Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents the literature related to the abundance of native giant

freshwater prawns Macrobrachium rosenbergii.

Importance of Native Giant Freshwater Prawns in Aquatic Ecosystems

An important part of keeping aquatic environments in an ecologically balanced

state is the native giant freshwater prawn or macrobrachium species. These prawns are

omnivores that recycle nutrients and regulate the buildup of organic matter by feeding on

algae, tiny creatures, and debris. Their feeding habits control the growth of algae and

preserve the quality of the water in rivers, lakes, and estuaries, therefore reducing

eutrophication (Melo et al., 2020). They support the decomposition and nutrient cycling

processes, which are essential for preserving the productivity and biodiversity of aquatic

ecosystems, by eating a range of organic materials (Vogt et al., 2019).

In addition to their role in nutrient cycling, Macrobrachium species contribute to

habitat complexity and ecosystem structure. They engage in bioturbation, or the

disturbance of sediment, which can influence water flow and create microhabitats that

support a diverse range of aquatic species (Valenti et al., 2020). The presence of these

prawns enhances the diversity of benthic communities, as their activities create favorable

conditions for other organisms, such as fish and invertebrates. This diversity not only

promotes ecological resilience but also ensures the stability of food webs within the

ecosystem (Moraes-Valenti & Valenti, 2018).

7
 Acob | 8

The preservation of biodiversity in freshwater ecosystems depends on native

Macrobrachium species, such as Macrobrachium and Idella in the Philippines. Reducing

the dangers of exotic species introduction disease spread, competition, and predation has

been demonstrated by local studies to be accomplished through native species farming

(Aquino et al., 2019). Aquaculture operations align with environmental conservation

initiatives because native species are used, which also reduces ecological disruptions and

genetic pollution. Because the introduction of non-native species can have a significant

impact on the health of ecosystems, this is especially crucial in tropical places with high

biodiversity.

Internationally, the ecological services provided by native Macrobrachium

species have been increasingly recognized. In Brazil, research on Macrobrachium

amazonicum has demonstrated that these prawns play a crucial role in regulating nutrient

flows within the Amazon River Basin (Melo et al., 2020). Their presence supports fish

populations and other aquatic life by improving water quality and promoting nutrient

retention within the ecosystem. These services are essential for sustaining fisheries and

other aquatic resources that local communities depend on for their livelihoods (Vogt et

al., 2019).

The native giant freshwater prawn is integral to aquatic ecosystems due to its

roles in nutrient cycling, habitat modification, and supporting biodiversity. Both local and

international studies underscore the ecological importance of these species in promoting

healthy, functioning ecosystems. Conservation and sustainable aquaculture practices

involving native Macrobrachium species are vital for preserving aquatic ecosystems,
 Acob | 9

supporting fisheries, and maintaining the balance of freshwater habitats (Kimpara et al.,

2021; Aquino et al., 2019).

Ecological Importance of Ligawasan Marsh

Ligawasan Marsh has a crucial role in the survival of numerous aquatic species

and enhances the biodiversity of the area (Santos et al., 2022). The native giant

freshwater shrimp, which flourishes in rich, biodiverse habitats, depends on the marsh for

vital breeding and feeding grounds (Matsumoto et al., 2020). According to recent studies,

the marsh helps maintain healthy populations of Macrobrachium rosenbergii),

highlighting the necessity of conservation actions to keep these environments safe

(Ocampo et al., 2021).

Also contributing to the mitigation of the consequences of climate change is the

vast wetland system of the marsh, which serves as a carbon sink (Fernandez et al., 2021).

The amalgamation of these biological roles underscores the necessity of sustainable

management approaches to safeguard Ligawasan Marsh from the perils of pollution,

deterioration of habitat, and excessive resource extraction (Yuson et al., 2022).

Conservation techniques are essential for maintaining the sustainability of commercially

important species like M. as well as for maintaining the biodiversity of the marsh.

Macrobrachium rosenbergii, which are survival-dependent on these ecosystems (Alvarez

et al., 2020).

Factors Influencing the Abundance of Native Giant Freshwater Prawn

 Acob | 10

A range of biotic and abiotic factors affect the abundance of native giant

freshwater shrimp, especially species such as Macrobrachium rosenbergii and

Macrobrachium carcinus. Salinity, pH, temperature, and dissolved oxygen levels are

among the most important variables in water quality. According to research, the ideal

water quality parameters for these prawns' survival and growth include a steady pH of 6.5

to 8.5, high dissolved oxygen levels, and temperatures between 25 and 32 degrees Celsius

(Naylor et al., 2020). Stress, slower rates of growth, and increased vulnerability to illness

are all consequences of low water quality, and they all affect mammal abundance. The

significance of preserving water quality in prawn farming systems locally has been

highlighted by research conducted in Southeast Asia, especially in Thailand, have

emphasized the importance of maintaining water quality in prawn aquaculture systems to

enhance productivity (Jiravanichpaisal et al., 2019).

Another important factor influencing the number of native giant freshwater

prawns is the availability of habitat. These species are found in complexly structured

environments, such as vegetated riverbeds, submerged roots, and substrates that are either

sandy or gravelly (Lewin, 2014). These habitats provide hiding places that lessen the

chance of predation, particularly while prawns are molting and at their most vulnerable.

International research has brought attention to the effects of habitat degradation on the

prawn population, specifically the disappearance of wetlands and mangroves. Due to the

loss of vital habitats, deforestation, and wetland conversion in Brazil have resulted in

decreases in Macrobrachium populations (Costa et al., 2021). Similar results have been

observed in the Philippines, where habitat degradation in the Ligawasan Marsh has been

connected to a decrease in the abundance of native prawn species (Valdez et al., 2022)
 Acob | 11

The availability of food is another important factor that affects how many giant

freshwater prawn populations there are. Being omnivores, these prawns consume a wide

variety of foods, such as organic debris from their environments, small invertebrates,

algae, and detritus (Gutiérrez et al., 2016). According to an Indian study, nutrient-rich

settings that offer a plentiful food supply have a good effect on M. species development

and reproductive success. malcolmsonii, an additional enormous species of freshwater

shrimp (Mohan et al., 2020). On the other hand, population losses may result from

reduced food availability brought on by overfishing and competition for food resources.

Reduced food sources for native Macrobrachium species have been identified as a result

of increased human activity, including overfishing and competition with non-native

species, according to local research conducted in the Philippines (De Jesus-Ayson et al.,

2019).

Prawn abundance is also significantly influenced by predation pressure. Fish,

birds, and larger invertebrates are some of the Macrobrachium species' natural predators.

But prawn populations have declined due in part to human-induced predation, especially

from unsustainable fishing methods. According to a study conducted in Malaysia,

overharvesting, particularly during the mating season, has drastically reduced the amount

of prawn stocks in some rivers (Aziz et al., 2020). Abundance declines have been made

worse by the lack of rules protecting breeding populations, especially in places where

fishing intensity is high (Geist & Hawkins, 2016).

Impact of Human Activities on Macrobrachium species

 Acob | 12

Freshwater prawn populations around the world have significantly declined as a

result of environmental changes brought about by humans. Macrobrachium rosenbergii's

breeding sites have been disrupted throughout Southeast Asia by large-scale agriculture,

deforestation, and dam construction, all of which have changed the normal flow of rivers

and wetlands (Tan et al., 2021). This problem is made worse by the influx of chemical

pollutants from agricultural and industrial runoff, which contaminate water sources and

harm aquatic animals' health (Sharma et al., 2022). According to a study conducted in

India, freshwater prawns' survival and reproduction rates dropped as a result of the water

quality being reduced as a result of the overuse of pesticides (Singh et al., 2020).

Both beneficial and negative effects of human activity have been seen in the

habitats and populations of Macrobrachium species. Deforestation, pollution, and the

modification of freshwater ecosystems for urban or agricultural growth are the main

causes of habitat deterioration. Particularly in tropical and subtropical locations where

these prawns flourish, the availability of vital habitats for Macrobrachium species has

decreased due to the clearance of riparian vegetation and the drainage of wetlands.

According to a study by Ali et al. (2020), freshwater prawn populations in Malaysia have

decreased as a result of land-use changes along riverbanks, which have interrupted vital

breeding and rearing grounds. This pattern is also seen in other Southeast Asian nations,

where habitat loss due to deforestation and increased agriculture has changed riverine

systems.

Aquaculture methods have an impact on the ecosystem for Macrobrachium

species even when they are economically beneficial. Inadequate management of intensive

farming practices can result in eutrophication, disease transmission, and water

 Acob | 13

contamination (Ahmed et al., 2018). The nutrient runoff from trash and feed used in

prawn farming can cause the water quality of surrounding wetlands and rivers to decline

(Islam & Bhuiyan, 2016). Naylor et al. (2021) claim that the growth of aquaculture in

Brazil has resulted in the introduction of significant amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus

into freshwater systems, which has had an impact on the local Macrobrachium species by

increasing competition for resources and degrading their habitat. In addition to making, it

easier for non-native species to invade and outcompete native Macrobrachium species,

poorly managed aquaculture operations can also contribute to the loss of biodiversity

(García-Guerrero et al., 2017).

The distribution and abundance of Macrobrachium species have been further

impacted by the construction of dams and water extraction. For the duration of their life

cycles, these prawns are dependent on the natural flow of rivers, particularly during the

breeding season when the larvae need particular salinity gradients in estuaries. These

flow patterns are changed by dams and other water diversion constructions, which

frequently keep larvae from reaching the essential brackish waters. According to a global

study by Gupta et al. (2019), the construction of dams along the Ganges River in India

has fragmented habitats and limited Macrobrachium malcolmsonii's movement, which

has resulted in a population drop. Other nations have also reported this disturbance of the

natural hydrological cycles, such as the Philippines, where dam construction has changed

the environments of indigenous prawn species (Batang et al., 2020).

Pollution from industrial and agricultural sources poses a significant threat to

Macrobrachium populations. Contaminants such as heavy metals, pesticides, and organic

pollutants can accumulate in the water and sediment, affecting the health and
 Acob | 14

reproduction of prawns (Negro et al., 2011b). A local study in the Philippines by

Villanueva et al. (2018) documented that pesticide runoff from nearby rice paddies

caused a decline in the population of Macrobrachium rosenbergii in a freshwater system

in Laguna. The study found that chemical pollutants led to reduced reproductive success

and increased mortality rates in prawns exposed to contaminated waters. This is in line

with international findings, such as the research by Muangchinda et al. (2019) in

Thailand, which reported similar impacts of agricultural runoff on freshwater prawn

populations.

Climate change, driven by human activities, is exacerbating these pressures on

Macrobrachium species (Shaikh, 2018). Changes in temperature and precipitation

patterns affect water availability and quality, potentially altering the breeding cycles and

distribution of these prawns (Prather et al., 2012). A study by Valenti et al. (2020)

reported that rising water temperatures and altered rainfall patterns in the Amazon basin

are expected to reduce suitable habitats for Macrobrachium amazonicum, impacting their

population dynamics and ecosystem functions. In the Philippines, local researchers have

also warned that climate-induced changes in river flow and temperature could pose long-

term risks to native prawn species, necessitating immediate conservation efforts (Paler-

Calmorin et al., 2021).

Conservation Strategies for Macrobrachium Species

Due to their significance for both ecology and economy, Macrobrachium species

especially native freshwater prawns need to be conserved (Moshtaghi, 2017). To

 Acob | 15

guarantee the survival of these species, several conservation tactics have been put into

place, with an emphasis on sustainable management techniques, habitat preservation, and

aquaculture advancements (Belioka & Achilias, 2023). Worldwide research emphasizes

how important it is to preserve natural environments, like river systems and wetlands, to

support wild populations (Change, 2023). In countries like South America, where

Macrobrachium amazonicum populations are prevalent, restoring damaged ecosystems

and enforcing stringent environmental restrictions have been beneficial in conserving

freshwater prawn habitats (Valenti et al., 2018). Since habitat destruction is one of the

main dangers to Macrobrachium species globally, these natural ecosystems must be

preserved.

Aquaculture plays a vital role in the conservation of Macrobrachium species by

reducing the pressure on wild populations (Gatta, 2022). Advances in breeding

techniques, selective breeding programs, and hatchery technologies have enabled the

production of prawns in controlled environments, alleviating the need for wild-caught

broodstock (Moraes-Valenti & Valenti, 2020). These strategies, combined with improved

water management and feed efficiency, contribute to the sustainability of

Macrobrachium farming. In Southeast Asia, where Macrobrachium rosenbergii

aquaculture is widely practiced, research has focused on enhancing the survival rates of

larvae in hatcheries through better water quality control and nutrient-rich feeds (Nguyen

et al., 2019). These developments ensure a steady supply of prawns for commercial

purposes without overexploiting natural populations.

Local conservation initiatives have also highlighted how crucial community

participation is to the preservation of Macrobrachium species (Van Hoof & Kraan, 2017).
 Acob | 16

For instance, community-based management strategies have been put into place in the

Philippines in areas where Macrobrachium species are crucial for the region's fisheries

(Gatta, 2022b). Local stakeholders are involved in fishing practices regulation, prawn

population monitoring, and aquatic environment rehabilitation through these projects

(Hejnowicz et al., 2015). According to research by Perez et al. (2021), community

involvement in habitat restoration initiatives, such as protecting mangrove areas and

reforesting riparian zones, has greatly aided in the recovery of prawn populations across

the nation. This illustrates how well conservation measures work when local expertise

and scientific research are combined.

Genetic conservation is another critical aspect of preserving Macrobrachium

species (Jung et al., 2011). Maintaining the genetic diversity of wild and farmed

populations is essential for their long-term survival, particularly in the face of climate

change and disease outbreaks (“The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2018,”

2018). Research conducted in India on Macrobrachium malcolmsonii revealed that

genetic bottlenecks caused by overharvesting and selective breeding could lead to a loss

of genetic diversity, reducing the species' ability to adapt to changing environmental

conditions (Kumar et al., 2017). To address this, conservation programs have been

established to ensure the periodic introduction of wild broodstock into hatcheries,

preserving the genetic health of the population (Teixeira & Huber, 2021). This strategy is

vital for maintaining the resilience of prawn species in both natural and aquaculture

settings (Tommasi et al., 2017).

To preserve aquatic organisms such as Macrobrachium species, international

organizations have demanded that conservation techniques be incorporated into more

 Acob | 17

comprehensive environmental regulations. Guidelines for sustainable aquaculture,

including methods that minimize habitat damage and reduce pollution from prawn farms,

have been developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and other

international authorities (FAO, 2020). The global conservation of Macrobrachium species

is the goal of these guidelines, which also aim to improve the protection of vital

ecosystems and encourage sustainable aquaculture techniques. To promote environmental

sustainability and economic development, local governments are encouraged to accept

these recommendations and modify them to match their unique ecological and

socioeconomic settings (Carter et al., 2014).

Habitat suitability for Macrobrachium species

Temperature, salinity, and water quality are some of the environmental

parameters that impact the suitability of a Macrobrachium species' habitat, including the

commonly farmed Macrobrachium rosenbergii and Macrobrachium amazonicum. The

optimal water temperatures for the growth and reproduction of these prawns are found in

tropical and subtropical regions, where they flourish (Araujo & Valenti, 2019). Extending

this temperature range can drastically lower growth rates and survival rates, as studies

have demonstrated (Nogueira et al., 2020). This is particularly true in colder areas where

prawns are more susceptible to stress and death. For habitat appropriateness in both

natural and farmed settings, it is imperative to maintain the ideal water temperature

(Pretty et al., 2010).

 Acob | 18

Salinity is another critical factor that affects the habitat suitability of

Macrobrachium species. While most species, such as Macrobrachium rosenbergii, are

primarily freshwater prawns, they require brackish water during their larval stages (Anuar

et al., 2021). This means habitats that offer access to both freshwater and brackish water

zones, such as estuaries and river mouths, are ideal for supporting the full life cycle of

these prawns. Research has shown that a salinity range of 5-15 ppt during the larval stage

is optimal for survival and development (Mehdi et al., 2020), emphasizing the importance

of mixed-salinity environments for farming and natural populations.

Water quality plays a vital role in determining habitat suitability for

Macrobrachium species. High levels of dissolved oxygen, low turbidity, and minimal

pollution are essential to maintain healthy populations (De Souza et al., 2018). Pollution

from agricultural runoff, containing excessive nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus,

can cause eutrophication and hypoxia, negatively impacting prawn health and reducing

survival rates (Henry-Silva & Camargo, 2019). Therefore, proper water management

practices, including the use of constructed wetlands and other filtration systems, are

necessary to maintain optimal water conditions in aquaculture settings.

Substrate availability and habitat complexity are also important factors for the

survival and well-being of Macrobrachium species (Boyd et al., 2020). These prawns

prefer diverse substrates such as sand, gravel, and submerged vegetation, which provide

both foraging grounds and shelter from predators (Rebouças et al., 2020). Research

indicates that the presence of aquatic vegetation not only offers physical protection but

also contributes to water quality by absorbing excess nutrients (Cavalcante et al., 2021).
 Acob | 19

Therefore, habitats with rich vegetation and diverse substrates are more likely to support

stable populations of Macrobrachium species (Bowman et al., 2009).

The ecological health of the broader environment is crucial for the long-term

sustainability of Macrobrachium habitats (Ahmed et al., 2012). Human activities such as

deforestation, wetland drainage, and water pollution can degrade these ecosystems,

leading to habitat loss and population declines (Brito et al., 2022). Effective habitat

management that includes conserving natural wetlands, restoring degraded ecosystems,

and reducing pollution is essential to ensure the continued viability of Macrobrachium

populations in both wild and farmed settings. A balanced ecosystem that supports

biodiversity not only benefits the prawns but also promotes overall environmental health

(Frankic & Hershner, 2003).

Environmental Impacts of Shrimp and Freshwater Prawn Farming

One of the main sources of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) emissions is

intensive shrimp farming, especially in coastal areas like the six estuaries along the NE

Brazilian coast (Lacerda et al., 2006). This kind of aquaculture has been linked to several

environmental problems, such as the deterioration of mangrove ecosystems (New et al.,

2010), the salinization of groundwater and nearby agricultural land, and social unrest in

coastal communities (FAO et al., 2006). On the other hand, freshwater prawn farming,

like the farming of Macrobrachium rosenbergii, has generally lower environmental

impacts (Kimpara et al., 2011; Moraes-Valenti & Valenti, 2010). Nevertheless, steps can
 Acob | 20

be taken to further reduce these impacts to support sustainability in the industry (Valenti,

2012).

Marine shrimp farming, while having a higher environmental footprint in some

aspects, has been shown to achieve higher yields per unit area and a lower feed

conversion ratio (FCR), potentially mitigating its overall environmental impact on a per-

unit-mass basis. Notably, Macrobrachium rosenbergii, although an introduced species in

most countries where it is farmed (Valenti et al., 2010), poses a reduced risk of

establishing itself in non-native environments due to its requirement for alternating

conditions of brackish and freshwater during its life cycle, as well as its need for a warm

climate (New et al., 2010).

Farming native species, for example, might minimize the danger of introducing

new infections, limit habitat alterations, and stop alien species from escaping into nearby

ecosystems (Bridger & Garber, 2002; Myrick, 2002). Additionally, using native

broodstock increases the sustainability and acceptability of aquaculture methods in the

community and prevents the genetic depletion of local populations (Moraes-Valenti &

Valenti, 2010). As a result, the cultivation of indigenous freshwater prawn species like

Macrobrachium carcinus in Central America, Macrobrachium amazonicum in South

America, and Macrobrachium malcolmsonii in India is gaining popularity (Kutty &

Valenti, 2010; Moraes-Valenti & Valenti, 2010).

Numerous management solutions have been put out to lessen the environmental

impact of aquaculture, with a particular focus on reducing eutrophication brought on by

effluents (V et al., 2020). One efficient method to treat aquaculture effluents by

 Acob | 21

eliminating nutrients and particle matter is to employ built wetlands (CWs) (Henry-Silva

& Camargo, 2006, 2008; Biudes, 2007). According to Trung et al. (2010), CWs are a

great option for deployment in underdeveloped nations since they are low-cost, easy to

construct and run, and dependent on natural processes (Soares, 2023). CWs can

effectively remove nutrients from effluent water by adding aquatic macrophytes. Henry-

Silva and Camargo (2006) state that water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) farming

methods can eliminate 70% of total nitrogen and 90% of total phosphorus from tilapia

effluent water (Boyd et al., 2020b).

Identify of Native Giants Freshwater Prawn

In commercial farming, size measurements are critical for managing the growth

and health of M. rosenbergii. Males tend to grow larger than females, and selective

farming practices can capitalize on these differences. This selective breeding helps

improve yields, making the prawn a valuable resource in both natural and farmed

ecosystems. The carpus of the periopods is longer than the merus. The second pair of

periopods in the male is thicker than in other species. There are 13 teeth in the lower part

of the rostrum. The rostrum is long and slightly bends upward. Telson extends up to the

end of the uropod’s Older M. rosenbergii juveniles and the adults are normally

distinctively blue. Occasionally they are brownish with orange stripes. Giant freshwater

prawns are nocturnal, omnivorous, and benthic feeders. Prawns are nibblers and slow
 Acob | 22

feeders. They take the feed with twin pinchers bring them to their mouth and slowly chew

on them. Their diets include zooplankton, aquatic animals, small mollusks, crustaceans,

algae, and organic material, both animals and vegetables. They are cannibalistic,

especially during molting. Prawn seeks food at night and hide during the daytime.

Macrobrachium rosenbergii grows fast, can tolerate moderate temperature and salinity

changes, and can be cultured in ponds. Dr. S.W. Ling pioneered the closing of the cycle

of this species in 1961 when larvae completed their phase in brackish water.

Figure 1: Morphological picture of Native Giant Freshwater Prawn

 Acob | 23

Figure 2: Actual Picture of Native Giant Freshwater Prawn