What patterns can you find in this table?
ii) Find a formula for the pentagonal numbers.
iii) Find a formula for the hexagonal numbers

PASCAL’S TRIANGLE
Numbers are arranged in a triangular form as shown:
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
(a)Add up the numbers in each row.
56
What do you notice?
(b)Write down the sequences you obtain in the diagonals.
(c)Describe how to get the next term in each case
(d)Do you recognize any of the sequences?
(e)Find a rule for the nth term in each sequence.
When you progressively add up the terms of a sequence you form a series.
Add up the terms of the sequence:
1, 4, 6, 10, 15, 21…that is
1= 1
1+ 3 =
1+3+6= and so on
(f) What do you notice?
(g)Can you find any other patterns in Pascal’ triangle?
Example
1 2 3
3 2 0
1 2 3
57
UNIT 4.0
The Four Operations

Introduction
The symbols +, -, x , ÷ are used to combine numbers. The teacher must be aware of
how this operation must be taught to basic school level learners. It is known fact that
whatever problem can individually attempt to solve any, of the following are used:
(i) Addition (ii) Subtraction (iii) Multiplication (iv) Division
Addition
Addition means putting things together or forming a union set of two disjoint sets.
Terminologies
15 + 8 = 23
Sum
Second addend
First addend
Properties
1. Closure; Let x and y be two who numbers, then x + y = ZEW is also a whole number.
Therefore, addition is closed on a set of whole numbers. e.g 5+6=11.
2. Commutative; If x and y are two whole numbers, then it is true that x + y = y + xew.
Therefore the order in which two whole numbers are added is not important.
Addition is thus commutative.
3. Associative; We know that addition is a binary operation which means only two
numbers in one step. In other words if 'a', 'b' and 'c' are the whole numbers, then it is
true that (a + b) + c = a+( b +c) EW.
4. IDENTITY ELEMENT; Zero (0) is the identity element for addition. When you add
zero to any number or any number added to zero the result is that number e. g. let 'n'
be any whole number, then n+0 =0+n = new.
58
Methods of Dealing with Addition

(i) Horizontal addition e. g. 2+3 = 5
(ii) Vertical addition method e.g.
28
+15
43
(iii) Place value method e.g.
17
+14
31
i.e 11
+20
31
(iv) Use of props/clutches e.g.
17
+15
43
1
(v) Mental process method e.g.
28
+25
53
(vi) Expanded notation or renaming method e.g.
28 = 20+8
+ 25 = 20+5
(20+20) +(8+5) = 40+13 =53
(vii) Numberline method e.g
3+2 = 5
59
(viii) Equal addition (Give and Take)
68 +69 = 68 +2 + 69-2
=70 + 67
=70 +60 +7
=70+60+7
=130 + 7 => 137
(Ix) Expanded notation - Horizontally
987 = 900 + 80 +7
+634 = 600 + 30+4
= 1500+110+ 11
= 1621
(x) Counting on method e.g
5362 + 1248
6362 + 248---------thousands added.
6562 + 48-------- hundreds added
6602 + 8------- tens added
6610 + 0nes added
=66+0
(xi) Complementation e.g.
37 + 18
(40 + ) - (3+2)
60 – 5 = 55
(xii) Computation e.g 13 + 24
(1×10 + 3) + (2× 10 + 4)
= (1×10 + 2×10) +(3+4)
= 10 (1+2) + (3+4)
= 10(1+2) + (3+4)
= 10×3+7
=37
60
(xiii) Associative expanded numeral method e.g 5362 + 1248
= 5000 + 300+60+2 + 1000 + 200+40+8
= (5000+1000) + (300+200) +(60+40) + (2+8)
= 6000 + 500+ 100 +10
= 6610
Errors in Addition
(a) Adding from left to right
385
+ 519
8914
(b) Lack of carry over concept e.g.
315
+148
453
(c) Adding all the numbers together e.g
58
+7
20
Causes of Errors in Addition

(a) Faulty knowledge on numeral recognition
(b) Lack of understanding of addition facts.
(c) Bad setting of figurers
(d) Difficulties over regrouping into ones, tens and so on.
(e) Difficulties in place value and considering zero as a place holder.
(f) Caring of wrong digits.
(g) No caring over but writes all digits.
Recommended Remedial Work

(a) Use learner centred activities.
(b) Use bundles of tens to help to help in counting in tens, and then decompose to
ones.
61
(c) Use teaching and learning aids like abacus, number boxes and show pockets to
separate ones from tens and tens from hundredths
(d) Develop mental skills that will enhance the calculations in four operations.
(e) Use various methods of adding that reinforce place value.
SUBTRACTION
MEANING: Subtraction is expressed in three different ways namely;
 Decomposition
 Take away
 Equal addition
Terminologies
14 - 9 = 5
Difference
Subtrahend
Minuend
Properties
(a) Identity element: Zero is an identity element in subtraction. This means from
any number, when you take away zero the result will be that number.
(b) Closure: Closure rule does not apply in subtraction
(c) Commutative: Commutative rule does not apply in subtraction e.g. 3 - 2 = 2 - 3
(d) Associative: Associative does not apply in subtraction.
Methods of Dealing with Subtraction

(a)Addition method
e.g. 5 – 2 = What number can we add to 2 to give 5?
(b) Subtraction method
e.g. 8 – 3 = What is 8 – 3 equal to? Or what is 3 from 8 equal to?
62
(c) Equal addition method
e.g 84 – 26 = 80 + 4 + 10 – (20 + 6 + 10)
= 80 + 14 – (20 + 16)
= 80 – 30 + 14 – 6
= 50 + 8
= 58
(d) Decomposition method over expansion method e.g
84 – 26 = (80 +4) – (20 +6)
= (70 + 14) – (20 +6)
= (70- 20) + (14 -6)
= 50 +8
= 58
(e). Counting on /making up/shopkeeper method e.g 45 -27
Make up 27 to 30 by adding 3
18
(f). Expanded numeration method e.g.
48 = 40+ 8
-25 = 20 +5
23 = 20 +3
(g). Reeling method e.g.
778
593
5 --------- ones subtract
8 0 --------- tens subtract
1 0 0 --------- hundreds subtract
1 8 5 --------- differences added
63
(h). Renaming and associative method

e.g 17- 4 = (10 + 7) -4------renamed
= (10 + (7-4)-----associative property
= 10 + 3
= 13
(i) Complementary method e.g.
743
284
459
Reasons are as follows;
 Find the number which when you add to 4 will give you 10. The number is 6,
then add 6 to 3 and you get 9.
 The next bottom number is increasing by 1 and in this case 8 becomes 9.
 Again which number will give you ten when you add to 9? The number is 1 thus,
increase the top number by 1. Increase the last bottom number by 1 and just
subtract.
Errors in Subtraction
(a) Bad setting of figures e.g.
25
-13
212
(b). Adding instead of subtracting e.g.
597
-369
966
(c). Given a bigger subtrahend the learner will rearrange the number in the mind and
subtract a smaller number from a bigger number e.g.
14
-9
15
(d). Borrowing without reducing a number e.g.
74
- 27
5
64
(e). Finding zero when the minuend is smaller than the subtrahend e.g.
61
-28
48
(f). Skipping borrowing from zero e.g.
607
-178
507
Causes of Errors in Subtraction

 Lack of subtraction knowledge.
 Bad setting of figures.
 Lack of clear understand of place value
 Failure to rename numbers after borrowing.
Recommended Remedial Work

 Do a lot of activities with your learners in renaming.
 Use counters like stones, sticks, pencils, bottle tops to subtract physically.
 Use teaching and learning aids like number boxes, show pockets, abacus to
reinforce the idea of place values.
 Use a variety of subtraction methods that emphasize on decomposition.
 Emphasize on aligning the digits correctly.
65
Multiplication
Meaning; Multiplication is thought of three ways;
(a) Repeated addition method.
(b) The array model.
(c) The Cartesian-product method.
Terminologies
5 X 3 = 15
Product
Multiplier
Multiplicand
The multiplicand and the multiplier are the names of factors of the product.
Properties
(a) Closure; For any whole number 'a' and 'b' a x b is a unique whole number
(b)Commutative; for any whole number 'a' and 'b' a x b = b x a
(c) Associative; For any whole number a, b, and c (a x b) x c = a(b x c)
(d) Identity; There is a unique whole number 1 such that for any whole number 'a' , a
x1=a=1xa
(e). Zero multiplication; For any whole number 'a', a x 0 = 0= 0 x a.
Methods of dealing with Multiplication

(a).Short multiplication method e.g 6 x 3 = 18
(b). Long multiplication method e.g
65 x28
528
+1300
1820
(c). Right and multiplication method e.g; 84× 54
16 = 4 x 4
320 = 4 x 80
200 = 4 x 50
+ 4000 = 50 x 80
4536 = 84 x 54
66
(d). Expanded multiplication method e.g 348 x 14

(300 x 14) + (40 x 14) + (8 x 14)
4200 + 560 + 112
4760 + 112
=> 4872
(e). Distributive over addition method
e.g 75 x 4 = (70 + 5) 4
= (70 x 4) + (5 x 4)
= 280 + 20
=> 300
(f). Lattice / Napier Bone/venetion grid method e.g 35 x 65
3 5
2 1 3 6
8 0
2 1 2 5
5 5
7 5
Answer = 2275
(g). Russian / Peasant method e.g.

184 x 25
÷2 x 2
92 x 50
46 x 100
23 x 200
11 x 400
5 x 800
2 x 1600
1 x 3200
4600
67
(h). Cartesian method e.g.

69 x 36 x 30 6
60 180 360
9 270 54
2070 414
2070 + 414 = 2484
(I).Complementation method e.g

5 x 4 ------- complement the two numbers
5 5
6 4 subtract diagonally to find the same difference

i.e 4 – 5 = 5 – 6= -1
(Difference x 10) + product x of complement)
= -1 x 10 + (5 x 6 )
= -10 + 30
= 20
(j). Egyptian method e.g
35 x 15 -split the multiplier mechanically beginning with 1 and then keep
35 x 1 doubling. Stop when the sum number equals 15
70 x 2 -Then add the number the number on the multiplicand side to obtain
140 x 4 the answer
280 x 8
525
(K).Double distribution method e.g
58 x 26 = (50 + 8) x 26
= (50 x 26) + (8 x 26)
= 50(20 x 6 ) + 8 x (20 x 6)
68
= (50 x 20) + (50 x 6) + (8 x 20) + (8 x 6)

= 1000 + 300 + 160 + 48
= 1508
(l). Duplication method e.g.
26 x 17
26 x 2 = 52
26 x 4 = 105
26 x 5 = 130
26 x 6 = +150
442
(m). French method.(use deductive method) e.g
989 +78
989 -----------9 +8 +9 = 2 +6 = 8
x 78 ------------7 +8 = 1 +5 = 6
.
8
3 3
Note that 8 x 6 = 48
= 4+8
= 1+2
= 3
Common Mistakes in Multiplication

(a). The child does not know how to multiply instead addition multiplication is
carried out e.g 6 x 5 = 11.
(b). The learner fails to carry over the numbers e.g
57
x4
208
(c) Bad setting of work e.g
376
69
x 13
1128
+ 376
1504
(d) Error arising from simple addition e.g

63
x 54
252
3150
3352
Causes of Error in Multiplication

(a). Learners lack of multiplication facts resulting in things like adding instead of
multiplying.
(b). Inability to remember to carry out numbers.
(c). Incorrect setting down of work can cause errors when solving the problem.
(d). Language problem when instructions or demonstration of how to carry out the
operation is done may affect learners to make errors.
Remedial Measures
(a). Expose the learners to a variety of methods of multiplication to enable them carry
out the operation effectively.
(b). Use concrete object to start with until learners are used to operation.
(c) Play a lot of games with learners involving a lot of multiplication to try and
consolidate the ideas on operation.
(d) Place value and carry over must be emphasised when practising
(e). Attend to individual learners needs as each one will have the a unique problem.
DIVISION
Learners can effectively divide if pre-requisite of this operation are met. The
necessary ideas start with counting ' regrouping, place value, addition subtraction
and multiplication. The symbols are ÷, and a/b where a ≠ 0, indicate the concept of
division.
Meaning; Division is the inverse operation of multiplication. When you carry out the
multiplication of division you are simply;
70
 Sharing or separating a set into subjects.
 Performing the process of repeated subtraction.
 Finding the missing factor in multiplication equation like 5 x 9 = 20.
 Finding the inverse of multiplication e .g 30 ÷ 5 = 6
Terminologies
15 ÷ 3 = 5
Quotient
Divisor
Dividend
The number being divided is called Dividend. The number by which the Dividend is
being divided is called Divisor and the result / answer is called the Quotient.
Properties of Division
(I).Division is not a commutative operation. The order in which we divide one whole
number by another whole number is important e.g show that;
(a) 10 ÷ 5 ≠ 5 ÷ 10
Solution
10 ÷ 5 = 2, ≠ 5 ÷ 10 = ½ which is not a whole number
Therefore 16 ÷4 ≠ 4 ÷ 16, Division of whole numbers is also not an associative
operation
e.g. show that 18 ÷ (6 ÷ 3) ≠ ( 18 ÷6) ÷ 3
Solution
(18 ÷ 6) ÷ 3 = 18 ÷ 2 = 6
(18 ÷ 6) ÷ 3 = 3 ÷ 3 = 1
Therefore, 18 ÷ ( 6 ÷ 3) ≠ (18 ÷ 6) ÷ 3
(b) Show that 2 ÷ (5 ÷ 5) ≠ (25 ÷ 5 ) ÷ 5
Solution
2 ÷ (5 ÷5) = 25 ÷1 = 25
(25 ÷ 5 ) ÷ 5 = 5 ÷5 = 1
Therefore, 25÷ (5 ÷ 5) ≠ (25 ÷ 5) ÷ 5
71
Methods of Dealing with Division

Methods that we use to teach learners must be simplified to their ability. The
following are some of the methods we can use.
(a). Horizontal method e.g. 12 ÷ 3 = 4
(b). Short method of division e.g.
4
3 12
(c) Equal sharing or representing a set into subsets

e.g 9 ÷ 3Solution
(d). Repeated subtraction e.g 42 ÷ 7

Solution 42 ÷ 7
42 – 7 = 35 ------- 1
35 – 7 = 28 ------- 2
28 – 7 = 21 --------3
21 – 7 = 14 --------4
14 – 7 = 7 ---------5
7 – 7 = 0 -------- 6
Clearly 7 has been subtracted 6 times hence 42 ÷ 7 = 6
We subtract the divisor from the dividend repeatedly until we arrive at zero because
the repetion is introduced on the set of whole numbers of which 0 is the first number.
Using a number line e.g. 12 ÷ 4
72

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KITWE COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

PRIMARY TEACHERS’ DIPLOMA

Language Editor/s: …………………………….

Consultant: ……………………………………… Mrs Stella Kasase

© Kitwe College of Education 2010

VVOB – Zambia for technical and financial support

How this Primary Teachers’ Diploma is structured ................................................. 1

Getting around this Primary Teachers’ Diploma 2

TYPES OF SETS ......................................................................................... 24

PRIMARY TEACHERS’ DIPLOMA,

How this Primary Teachers’ Diploma is

Information contained in the course overview will help you determine:

 If the course is suitable for you.

 What you will already need to know.

 What you can expect from the course.

 How much time you will need to invest to complete the

The overview also provides guidance on:

 Where to get help.

 Course assignments and assessments.

The course content

 An introduction to the unit content.

 Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities.

Getting around this Primary Teachers’ Diploma

Activity Assessment Outcomes

Terminology Study skills Summary

 Demonstrate sufficient knowledge and skills in mathematics to enable

Apart from the assignments discussed above you will be

Promotion Examinations 30%

1 Teaching Practice 10%

2 written assignment 20%each 40%

Final examination in term ,3 30%

1.0 NATURE OF MATHEMATICS

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 Explain different views advanced by different educationists and

 Show the relationship between mathematics and other subjects.

1.1 EDUCATIONISTS AND PSYCHOLOGISTS VIEW OF THE NATURE OF

1.2 Definition of Mathematics

 It is systematized, organised and exact branch of science

 It is a science of measurements, quantity and magnitude

 It is the numerical and calculation part of man’s life and knowledge.

Clearly, we see that mathematics is a multifaceted subject, it may be

2. Mathematics as a way of thinking, do you agree to the assertion that

3. Mathematics as an art. it is argued that mathematics is characterised by order

Why should children study mathematics?

Responsibilities when teaching mathematics

1.3 application of mathematics in real life

 For domestic purposes

teaching and learning aids

11. Stimulate intellectual curiosity in pupils.

qualities of a good teaching aid

factors determining the selection of teaching aids

Questions 2.What are the advantages and disadvantages of teaching aids?

Adding and subtracting numbers

NUMBER AND NUMERATION

A numeral is a written symbol used to represent a quantity such as 1, 2, 3 and so on.

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

ii) Appreciate how numbers have evolved through civilizations.

Outcomes iii) Express numbers from one numeration system to another..

Early number system

v) The system has order in the way symbols are written.