3.

What is data communication and explain components of data communication

Data Communication refers to the exchange of data between two or more devices
through some form of transmission medium, such as cables or wireless signals. For
effective communication, the devices involved must be part of a system consisting of
both hardware and software. This system must ensure delivery, accuracy, timeliness,
and minimized jitter for the communication to be effective.

Components of Data Communication

1. Message:
○ The message is the actual information that needs to be communicated.
It can take various forms such as text, numbers, pictures, audio, or
video.
2. Sender:
○ The sender is the device that initiates the communication by sending
the message. This could be a computer, smartphone, video camera, or
any other device capable of transmitting data.
3. Receiver:
○ The receiver is the device that gets the message. Like the sender, it
could be a computer, smartphone, television, or any other device that
can interpret the data.
4. Transmission Medium:
○ This is the physical path or channel through which the message travels
from the sender to the receiver. It can include wired connections like
twisted-pair wire, coaxial cables, or fiber-optic cables, or wireless
options such as radio waves.
5. Protocol:
○ Protocols are rules that govern the communication between the
devices. They ensure that data is transmitted correctly and is
understood by both the sender and receiver. Without an agreed-upon
protocol, communication between devices would not be possible.

5. Compare LAN,WAN,MAN in network model

 Feature Local Area Wide Area Network Metropolitan Area
Network (LAN) (WAN) Network (MAN)

Definition A network A network connecting A network connecting

connecting devices devices over large devices within a city
within a limited geographical areas or large campus,
area like an office, like cities, countries, larger than a LAN but
building, or or continents, smaller than a WAN.
campus. interconnecting
multiple LANs.

Size Small area (single Large area (city, Medium area (city,
building or country, global large campus, up to
campus) distances) 50 km)

Ownership Privately owned by Owned by service May be owned by a

individuals or providers, leased by single organization or
organizations organizations service providers

Speed High speed (1 Generally slower than Intermediate speeds

Gbps or more) LAN (Mbps to Gbps) (10 Mbps to 1 Gbps)

Examples Home, office, The Internet, Citywide wireless

school networks company internet, university
headquarters campus networks
connecting branches
worldwide

Technology Ethernet cables, Fiber-optic cables, Fiber optics,

Used Wi-Fi leased lines, satellite wireless, DSL
links, MPLS, VPN

Key - Limited - Large geographical - Bridges LANs

Features geographical area coverage across a city
- Easy to set up - Requires - High-speed
and maintain sophisticated connections within
- High speed, low hardware (routers, metropolitan areas
latency switches) - Useful for
- Higher latency due connecting multiple
to distance buildings or
campuses in a city

8. What is packet switching and explain packet switching based on datagram

network and virtual circuit networks

Packet switching is a data transmission method where messages are divided into
smaller packets, sent independently across the network, and reassembled at the
destination. It's efficient and resilient because it maximizes network resources and
adapts to failures.

There are two main types of packet-switched networks:

1. Datagram Networks (Connectionless)

● Independent Packets: Each packet is treated separately, even if part of a

larger message.
● No Setup: Packets are sent without pre-establishing a connection.
● Dynamic Routing: Each packet follows its own path, leading to varying
delays.
● Efficient: Resources are used only when packets are transmitted.
● Example: The Internet uses the IP protocol, which operates on this model.

2. Virtual-Circuit Networks (Connection-Oriented)

● Setup Required: A connection (virtual circuit) is established before sending

data.
● Same Path: All packets follow the same route, ensuring they arrive in order.
● Virtual-Circuit Identifiers (VCIs): Packets carry VCIs to determine the next
hop at each router.
● Consistent Quality: Resources can be allocated during setup, leading to
more reliable performance.
● Example: Technologies like MPLS, ATM, and Frame Relay use virtual circuits.

11. Compare OSI and TCP/IP model.

 Aspect OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Layer 7 Layers: Application, 4 Layers: Application, Transport,

Structure Presentation, Session, Internet, Network Interface (Link)
Transport, Network, Data
Link, Physical

Layer Has distinct Presentation Lacks Presentation and Session

Differences and Session layers for data layers; their functionalities are
formatting, encryption, and spread across other layers or
session management handled by specific protocols

Development Designed as a theoretical Developed as a practical protocol

Approach model first, with protocols suite, tested and implemented in
developed later real-world networks

Protocol Less commonly used Widely used protocols like TCP,

Availability protocols today IP, and HTTP

Flexibility More rigid, with distinct More flexible, especially at the

layers for specific functions Application layer, with protocols
able to handle tasks from missing
OSI layers

Application Separates Application, Combines the three into a single

Layer Presentation, and Session Application layer, making it less
layers detailed

Usage Used as a reference model The actual protocol suite used for
for teaching and Internet communications
understanding networking
concepts

3. What is coding and Explain the process of error detection in block coding
Coding in data communications refers to converting data into a specific format to
enhance transmission, synchronization, and error detection. Block coding
introduces redundancy by converting a block of m bits into a larger block of n bits
(where n>mn > mn>m), which helps with error detection.

Block Coding Process:

1. Division: The data stream is divided into m-bit blocks.

2. Substitution: Each m-bit block is replaced by an n-bit block using a
predefined mapping.
3. Combination: The n-bit blocks are combined into a stream for transmission.

Error Detection in Block Coding:

The additional bits in the n-bit block provide redundancy for error detection. If the
received code doesn't match a valid n-bit codeword, an error is detected. This
redundancy also helps maintain synchronization during transmission.

For example, in 4B/5B encoding, if an invalid 5-bit code is received, the system
detects an error, as only valid 5-bit combinations are allowed.

6. Explain the CRC based error detection scheme with an example and consider
generator polynomial X3+X+1 and message 11000

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) Error Detection Scheme

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) is a widely used error detection technique that
employs polynomial division to detect errors in transmitted messages. The method
adds a fixed-size checksum (the CRC) to the message, which allows the receiver to
verify the integrity of the data.

Steps Involved in CRC:

1. Message Preparation:
 ○ A binary message is prepared for transmission. For this example, the
message is 11000.
2. Choosing the Generator Polynomial:
○ A generator polynomial is defined. In this case, we use
g(x)=x3+x+1g(x) = x^3 + x + 1g(x)=x3+x+1, which corresponds to the
binary representation 1011.
3. Augmenting the Message:
○ The message is augmented by appending zeros equivalent to the
degree of the polynomial. Since g(x)g(x)g(x) has a degree of 3, we
append 3 zeros:

Augmented message=11000→11000000

4. Polynomial Division:
○ Perform modulo-2 division of the augmented message by the generator
polynomial. This involves aligning the divisor under the leftmost bits of
the dividend and performing XOR operations while dropping down the
next bit until all bits are processed.
5. Constructing the Codeword:
○ The remainder (CRC) obtained from the division process is appended
to the original message to form the final codeword:

Codeword=original message+CRC

9. Explain the procedure of Pure Aloha with neat diagram

Pure ALOHA is a simple and fundamental random access protocol used in shared
communication channels, particularly in wireless networks. Here’s an outline of its
procedure:

1. Frame Generation:
○ Each station generates frames whenever it has data to send, with no
timing restrictions.
2. Transmission:
 ○ When ready, a station immediately transmits its frame onto the shared
medium.
3. Collision Handling:
○ Collisions can occur when multiple stations transmit simultaneously,
causing signals to interfere.
4. Acknowledgment:
○ After sending a frame, the sender waits for an acknowledgment (ACK)
from the receiver.
5. Timeout:
○ If the sender does not receive an ACK within a timeout period (twice
the maximum propagation delay, 2×Tp2 \times T_p2×Tp​), it assumes
the frame or acknowledgment was lost.
6. Backoff and Retransmission:
○ Upon timeout, the station waits a random time before retransmitting.
This backoff time (TBT_BTB​) is determined by a random value RRR
(ranging from 000 to 2K−12^K - 12K−1) and calculated as
TB=R×TpT_B = R \times T_pTB​=R×Tp​or TB=R×TfrT_B = R \times
T_{fr}TB​=R×Tfr​.
7. Maximum Retransmissions:
○ Each station can attempt retransmissions up to a maximum
(KmaxK_{max}Kmax​). If this limit is reached without success, the
station gives up and may retry later.
8. Vulnerable Time:
○ The vulnerable time for collisions is defined as twice the frame
transmission time (2×Tfr2 \times T_{fr}2×Tfr​), the period in which
collisions may occur.
9. Throughput:
○ The average number of successfully transmitted frames is
S=G×e−2GS = G \times e^{-2G}S=G×e−2G, with maximum throughput
occurring at G=1/2G = 1/2G=1/2 (approximately 18.4%).

12. Find the status of the following generator related to 2 isolated single bit errors.i)
X+1 ii) X4+1 iii)X7+X6+1 iv)X15+X14+1

i) This is a very poor choice for a generator. Any two errors next to each other cannot
be detected.

ii) This generator cannot detect two errors that are four positions apart. The two
errors can be anywhere, but if their distance is 4, they remain undetected.

iii) This is a good choice for this purpose.

iv) This polynomial cannot divide any error of type xt+1x^t + 1xt+1 if ttt is less than
32,768. This means that a codeword with two isolated errors that are next to each
other or up to 32,768 bits apart can be detected by this generator.