Matter

Matter-In Depth

Matter can be defined as anything that has both mass and volume and occupies a
certain space in the universe. The air we breathe, the food we eat, the water we drink,
the clothes we wear, the different plants and animals, stones, sand, etc., are all
examples of matter.

Matter and non-matter: Matter can be distinguished from non-matter in terms of mass,
volume, and space it occupies. A chair, a computer, a car, and a bridge are all
examples of matter. Each of them has mass and volume, and also occupies
space. Non-matter, on the other hand, cannot be measured in terms of mass and
volume. It does not occupy any space either. Examples of non-matter include thirst,
anger, love, and smell.

Can air be classified as matter?

Though air is invisible and intangible, it does have mass and volume. But it occupies
space. Hence, air can be classified as matter.

Examples of matter and non-matter

Matter Non-matter
Air, building, animal, plant, water, fruit, Cold, hot, big, small, anger,
vegetable, chair, table, computer, car, love, song, lecture
book, pen, pencil, bag

Know More

We measure the mass of matter, and not its weight. This is because the mass of matter
is constant, but its weight can vary from place to place. To calculate the weight of any
object, we multiply its mass with the acceleration due to gravity (g) which varies from
place to place. Consequently, the weight of the object varies as well.

The SI unit of mass is kilogram.

The CGS unit of mass is gram.

The FPS unit of mass is pound.

The SI unit of volume is cubic metre (m3).

 The common unit of measuring volume is litre.

1 L = 1000 mL = 1 dm³
Characteristics of Matter

By now we know that the nature of matter is particulate and not continuous. The
particles of matter have certain characteristics. The characteristics of particles of matter
are as follows:

• Matter is made up of extremely small particles called atoms. Atom is the smallest
possible unit of matter that exhibits all the properties of that matter.
• When atoms combine with one another, minute particles are formed, which
are called molecules.
• The particles of matter have spaces between them.
• The particles of matter are in continuous motion.
• The particles of matter attract one another.

The Phlogiston Theory

• It was used to explain the combustion reactions during the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries.
• According to it, "any material undergoing combustion mainly contains a mysterious
matter called phlogiston and also some clax."
• When a substance is burnt, the phlogiston goes into the surrounding and the clax is left
as ash.
• During the burning of a candle in a closed container, the air present inside the container
becomes saturated with phlogiston. No further phlogiston can be accommodated in the
air and as a result, the candle gets extinguished.

Whiz Kid

While preparing sugar syrup, we dissolve sugar in water. However, after adding a
certain amount of sugar, we observe that sugar does not dissolve anymore and
gets settled at the bottom of the container. Why is it so?

The water is able to dissolve only up to a certain amount of sugar particles. Once its
maximum capacity for dissolving the sugar particles is reached, it does not dissolve any
more of them. In other words, there is no space left between the water particles to
accommodate any more sugar particles. So, any additional sugar added simply settles
at the bottom of the container.
Know More

Gas pressure
 Particles of gas always move with high speed. Pressure is created when gaseous
particles hit the walls of the container in which they are enclosed.

For example, you must have observed that the continuous blowing of a balloon causes
it to burst. This is because the gas particles put pressure on the inner walls of the
balloon. Excess blowing in of air increases the number of gas particles inside the
balloon. As a result, the pressure of the gas increases and, ultimately, the balloon
bursts.
Kinetic Theory of Matter

The kinetic theory of matter is a theory that tells us about the behaviour of matter.

Kinetic Theory of Gases

• All matter is made up of molecules.

• All molecules of a substance are identical.

• Molecules of different substances differ in composition, shape and size.

• Molecules are in continuous motion; they don’t stop for any length of time.

• Intermolecular forces depend on the distance between the molecules and the type of
molecules.

• Motion of molecules is affected by the change in temperature; the higher the

temperature, the more they move.

Intermolecular force is an attractive force between molecules. It depends on the

distance between molecules.

• Arrangement of molecules in Solids

• In solids, molecules are very tightly packed because of very strong intermolecular forces
between them.

• The molecules can only vibrate, but cannot move from their respective positions. This is
because strong intermolecular force holds the molecules at one place. For the same
reason, solids are rigid and hard.
 So, solids have a fixed shape and a fixed volume, and thus, cannot be compressed.

When we heat solids, they gain heat energy. This energy increases the vibrations of the
molecules. Due to the increase in vibrations, the intermolecular spaces increase, which
in turn leads to the expansion of solids. Thus, solids expand on heating.

• Arrangement of molecules in Liquids

• Molecules are slightly further apart than in solids.

• Intermolecular forces are less strong than in solids.

• Molecules can move from their positions in liquids.

• Thus, liquids flow, and take the shape of containers.

• Liquids do not have a definite shape, but they do have a definite volume.

• When we heat a liquid, its molecules vibrate. As the intermolecular forces are weaker in
liquids than in solids, the molecules of the liquid also move vigorously. Thus, liquids also
expand on heating, but only slightly

• As there is more space between the molecules in liquids than in solids, liquids can be
compressed a little.
• Arrangement of molecules in Gases

• Molecules are very far apart; hence, there is hardly any attraction between the
molecules.

• Intermolecular forces in gases are negligible.

• Therefore, molecules of a gas are free to move around.

• As gases are free to move around, they don’t have any fixed shape and volume, they
can enclose the entire space in which they are kept.

• A gas can easily be compressed.

Changes Among Various States of Matter

Change of State-An Overview

In daily life, we see different kinds of changes in the states of matter. The formation of
ice cubes from water in the refrigerator is an example of a change in the state of matter
 from liquid to solid. When water is boiled, vapours are formed. This is an example of
change in the state of matter from liquid to gas.

The following terminologies are used to describe the changes in the states of matter.

• Change from the solid state to the liquid state is called melting.
• Change from the liquid state to the solid state is called freezing.
• Change from the liquid state to the gaseous state is called vapourisation.
• Change from the gaseous state to the liquid state is called condensation.

There are two other changes between the three states of matter—sublimation and
deposition.

Sublimation: It is the process in which a substance changes directly from the solid
state to the gaseous state without entering into the liquid state. The changing of snow
into water vapour is an example of sublimation. Some common examples of substances
that sublime are dry ice, camphor, and naphthalene.

Deposition: It is the process opposite to sublimation. In this, a substance changes

directly from the gaseous state to the solid state. Frost is an example of deposition.

Did You Know?

When we open the refrigerator, we see freezing fog. This is nothing but
condensed water.

Air contains vapours. When we open the refrigerator, the temperature comes down.
This condenses the vapours into tiny drops of water and produces freezing fog.
Temperature Affecting the Change of State

Let us perform an activity to understand the effect of temperature on the different states
of matter.

Procedure: Take about 150 g of ice in a beaker and use a laboratory thermometer to
note the temperature of ice. Start heating the beaker on a low flame and record the
temperature when the ice starts melting. Observe the temperature when all the ice gets
converted into water. Stir the water with a glass rod till it starts boiling.
 Result: In the beginning, the temperature of ice is below 0°C. When ice begins melting,
the temperature is recorded to be 0°C. Temperature remains constant at 0°C untill all
the ice melts. The continued heating of water causes its temperature to rise.

Conclusion: It can be concluded from this activity that an increase in temperature

changes a substance from its solid state to its liquid state, and further heating (i.e.,
further increase in temperature) changes the liquid so formed into vapour.

Temperature Affecting the Change of State

You know that matter, irrespective of its state, consists of particles. What happens to
these particles of matter while it is undergoing a change in its state? For us to
understand this, we need to first know that:

• The particles of matter possess kinetic energy.

• A force of attraction exists between any two particles.

Kinetic energy of the particles of matter: A moving particle/object possesses a

certain amount of energy because of its motion. This energy is called kinetic energy.
The particles of matter are in constant motion. Therefore, they possess kinetic energy.

Particle-particle force of attraction: Every particle of matter attracts the particles near
it. An increase in the distance between particles decreases the force of attraction
between them. Conversely, a decrease in distance increases this force of attraction.

The given figure shows the kinetic energy of particles and the particle-particle force of
attraction in the three states of matter.

Kinetic energy of particles: Gas > Liquid > Solid

Particle−particle force of attraction: Solid > Liquid > Gas

Temperature Affecting the Change of State

When a solid substance is heated, there is an increase in the kinetic energy of its
constituent particles. As a result, the particles start vibrating with greater speed. This
extra energy helps the particles to overcome the particle-particle force of attraction.
Soon, they leave their positions and start moving more freely. Consequently, the
substance melts into its liquid state. This is known as melting point. The melting point
of ice is 0°C.

Liquids have a characteristic temperature at which they turn into solids. This is
called freezing point. The freezing point of water is 0°C.

Further heating increases the kinetic energy of the liquid particles. This increases the
velocity of the particles. At a certain temperature, they obtain enough energy to break
free from the particle-particle force of attraction. At this point, the liquid changes into its
gaseous state. This is known as boiling point. The boiling point of water is 100°C.

During the conversion of ice into water, the temperature remains constant until all the
ice melts into water. The supplied heat is used up for changing water from its solid state
to its liquid state. The heat energy is absorbed by the ice without showing any rise in
temperature. This heat energy is called latent heat.

The amount of heat required to convert 1 kg of a solid into its liquid state without a
change in temperature (i.e., at its melting point) is called latent heat of fusion. For ice,
the latent heat of fusion is 334 kJ kg−1. This implies 334 kJ of heat has to be provided to
convert 1 kg of ice at 0°C into 1 kg of water at 0°C. Conversely, 334 kJ of heat is
released when 1 kg of water freezes at 0°C to give 1 kg of ice at 0°C.

Know More

Latent heat of vapourization is the amount of heat required to convert 1 kg of a liquid

into its vapour state without a change in temperature. For water, the latent heat of
vapourization is 2260 kJ kg−1. This means that 2260 kJ of heat must be provided to
convert 1 kg of water at 100°C into 1 kg of vapour at 100°C. Conversely, 2260 kJ of
heat is released when 1 kg of water vapour condenses at 100°C to give 1 kg of water at
100°C.
Heating curve

If the increase in temperature during heating and the absorbed heat are plotted on a
graph, then the curvature which is formed is called the heating curve.

In the figure, ‘A’ represents the rise in the temperature of the substance in its solid state
from −50ºC to 0°C; ‘B’ shows the latent heat of fusion; ‘C’ shows the increase in the
temperature of the substance in its liquid state from 0°C to 100°C; ‘D’ shows the latent
heat of vapourisation, and ‘E’ shows the increase in the temperature of the substance in
its gaseous state.

Solved Examples

Easy

Example 1:

If the melting point of a solid is high, then the __________ between the particles is
stronger.

Solution:

force of attraction

Medium

Example 2:

Which has more energy: solid wax at 42°C or liquid wax at 42°C?
Solution:

Liquid wax at 42°C has more energy than solid wax at the same temperature.

Hard

Example 3:

Choose the process which will absorb heat/energy from the surroundings.

A.Conversion of ice into water

B.Conversion of water vapour into snow

C.Precipitation of water vapour as rain

Solution:

The correct answer is A.

Measuring Temperature

Three scales are commonly used for measuring temperature, namely, the Celsius
scale, the Fahrenheit scale, and the Kelvin scale.

The relation between the Celsius and the Kelvin scale can be expressed as C + 273 = K

The relation between the Celsius and the Fahrenheit scale can be expressed as follows:

Example: 30°C can be expressed as 303 K and 86 oF.

Celsius to Kelvin: 30 + 273 = 303 K

Celsius to Fahrenheit:
 Did You Know?

Cool Facts

• The temperature zero Kelvin is known as absolute zero. Nothing can be colder than
zero Kelvin.

• Dry ice is frozen carbon dioxide. Its temperature is −78.5°C. It turns directly into carbon
dioxide gas without undergoing a liquid phase. Its sublimation characteristic and super-
cold temperature make dry ice suitable for refrigeration. It is commonly used to export
frozen materials across long distances.

Whiz Kid

Take some ammonium chloride salt in a china dish. Crush the salt and cover the dish
with a funnel, as shown in the figure. Plug the stem of the funnel using some cotton.
After this, start heating the dish slowly using a burner.

Result of the activity:

Upon heating, ammonium chloride will vapourise without transforming into its liquid form
(sublimation). Later, the vapours will get cooled on the walls of the funnel and will
directly convert into solid ammonium chloride (deposition).

Note: The same activity can be done using camphor or naphthalene.

Pressure Affecting the Change of State

We know that change in temperature affects the state of matter. Change in pressure,
too, affects the state of matter. Let us see how.

We have a gas in a closed container. Say, we put some weight on the lid of the
container. This increases the pressure on the container, which in turn causes the gas
particles to come close to one another. As a result, the kinetic energy of the particles
reduces. Nevertheless, the particles are still quite far away from one another and,
hence, are still in the gaseous state. When the pressure on the container is increased
further, the gas particles come very close to one another. Gradually, the gas liquefies.

Did You Know?

Water boils below 100°C (at approx. 92°C) in Mussoorie.

Mussoorie is a hill station set at a height of about 2000 m above sea level. Atmospheric
pressure decreases as you go up from the sea level. Decrease in pressure lowers the
boiling point of water below 100°C.
Whiz Kid

Liquid crystals are believed to be an independent state of matter as their properties lie
in between those of liquids and solid crystals. They exist in a specific temperature
range. They behave as solids below that temperature range and as liquids above that
temperature range.
Know More

Why we need to liquefy gases

Together with low temperature, high pressure is generally used to liquefy gases.
 A highly combustible gas is released during the fractional distillation of crude oil. This
gas is known as petroleum gas. Petroleum gas is also trapped over the reserves of oil
present beneath Earth’s crust. Petroleum gas is liquefied by applying high pressure and
low temperature. This is known as liquefied petroleum gas or LPG. LPG is used as a
domestic fuel.

Other uses of liquefaction of gases

• Liquefaction of gases is helpful for their easy storage and transportation.

• Liquefied gases can be used in various fields; for example, in air conditioning and
refrigeration systems (gases used are liquid ammonia and liquid sulphur dioxide).
• Liquid oxygen is supplied to hospitals for patients. It is also used as a rocket propellant.
• Liquid nitrogen is used in cryosurgery.
• Liquid chlorine is supplied to water treatment plants for purification of water.
• Liquid hydrogen in combination with liquid oxygen forms the fuel for rocket propulsion.

Inter-Conversion among Solids, Liquids, and Gases

Evaporation
 The circulation of water on our planet Earth takes place in a cyclic manner. This cyclic
process is known as the water cycle.

Evaporation is the process in which physical state of a substance changes from liquid
state to gaseous at a temperature below its boiling point.

Evaporation depends on the following factors.

• Humidity
• Temperature
• Wind speed
• Surface area

Humidity

When the humidity is high during summer days, we feel more hot and sweaty than
usual. Why is this so?
 High humidity means that the air surrounding us is rich in water vapours and, hence,
has a lesser tendency to take up more water vapours. In consequence, when we sweat,
the sweat takes longer to vaporize. This is the reason why we feel particularly hot and
sweaty in times of high humidity.

Temperature, Wind Speed and Surface Area

There are two conditions in which the earlier activity is carried out:

• The hot and windy condition under the running fan

• The cold and non-windy condition inside the closet

The test tube and the first china dish are placed in the hot and windy condition. In this
case, the rate of evaporation of water is high because of the following factors.

• Moving air (running fan)

• High temperature

Now, between the china dish and the test tube, the surface area of the former is more
than that of the latter. As a result, the rate of evaporation is higher in case of the china
dish than in case of the test tube.

The second china dish is placed in the cold and non-windy condition. In this case, the
rate of evaporation of water is low because of the following factors.

• No moving air
• Low temperature

Also, as the water evaporates, the humidity inside the closed space of the closet rises.
Consequently, the rate of evaporation decreases.

So, the rate of evaporation (r. o. e.) of water with respect to each container is as follows:
r. o. e. from the first china dish > r. o. e. from the test tube > r. o. e. from the second
china dish
Conclusion
 Project Ideas
Clouds in a Bottle

• Add one to two teaspoons of water in a plastic bottle and shake it well so that the water
spreads across the walls of the bottle.
• Next, put a lit splinter in the bottle. This will cause the water inside to evaporate. As the
water vapours rise, they will condense on the smoke particles to form clouds.
• Link this activity to atmospheric cloud formation as a result of evaporation and to the
types of clouds formed depending upon the height where water vapours condense.
Solved Examples

Medium

Example 1:

The rate of evaporation in a lake will be higher on a ___________.

1. hot and dry summer day
2. hot and humid summer day

Solution:
The correct answer is A.

The rate of evaporation will be higher on a hot and dry summer day. This is because the
air will not contain as much water vapour as it will on a hot and humid day.

Example 2:
Which of the following will dry faster?

1. A cloth hanging on a wire

2. A cloth lying on a flat floor
 Solution:
The correct answer is A.

A cloth hanging on a wire will have more surface area exposed for evaporation as
compared to a cloth lying on a flat floor.

Easy

Example 3:
We feel cold after bathing in cold water during summers. This is because of
___________.

1. condensation
2. evaporation

Solution:
The correct answer is B.

The evaporation of water from the body causes the body to cool.
Did You Know?

Cetyl alcohol is sprayed as a layer on the water in the reservoirs to reduce evaporation.
Factors Affecting Evaporation

Here are a few examples showing the cooling effect of evaporation.

1. Water present in an earthen pot remains cool: An earthen pot has minute pores all
across its surface. Water keeps coming out of these pores. This water absorbs heat
from the pot and evaporates. Consequently, the water present inside the pot remains
cool.

2. The skin becomes cool when deodorant or perfume is sprayed: Perfumes and
deodorants contain alcohol—a highly volatile substance. When deodorant is applied to
the skin, it absorbs heat from the area and gets evaporated. This is the reason why the
skin becomes cool when sprayed with deodorant or perfume.

3. We perspire more during summers. The water molecules present in our sweat
absorb heat energy from our body and change into vapours. Consequently, the body
gets cooled because of this loss of heat.

4. People sprinkle water on the roof during a hot sunny day. This is done as the
sprinkled water absorbs heat from the roof and changes into water vapours. The roof
cools as a result of the loss of heat.
5. During summers, people prefer to wear cotton clothes: Cotton absorbs water and
also allows air to pass through itself. This aspect of cotton makes it the preferred
material for clothes worn during summers. Cotton clothes absorb sweat and expose it to
air. As a result, the sweat evaporates and heat energy (equal to the latent heat of
vaporization) is lost by the body. This cools the body.

6. A desert cooler gives cool air. The water in the cooler is sprinkled onto the pads by
the pump. This allows easy evaporation. The air outside the cooler is pulled in through
the moist pads where it is cooled by evaporation. The cooled air is then pushed out of
the cooler by the fan.