presentation

Journal of Environmental Management 352 (2024) 119959
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Environmental Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman
Review
Internet of Things and citizen science as alternative water quality

monitoring approaches and the importance of effective water
quality communication
Fernando Amador-Castro a, Martín Esteban González-López a, Gabriela Lopez-Gonzalez b, c,
Alejandro Garcia-Gonzalez d, Osiris Díaz-Torres a, Oscar Carbajal-Espinosa a, Misael
Sebastián Gradilla-Hernández a, *
a
Tecnologico de Monterrey, Escuela de Ingenieria y Ciencias, Av. General Ramon Corona No. 2514, 45201, Zapopan, Jal., Mexico
b
Water@leeds, School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
c
School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
d
Tecnologico de Monterrey, Escuela de Medicina y Ciencias de La Salud, Av. General Ramon Corona No. 2514, 45201, Zapopan, Jal., Mexico
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Handling editor: Jason Michael Evans The increasing demand for water and worsening climate change place significant pressure on this vital resource,
making its preservation a global priority. Water quality monitoring programs are essential for effectively man
Keywords: aging this resource. Current programs rely on traditional monitoring approaches, leading to limitations such as
Water quality monitoring low spatiotemporal resolution and high operational costs. Despite the adoption of novel monitoring approaches
IoT
that enable better data resolution, the public’s comprehension of water quality matters remains low, primarily
Citizen science
due to communication process deficiencies. This study explores the advantages and challenges of using Internet
Water quality communication
Water quality platforms of Things (IoT) and citizen science as alternative monitoring approaches, emphasizing the need for enhancing
Water management public communication of water quality data. Through a systematic review of studies implemented on-field, we
identify and propose strategies to address five key challenges that IoT and citizen science monitoring approaches
must overcome to mature into robust sources of water quality information. Additionally, we highlight three
fundamental problems affecting the water quality communication process and outline strategies to convey this
topic effectively to the public.
1. Introduction sanitation availability and sustainable management.

Water resources management requires implementing water quality
Water, an essential resource for human life, faces a continuously monitoring programs (WQMPs) to evaluate the status of water bodies
increasing demand due to population growth and economic develop (Kirschke et al., 2020). A reliable assessment of water quality and
ment (Ma et al., 2020). Estimates indicate that the worldwide popula quantity allows decision-makers to evaluate the effectiveness of their
tion suffering from urban water scarcity can grow from 933 million in management practices and government programs employed to preserve
2016 to 2.373 billion by 2050 (He et al., 2021). Nevertheless, water or improve the ecological status of a water source (Behmel et al., 2016).
demand is one of many threats to its availability, as low quality also Therefore, WQMPs should be comprehensively designed, covering all
renders water unsuitable for multiple purposes (Vliet et al., 2021). Thus, aspects from the initial determination of monitoring objectives and the
quantity and quality must be preserved to prevent water scarcity. In monitoring network design to evaluating if the information gathered is
ternational legislation, such as the European Union Water Framework being communicated effectively with stakeholders and if it is helpful for
Directive (2000/60/EC), has been developed to maintain and improve decision-making (da Luz et al., 2022; see Fig. 1).
the status of the aquatic environment and encourage sustainable water One aspect of WQMPs under constant evolution is the methods
use. Furthermore, globally, the sixth Sustainable Development Goal employed to evaluate water quality. Traditional monitoring approaches
(SDG) of the United Nations (2022) aims to guarantee water and were designed to monitor well-established parameters (e.g., total
* Corresponding author Av. General Ramon Corona No. 2514, 45201, Zapopan, Jal, Mexico.
E-mail address: [email protected] (M.S. Gradilla-Hernández).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.119959
Received 12 October 2023; Received in revised form 20 December 2023; Accepted 23 December 2023
Available online 9 January 2024
0301-4797/© 2023 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
F. Amador-Castro et al. Journal of Environmental Management 352 (2024) 119959
Fig. 1. Design elements of a water quality monitoring program (1) Establishment of the monitoring objectives (e.g., public health protection, ecosystem health
assessment, evaluation of ecological restoration projects); (2) selection of sampling sites to be included in the monitoring network; (3) selection of water quality
parameters; (4) definition of sampling frequencies; (5) estimation of the required resources; (6) logistics planning: fieldwork, laboratory analysis, data handling,
storage, analysis, and validation; (7) identification of communication channels; and (8) evaluation of information use. Developed based on Behmel et al. (2016).
nitrogen, total phosphorus, fecal coliforms) in specialized facilities, (Hadj-Hammou et al., 2017; Quinlivan et al., 2020). Additionally, these
requiring trained personnel to handle sample collection and processing initiatives can improve the public’s understanding of water quality and
(Ahmed et al., 2019). The former results in high costs and reduced enhance current communication practices by increasing social involve
sampling frequencies, especially in low- and middle-income countries ment and awareness of water issues (Metcalfe et al., 2022).
with limited financial resources. Novel technological and scientific ad Due to their characteristics, IoT and citizen science have received
vancements allow water quality to be monitored using alternative ap interest as potential tools that can contribute to achieving different
proaches that offer distinct advantages over traditional methods. For SDGs. IoT technologies can be applied to provide timely and accurate
instance, non-target screening and effect-directed tools can be incor information about the quality of water resources, water usage, or
porated into WQMPs to assess emerging pollutants such as pharma wastewater management, which can contribute directly to SDG 6 and
ceuticals, hormones, or personal care products and their effects (Brack also towards SDG 11 by supporting the development of sustainable cities
et al., 2019). Furthermore, automated monitoring and remote sensing and communities (López-Vargas et al., 2020; Alzahrani et al., 2023).
allow the assessment of water quality using sensors, eliminating the Citizen science initiatives focusing on water quality monitoring can
need to deploy field personnel for sample collection. potentially contribute towards SDG 6 by complementing the data of
Over the past few decades, automated water quality monitoring existing WQMPs (Fraisl et al., 2020). Furthermore, some citizen science
(WQM) has undergone a significant transformation from the initial use projects involve collaboration among communities, scientists, and pol
of in situ sensors towards the adoption of wireless sensor network icymakers, aligning with SDG 17.
technologies (WSN), culminating in the integration of Internet of Things Contrary to the high interest in previous monitoring approaches,
(IoT) solutions (Adu-Manu et al., 2017). Although in situ sensors allow scientists and practitioners have often overlooked the efficient
real-time determination of water quality parameters, these devices do communication of the information produced by WQMPs. While there
not permit continuous monitoring and require staff deployment. These have been significant advances in mass media in recent decades, there is
limitations have led to the development of WSN technologies, allowing little knowledge of the public’s communication needs regarding water
continuous retrieval of water quality data at nearly real-time speeds quality, leading to water quality information often being delivered using
without human intervention (Martínez et al., 2020). Still, WSN tech communication channels that are not preferred by the public (Behmel
nologies face high energy demands, device communication issues, low et al., 2018). Information may be presented via television news when the
computational performance, reduced data storage, and high mainte target public expects the information to be delivered using interactive
nance costs, leading to a shift towards IoT technologies (Olatinwo and maps. Sometimes, WQM results are presented using complex language
Joubert, 2019). IoT enables the interconnection of objects, such as that hinders the public’s understanding (Brouwer et al., 2020). Hence,
electronic devices and sensors, through the Internet (Kumar et al., there is a need to evaluate the local context to identify the most
2019). This capability allows IoT devices to use the existing communi appropriate communication channels and ways to present information
cation infrastructure and cloud computing to overcome WSN limitations to the public.
and provide stakeholders with timely information. Additionally, IoT Despite their potential benefits, IoT and citizen-based monitoring
devices can incorporate software sensors for predicting water quality approaches have yet to be integrated into WQMPs due to inherent lim
parameters based on the information from physical sensors, reducing itations that need to be addressed. Furthermore, unless there are sub
monitoring costs (Pattnaik et al., 2021). stantial enhancements in water quality communication, implementing
In recent years, citizen science has also gained importance as an these monitoring approaches will merely improve the level of infor
alternative method for collecting water quality information, involving mation without contributing to the public’s understanding of water
the active participation of the public in monitoring activities, scientific quality. This systematic review aims to (1) identify the advantages and
research, and knowledge generation (Jollymore et al., 2017). Citizen challenges associated with the use of IoT and citizen science as alter
science can potentially enhance data collection, observation, and native WQM approaches, (2) provide insights on how to address the
dissemination (Mdee et al., 2022). Citizen-based WQM initiatives can identified challenges for each monitoring approach, and (3) identify the
provide reliable information on water bodies of diverse types and sizes, issues hindering effective water quality communication and propose
increasing the spatiotemporal resolution and complementing the data solutions to communicate water quality results to the public effectively.
produced by scientists and government institutions at reduced costs By identifying and proposing solutions to recurring challenges in IoT
2
Fig. 2. Selection of studies based on the systematic review methodology. IoT: Internet of Things, WQM: Water Quality Monitoring. *Keywords: “automated”, “IoT”,
"Internet of Things", "water quality monitoring", "water quality communication", "water quality", "citizen science", "water quality reports", "water quality platform",
"water quality decision support system".
and citizen science field studies, we intend to inform future project de described in Fig. 2. The Scopus and Web of Science databases were used
signs so that these issues can be proactively addressed from the outset. to identify studies from the last ten years that covered citizen and IoT-
Moreover, we seek to raise awareness about the inadequacies of current based WQM approaches as well as water quality communication. The
water quality communication practices, advocating for incorporating search query used to identify keywords in the article title, abstract, and
effective communication strategies into future WQM projects and keywords sections was: (((automated OR IoT OR "Internet of Things")
encouraging much-needed research in this area. AND "water quality monitoring") OR "water quality communication" OR
("water quality" AND "citizen science") OR "water quality reports" OR
2. Systematic review methodology "water quality platform" OR "water quality decision support system")
AND PUBYEAR >2012. The last search was performed on January 16,
The systematic review was conducted following the procedure 2023.
3
Table 1
F. Amador-Castro et al.
Summary of the reviewed Internet of Things-based water quality monitoring studies.
Number of Measured Controller Communication Cloud service Communication Use of Place of Waterbody Power Data validation Reference
parameters parametersa hardware with user/Access software implementation type source
to data sensors
2 TDS, EC Arduino UNO Wi-Fi module ThingSpeak Online by PC or No Malaysia River Battery No Suhaimi
(ESP8266) smartphone Sulaiman
et al. (2023)
17 DO, BOD, COD, Integrated GSM Processed locally Online by PC No India River Solar Yes Singh et al.
TOC, TSS, BTX, EC, Con::cube module using Moni::tool panel - (2022)
pH, F, Cl, K, T, Tu, and transmitted to battery
color, nitrate, dedicated server system
ammonia, and water
level
3 T, Tu, luminosity Arduino TinySine 3G GSM ThingsBoard Online by PC or No Australia Multiple Solar No Trevathan
Mega 2560 module smartphone app types: Creek, panel - and
Dam, Lake, battery Schmidtke
River system (2022)
2 T, DO Raspberry Pi 4 NB-IoT module Data processed Online by PC No Italy Lake Solar Yes Strigaro et al.
locally and at panel - (2022)
dedicated server battery
employing system
multiple cloud
services
3 T, pH, Tu Arduino UNO LoRa-GPS module ThinkSpeak Online by PC or No India Water Battery Only for the Philip and
smartphone reservoir communication Singh (2022)
algorithm
5 TDS, pH, DO, EC, T Wemos D1 Mini Chip Integrated Wi-Fi ThingsBoard Online by PC or Yes Hong Kong River Battery Yes Wang et al.
module smartphone app (2021)
4 pH, T, Tu, and water NodeMCU (ESP32) Integrated Wi-Fi Blynk Blink app No India Not specified Solar No Hameed
4
flow module panel - et al. (2022)

battery
system
2 Tu and water level Raspberry Pi for Wi-Fi dongle Ambient Online by PC No Malaysia Water canal Solar Yes Wong et al.
processing and panel - (2021)
Arduino for sensor battery
readings system
4 T, pH, DO, EC Arduino Pro Mini GSM modem Dedicated server Online by PC or No Italy Sea Battery Statistically for Diviacco
employing smartphone outliers et al. (2021)
multiple cloud
services
4 DO, T, pH, Tu** Raspberry Pi 3 Integrated WLAN Dedicated server Accessible from Yes India River Solar Yes Pattnaik

and Bluetooth server panel - et al. (2021)
battery
system
4 T, pH, Tu, TDS Arduino UNO Integrated USB Not used Accessible by PC No Brunei Small stream PC No Hong et al.
port connected to the (2021)
device
4 T, pH, Tu, EC STM32F103C8T6 LoRa-RF module MySQL Online by PC No China Lake Battery No (W. Chen
(SX1278) et al., 2021)
2 pH, Tu Wemos D1 R2 Integrated Wi-Fi Ubidots Online by PC No Malaysia Small water PC No Samsudin
Module reservoir et al. (2018)
5 DO, EC, pH, T, Tu USR-WIFI232-630 Integrated Wi-Fi Dedicated server Online by PC or No United Kingdom River Solar No (Y. Chen and
module employing smartphone app panel - Han, 2018)
multiple cloud battery
services system
3 pH, DO, Tu MSP430F149 GPRS/GSM Not used Locally at No China River Not No Li and Cao
microprocessor module monitoring center specified (2015)
a
Parameters measured directly with physical sensors. **Data for the performed river measurements. Abbreviations - T: temperature, Tu: Turbidity, DO: dissolved oxygen, EC: electrical conductivity, BOD: biochemical
oxygen demand, COD: chemical oxygen demand, TOC: total organic carbon, TSS: total suspended solids, TDS: total dissolved solids, BTX: benzene-toluene-xylene, F: fluoride, Cl: Chloride, K: potassium.
Table 2
Summary of the reviewed citizen science-based water quality monitoring studies.
Monitoring Number of Measured parameters Periodicity Data Training of Data Water Communication Communication Collaboration Place of Main Challenges Reference
approach parameters validation* volunteers described body type approach process with implementation
as accurate evaluation government**
Use of kits 3 NO₃⁻, PO₄3⁻, Tu Monthly Yes Yes Yes Lake Web page No No Tanzania MU Moshi et al.
(2022)
Traditional and 5 T, Tu, DO, pH, Variable No Yes Yes Lake Dedicated app, No Yes Italy, Switzerland SB, CE Biraghi et al.
biological biological (presence of web page (2022)
observations algae or fauna)
Smartphone-based 2 Nitrite and ammonium Single Yes Yes Yes River None No No China ND (S. Zheng et al.,
sensor 2022)
Biological 2 Macroinvertebrates Variable No No No Multiple Web page No No Netherlands CE, DNU, Peeters et al.
observations number and species (stream, continuous (2022)
river, lake, funding
pond)
Use of kits 7 T, Tu, DO, pH, NO₃⁻, Single No Yes No Sea Web page Yes No Portugal Low Araújo et al.
salinity, polymers understanding of (2022)
parameters
Traditional and 4 T, pH, TDS, DO Monthly Yes Yes Yes Lake None No Yes India ND Lekshmi et al.
on-site probe (2021)
3
Use of kits 4 T, pH, NO₃⁻, PO₄ ⁻ Monthly Yes Yes No Lake Dedicated app No Yes Turkey MU, LO Cakmak et al.
(2021)
Use of kits 2 NO₃⁻, PO₄3⁻ Monthly Yes Yes Yes River Dedicated app, No No Ireland MU, SB Hegarty et al.
web page (2021)
IoT-based 4 T, salinity, DO, and pH. Single Yes No Yes Sea Web page No Yes Italy SB, CE Diviacco et al.
(2021)
Field observation 2 Tr, color Variable Yes Yes No Lake Social media, No Yes India CE, MU George et al.
web page (2021)
5
Traditional 4 TN, TP, Tr, chlorophyll Variable Yes Yes Yes Lake Web page No No USA Data perceived Hoyer and
as inaccurate by Canfield (2021)
authorities
Use of kits 3 NO₃⁻, PO₄3⁻, Tu Variable Yes Yes Yes River, Web page No Yes UK, Zambia SB Bishop et al.
stream (2020)
Traditional 4 Tr, TP, TN, chlorophyll Variable Yes Yes Yes Lake Web page No Yes USA DNU Poisson et al.
(2020)
Use of kits 5 EC, pH, COD, NO₃⁻, Single Yes Yes Yes River, None No No Ireland MU, CE Quinlivan et al.
PO₄3⁻ stream (2020)
On-site 5 T, pH, EC, Tu, DO Monthly Yes Yes Yes River, None No No Honk Kong MD, sampling Ho et al. (2020)
multiparametric stream technical issues

probe
Use of kits 3 DO, pH, EC Variable Yes Yes Yes River, Web page No Yes USA DNU Albus et al.
stream (2020)
On-site sensors, 7 EC, NO₃⁻, nitrite, PO₄3⁻, Weekly Yes Yes Yes River None No Yes Myanmar MU, MD Thatoe Nwe
use of kits, pH, Tr, iron Win et al.
traditional (2019)
Use of kits, 9 NO₃⁻, PO₄3⁻, Tu, T, pH, Variable No Yes ND Wetland Web page No No Mexico ND Pérez-Belmont
microbiological, EC, DO, fecal et al. (2019)
and on-site coliforms, and total
probe coliforms
Use of kits and 7 pH, COD, DO, PO₄3⁻, Single Yes No Yes River Web page No Yes Malaysia ND Sakai et al.
portable probe Tr, ammonia nitrogen, (2018)
and heavy metals
Use of kits 5 NO₃⁻, PO₄3⁻, Tu, color, Variable Yes Yes ND Ponds and Web page No Yes USA, UK Canada, CE Thornhill et al.
algal blooms Lakes Netherlands, (2018)
France, Australia
(continued on next page)
Table 2 (continued )
Monitoring Number of Measured parameters Periodicity Data Training of Data Water Communication Communication Collaboration Place of Main Challenges Reference
approach parameters validation* volunteers described body type approach process with implementation
as accurate evaluation government**
Use of kits and 6 NO₃⁻, PO₄3⁻, Tu, T, pH, Variable Yes Yes ND Streams Web page No No Canada ND Shupe (2017)
portable probe EC
Traditional 3 TSS, NO₃⁻, DOC Variable Yes Yes Yes Multiple Web page No Yes Canada SB Jollymore et al.
(stream, (2017)
river, lake,
pond)
Use of kits and 5 NO₃⁻, PO₄3⁻, Tu, T, pH Monthly Yes Yes ND River Web page No Yes China ND Zhang et al.
portable probe (2017)
Use of kits 3 NO₃⁻, PO₄3⁻, Tu Variable Yes Yes ND River, Web page No No China ND Thornhill et al.
stream (2017)
3
Use of kits 2 NO₃⁻, PO₄ ⁻ Variable Yes Yes No Multiple Web page No No UK LO, SB McGoff et al.
6
(stream, (2017)
river, lake,
pond)
Personal 4 Color, smell, turbidity, Variable Yes No Yes Multiple Social media, No Yes China SB, LO, CE, (H. Zheng et al.,
Interpretation floating particles (stream, web page reports 2017)
river, lake, validation
pond)
Use of kits and 5 NO₃⁻, PO₄3⁻, Tu, Variable Yes Yes Yes River Web Page No Yes Canada MU Lévesque et al.
biological thickness and type of (2017)
observations beach-cast vegetation,
litter

Notes: *Data validation performed statistically or by comparing the results with samples collected by professionals. **Includes any type of collaboration ranging from active participation in the project implementation to
providing funding. Abbreviations - T: temperature, Tu: turbidity, NO₃⁻: nitrate, PO₄3⁻: phosphate, DO: dissolved oxygen, EC: electrical conductivity, COD: chemical oxygen demand, DOC: dissolved organic carbon, TSS:
total suspended solids, TDS: total dissolved solids, TN: total nitrogen, TP: total phosphorus, Tr: transparency, USA: United States of America, UK, United Kingdom, ND: Not disclosed, MU: measurement uncertainties
associated to the method used, CE: citizen engagement issues, SB: sampling bias, DNU: data not used by scientists or authorities, LO: low number of observations, MD: Monitoring device too technical.
Fig. 3. (A). Monitoring approach for assessing water quality parameters in the reviewed citizen science studies. (B). Communication approaches for sharing water
quality results with the public in the reviewed citizen science projects. Abbreviations - IoT: Internet of Things, Micro: Microbiological, SBS: Smartphone-
based sensors.
The selection criteria were peer-reviewed research articles in English for full-text analysis. The included articles focus on citizen science (n =
that focused on citizen science applied to WQM, IoT-based WQM, or 25), IoT-based WQM (n = 14), and WQC (n = 9). Only two articles were
water quality communication (WQC). The included studies for citizen identified to cover more than one of the previous scopes (with a mixed
science and IoT-based WQM were centered exclusively on surface water. scope) and were analyzed within more than one category.
However, in the context of WQC, the scope was extended to encompass The succeeding subsections provide an overview of the examined
investigations into drinking water due to the scarcity of available in IoT, citizen science, and WQC studies, summarizing relevant aspects for
formation. The excluded articles were those that (1) focused on remote each monitoring approach and the findings for communication studies.
sensing, groundwater, use of uncrewed vehicles, water restoration ac Detailed tables are provided for the reader to (1) assess the diversity and
tivities, or WQM in aquaculture, agriculture, water treatment plants, or potential of IoT and citizen science WQM projects implemented on-field
water tanks; (2) studies that involved the monitoring or the communi and (2) identify relevant research on WQC. Later, in the discussion
cation of a single water quality parameter; (3) reviews, letters, per section, we recover the main challenges identified in the reviewed
spectives, conference papers, book chapters, and books; and (4) studies studies and provide suggestions for managing these issues and
that were not implemented. enhancing the communication of water quality to the public. Lastly, we
The studies that were considered as implemented were those per provide future perspectives and conclusions on the reviewed areas.
formed in the field, outside laboratory-controlled conditions. In the case
of IoT-based WQM, this resulted in the exclusion of articles that focused 3.1. IoT-based water quality monitoring
solely on the design of an IoT device or its associated algorithms without
performing measurements directly in a water body. For citizen science, A total of 15 references (IoT n = 14, mixed scope n = 1) were
we excluded studies focused on the theoretical design of the project reviewed on relevant aspects such as measured water quality parameters
without performing its execution. Lastly, we excluded WQC studies that using physical sensors, employed microcontroller, communication
did not analyze the understanding of water quality or develop tools to hardware used, cloud services utilization, the method employed by the
enhance public communication. user to access the data, software sensors integration, device power
After obtaining the results from the search query, titles were source, country of implementation, monitored water body type, and
screened to remove duplicates. A second screening that considered the data validation. The findings are summarized in Table 1.
title and abstract was then performed to remove the records that were The range of measured water quality parameters varied from two to
out of the scope of this review. After the screening, studies were clas seventeen. Excluding the study that collected data for 17 parameters
sified according to the publication type, and only research articles were (Singh et al., 2022), the average number of measured parameters was
included. The full text for the articles was then reviewed to assess their 3.4 ± 1.1. Twelve studies measured four or fewer parameters to deter
eligibility based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria described above. mine the water quality of a water body. The most frequently measured
Subsequently, the remaining articles were included for analysis and parameters were temperature, turbidity, and pH, determined in 11
classified into four categories: IoT-based WQM, citizen science, WQC, studies, followed by dissolved oxygen and electrical conductivity,
and mixed scope. measured in seven and six studies, respectively. Only two studies
implemented software sensors based on machine learning algorithms for
3. Results predicting water quality parameters that cannot be directly measured
using physical sensors. In only five studies, data was validated by
The initial search strategy resulted in 1200 articles, with 773 and 427 comparing the results with those obtained following a traditional WQM
records identified from Scopus and Web of Science, respectively. Upon approach.
the initial screening of publication titles, 415 duplicates were identified While the hardware setup varied among the monitoring devices, the
and removed. Further screening of the title and abstract resulted in the preferred microcontroller board type was Arduino (n = 6), and the data
exclusion of 587 records that were out of the scope of this study. Clas communication was performed via a Wi-Fi module (n = 6). There was no
sification by type of study resulted in the exclusion of 104 records. Of the clear trend regarding the preference for cloud service; however, most
remaining 94 articles, 50 met the eligibility criteria and were considered studies (n = 12) make data accessible online. Regarding power sources,
7
solar panel–battery systems were employed in 47% (n = 7) of the de Table 3

vices, followed by using batteries alone in one-third (n = 5) of the Summary of the analyzed water quality communication studies.
monitoring systems. Monitoring devices were primarily employed to Purpose Water type Place of Reference
assess the water quality of rivers and lakes, respectively documented in communication research
seven and three references. Almost half of the reviewed studies (47%) Identify how individuals Drinking water United Fischer et al.
were implemented in India (n = 4) and Malaysia (n = 3). The rest of the would like water quality States (2022)
studies were implemented in China (n = 2), Italy (n = 2), Australia (n = information to be
1), Brunei (n = 1), Hong Kong (n = 1), and the United Kingdom (n = 1). communicated, the type
of information of their
interest, the key agents
3.2. Citizen science that could be used to
communicate the
Twenty-seven articles (citizen science n = 25, mixed scope n = 2) information, and how
communication processes
focusing on citizen science WQM were analyzed on monitoring
can be enhanced to
approach, measured water quality parameters, periodicity of moni promote public
toring, monitored water body type, information communication engagement.
method, country of implementation, and main challenges. Additional Evaluating the accessibility Drinking water United Nicholas and
aspects that were assessed included the methods for validating the data of Customer Confidence States Vedachalam
Reports (CCRs) based on (2021)
collected by the volunteers, the training of the project participants, the web content guidelines,
collaboration with government institutions, the understanding of water reading ease, and
quality by the public, and whether water quality data was reported to be availability of translated
accurate (Table 2). materials.
Assessing marine water Marine water United Woodward et al.
Ten studies employed more than one monitoring approach to
quality by adapting an Arab (2021)
determine the water quality of a water body; the three most frequent existing water quality Emirates
were chemical test kits (n = 16), followed by on-site probes (n = 7), and index to communicate
traditional techniques involving the use of laboratory equipment (n = water quality conditions
6). Only one study employed IoT devices (Diviacco et al., 2021) for effectively.
Assess how water systems Drinking water United Evans and
citizen WQM (Fig. 3A). The five most frequently monitored parameters
track and evaluate their States Carpenter
were nitrate (n = 15), phosphate (n = 14), pH (n = 13), turbidity (n = CCRs’ effectiveness on (2019)
12), and temperature (n = 9). The analyzed articles measured 4.3 ± 1.8 consumer understanding,
parameters on average, whereas ten studies measured more than four engagement, and shaping
perceptions about water
parameters to determine water quality. The range of measured param
quality.
eters varied from two to nine. Develop a water quality Watershed Malaysia Sakai et al.
More than half of the studies (n = 15) monitored water quality assessment tool called (2018)
without a specific periodicity, although some followed a monthly (n = 6) Eco-Heart Index that
or a weekly (n = 1) periodicity. Five studies monitored water quality on citizen scientists can
employ to communicate
a single occasion. Nine studies monitored more than one water body,
water quality by drawing
mostly rivers or streams (n = 16), followed by lakes (n = 12), ponds (n = a heart shape that
5), the sea (n = 2), and wetlands (n = 1). The preferred approach for changes depending on
communicating water quality results was the use of a web page or web water quality.
Determine if there is an Drinking water Canada Ochoo et al.
platform (n = 21), and only four studies (~15%) used more than one
association between the (2017)
communication channel (Fig. 3B). The analyzed publications were actual water quality
conducted in 19 countries, with three studies considering more than one supplied by public
country. China, the United States, and Canada were the leading coun utilities and the public
tries, with four citizen science projects implemented in each country. perception of the water
quality.
Although the authors from seven studies did not disclose the chal
Determine the degree to Drinking water United Phetxumphou
lenges associated with their citizen science project, 11 reported more which CCRs clearly States et al. (2015)
than one problem. The primary reported challenges were measurement communicate
uncertainties associated with the monitoring methods (n = 7), issues information on water
quality to the public by
related to citizen engagement (n = 7), sampling bias (e.g., lower sam
using the CDC’s Clear
pling of non-urban areas or certain water bodies; n = 7), monitoring Communication Index.
results not used by scientists or authorities (n = 3), and a low number of Assess the readability of Drinking water United Roy et al. (2015)
observations (n = 3). CCRs to determine to States
Data validation, either statistically or by comparing citizen-gathered what extent the contents
are accessible to the
results with professional measurements, was included in the design of 23
public and to compare
of the 27 citizen science projects. Similarly, 85% (n = 23) of the studies results to the
reported that volunteers were trained before monitoring water quality. recommended criteria for
Citizen-gathered data were described as accurate in most publications public health
(n = 17), with five studies depicting it as inaccurate and five not communications.
Evaluate if governmental Recreational and Canada Dunn et al.
providing an explicit statement on data quality. Government collabo communication practices drinking water (2014)
ration or funding was identified in 15 publications. Lastly, only one align with public
article evaluated communication aspects by testing whether the citizen expectations of water
science initiative improved the participants’ understanding of water quality communications.
Evaluating the public’s Marine water United Pratap et al.
quality parameters (Araújo et al., 2022).
awareness and States (2013)
understanding of beach
8
Table 3 (continued ) et al., 2023).

Purpose Water type Place of Reference Automated monitoring has recently focused on developing and
communication research implementing IoT-based WQM devices. As depicted in Fig. 4, the IoT
water quality
scheme generally involves data being acquired, transmitted, processed,
communications and stored, and delivered (Y. Chen and Han, 2018). Data is acquired using
their perceptions of sensors, generally located in situ, which measure water quality param
health risks. eters and provide input to a controller (Geetha and Gouthami, 2017).
The controller can then either directly send or process and send the data
received from the sensor to an online web service using adequate
3.3. Water quality communication
communication technology. Cloud services can store and analyze data
and apply machine learning algorithms to estimate water quality (Sri
Ten studies that evaluated WQC were reviewed (WQC n = 9, mixed
vastava et al., 2018). Lastly, the analyzed data is delivered to local au
scope n = 1). Most references (70%) focused on the communication of
thorities or other users via readily available communication channels
drinking water quality. Marine and watershed communication was
such as a web page, text messages, or mobile apps (Shafi et al., 2018).
covered in two and one reference, respectively. Four studies assessed
IoT provides multiple advantages besides delivering high temporal
communication based on Customer Confidence Reports. Two publica
resolution data to end users at almost real-time speed. The costs of IoT-
tions focused on developing water quality indexes with visual cues that
based monitoring are relatively low because it employs already existing
can be used to improve WQC. Lastly, public perception and expectations
communication infrastructure and cloud computing (Shi et al., 2019).
of WQC from a general perspective were evaluated in four references.
The heavy computational loads can be managed through cloud services
The analyzed references mainly focused on WQC in North America (n =
(e.g., ThingSpeak, ThingsBoard, or Amazon Web Services), requiring
8). A summary of the reviewed research is provided in Table 3.
only a simple and low-cost processor on-field instead of an advanced
computing device (Ray, 2016). Integration into the cloud also results in
4. Discussion
local devices being employed for performing simple tasks and remaining
in a low power consumption mode. Additionally, it is possible to inte
4.1. IoT-based water quality monitoring
grate machine learning algorithms into cloud servers to enhance the
determination of water quality by predicting additional parameters or
Existing WQMPs often rely on traditional monitoring approaches
future trends based on the measurements of physical sensors (Alshehri
involving manual sampling and laboratory analysis, which presents
et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2019).
challenges in covering entire catchments. The former approach results in
Another advantage of IoT monitoring devices is that they can be
low sampling frequencies, which provide only a snapshot of the dynamic
coupled with software sensors, which are virtual devices that employ
nature of water quality parameters, potentially overlooking critical
mathematical models or machine learning to infer the values of water
events like flow or contaminant concentration spikes. Technological
quality parameters without the need for physical sensors (Zainurin et al.,
advances in sensors and communication technologies provide an op
2022). The former enables the estimation of parameters that are not
portunity to shift from the traditional WQM scheme towards automated
directly measurable due to the inexistence of dedicated sensors or their
approaches (Yanes et al., 2020). Automated monitoring allows the
high cost. Multiple studies have discussed the development of software
timely determination of water quality without deploying experienced
sensors for WQM based on the use of artificial neural networks (Foschi
field personnel to collect and transport samples for their analysis,
et al., 2021), random forests (Castrillo and García, 2020), multiple linear
facilitating high-resolution data collection (Meyer et al., 2019; Pasika
regression (Schilling et al., 2017), support vector machines (El Bilali
and Gandla, 2020).
et al., 2021), fuzzy logic systems (Zhou et al., 2022), and Bayesian
Integrating cost-effective sensor technologies into WQMPs enables
networks ( Zhang et al., 2021).
high-resolution spatiotemporal monitoring, paving the way for estab
The systematic analysis revealed two studies incorporating software
lishing causal relationships between drivers and response variables
sensors into IoT devices for monitoring water bodies. Wang et al. (2021)
(Bieroza et al., 2023). This capability allows the detection of subtle
employed an IoT device that gathered data from five physical sensors
changes in water quality conditions, which can be advantageous for
(total dissolved solids, temperature, electrical conductivity, dissolved
identifying unregulated wastewater discharges into a water body (Sol
oxygen, and pH) to estimate five additional parameters (nitrate-ni
ano et al., 2022). Using low-cost monitoring devices can make WQM
trogen, phosphates, nitrite-nitrogen, 5-day biological oxygen demand
more affordable, especially for countries with limited resources, opening
(BOD5), and ammonia-nitrogen) using a general regression neural
the possibility of using the available budget to increase the sampling
network and a multivariate polynomial regression model. The estima
points and improve spatial coverage (Miller et al., 2023). This approach
tions were considered adequate, with determination coefficients higher
provides real-time insights into the entire river network, facilitating the
than 0.78. Pattnaik et al. (2021) developed an IoT device with four
identification of hotspot areas, which serve as critical starting points for
physical sensors (dissolved oxygen, pH, temperature, and turbidity)
implementing intervention measures to improve water quality (Lofton
capable of determining BOD5 using machine learning algorithms. The
Fig. 4. Steps involved in an Internet of Things (IoT) water quality monitoring scheme. *Data can be directly sent or locally processed before being sent to
cloud services.
9
system was tested on-field employing a K nearest-neighbor approach for technologies can hinder the implementation of IoT-based WQM systems.
BOD5 prediction, achieving a 0.92 correlation coefficient. Relevant ex While commercial cloud services offer multiple benefits, the proper
amples of employing IoT devices coupled with machine learning to functioning of IoT devices relies on the continuous availability of these
assess water quality have also been documented in other contexts, services, rendering them dependent on external entities. IoT devices
including water purification plants (Bhardwaj et al., 2022), wastewater relying on external cloud services are susceptible to increases in overall
treatment facilities (Sundui et al., 2021), and aquaculture systems operational costs if companies raise their fees. Hence, when feasible, the
(Manoharan et al., 2020). IoT system should use customized cloud services based on local servers
A limitation regarding physical sensors is that long-term in situ (Jan et al., 2021). Additionally, cloud service availability and pricing
deployment can cause fouling, a phenomenon characterized by the can vary depending on the country. Similarly, communication technol
accumulation of undesirable particles or microorganisms within the ogies like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular networking (2G, 3G, 4G, 5G)
sensor that can produce incorrect measurements (Murray et al., 2020). exhibit significant variations in accessibility and network strength
From the analyzed references, three research articles indicated fouling contingent upon the geographical location (Borralho et al., 2021).
problems with sensors on the monitoring devices. Turbidity sensors Therefore, the selection of communication technology should consider
presented this problem in all identified studies, resulting in readings infrastructure availability, volume of transmitted data, transmission
drift (Chen and Han, 2018; Trevathan and Schmidtke, 2022; Wong et al., frequency, transmission distance, and power source (Xu et al., 2019).
2021). Regular cleaning and calibration of the sensors are recommended IoT devices should also be designed to handle different network condi
to ensure accurate readings, with the maintenance interval dependent tions, such as weak or intermittent signals.
on the local environmental conditions. Devices deployed in water bodies The constant connection to the Internet exposes IoT monitoring de
with high turbidity or high concentrations of microorganisms will vices to cyberattacks. Vulnerabilities can exist in any of the layers of the
require shorter maintenance intervals to prevent fouling (Wong et al., IoT architecture, requiring that multiple security layers are imple
2021). The suggested maintenance interval for the devices in the mented to protect the devices, communication channels, and applica
reviewed studies varied between one to six months. Predictive mainte tions that integrate the system (Kuzlu et al., 2021). Security
nance algorithms can be incorporated into IoT systems to indicate when measurements may include using authentication, access control, data
maintenance will be required (Sami and Khan, 2023). However, shorter encryption, threat and risk prediction, and intrusion detection (Rekha
intervals will result in a higher device maintenance cost as personnel et al., 2023). Artificial Intelligence can be incorporated into IoT systems
must be deployed to clean the sensors. Ideally, the systems should be to enhance the detection, prevention, and response to anomalies or in
developed so sensors and other mechanical parts can be automatically trusions (Samriya et al., 2022; Wazid et al., 2022). Additionally,
cleaned without human assistance (Singh et al., 2022). blockchain technology can provide an additional security layer by
The calibration of physical sensors must also be considered to guaranteeing the traceability and immutability of the collected data
maintain accurate readings. Sensor calibration was reported in 12 of the (Han et al., 2023). Recent publications on IoT cybersecurity provide a
15 reviewed studies, indicating the relevance of this process for gath comprehensive overview of the prevailing risks and state-of-the-art
ering accurate data. Calibration should be performed using certified mitigation strategies (Sarker et al., 2023; Tariq et al., 2023).
reference materials at intervals dependent on the specific sensor and the An aspect that remained to be addressed in the reviewed studies was
environmental conditions (Singh et al., 2022). Although sensor cali the suitability of communication channels for delivering water quality
bration was reported as a widespread practice, measurement validation results to the intended end-users. While twelve studies (80%) relied on
was only performed on five reviewed articles, despite this process being online platforms accessible through smartphones or computers, three
essential to assess the reliability of the data. Measurement validation required data access from a local computer. The appropriateness of the
should be performed by comparing the results from the IoT device with selected communication channels depends on the end-user’s preferences
those obtained by following the standardized methodologies indicated and the information’s intended use (Behmel et al., 2018). Online plat
in local legislation (Martínez et al., 2020). forms and instant messaging services effectively deliver real-time in
IoT-based WQM devices should be designed considering the place of formation to authorities or institutions, allowing timely WQM.
implementation. Monitoring devices must be robust and reliable to However, diversifying communication channels is crucial when
withstand changing environmental conditions, as deployment and disseminating information directly to the public, as individuals may
maintenance may be complex, especially at remote locations (Xu et al., have varying preferences (DeVito, 2016). Additionally, some pop
2019). In addition to the environment, birds and other wildlife can ulations may have restricted internet access, limiting their ability to
interact with the devices, causing damage; therefore, the design and access water quality results.
manufacturing method plays a significant role (Trevathan and
Schmidtke, 2022). Modular and reconfigurable hardware can prolong 4.2. Citizen science for water quality monitoring
the lifespan of devices and diminish the expenses associated with
replacing damaged or obsolete components (Rahmani et al., 2023). One of the critical aspects of successfully implementing a WQMP is
Energy efficiency is crucial for IoT devices, as replacing batteries sharing the generated information with the public and promoting
requires deploying personnel, leading to increased costs. Therefore, participatory practices. The European Union Water Framework Direc
employing energy-efficient components and software is essential for IoT tive (2014. 2000/60/EC) states its success “relies on close cooperation
systems, especially those solely reliant on battery power. Using low- and coherent action at community, member state, and local level as well
power wide-area networks such as LoRa (Long Range Wide Area), Sig as on information, consultation, and involvement of the public,
fox, or NB-IoT (Narrowband-IoT) will extend the interval for replacing including users”. Also, SDG 6B aims to “support and strengthen the
batteries (Olatinwo and Joubert, 2019). Selecting an appropriate rout participation of local communities in improving water and sanitation
ing protocol is also relevant for optimizing energy efficiency in IoT de management”. Participative approaches come with benefits such as
vices, as these protocols determine the paths that data packets take raising public concern, gaining better acceptability of the projects, and
through the network. Recent studies have focused on the development of gathering local and expert knowledge (Brouwer et al., 2018).
energy-efficient protocols for IoT applications (Chithaluru et al., 2023; Nevertheless, integrating public participation into WQMPs has been
Narayan et al., 2023). Integrating energy harvesting technologies into challenging not only because there are no clearly defined guidelines
IoT devices such as solar panels is recommended as they can continu regarding the stage of the program in which this participation should be
ously provide energy to the system, thereby increasing its independence requested but also because public participation can take many forms
capabilities (Sanislav et al., 2021). depending on the context, resulting in variations in the objectives, the
The reliance on external cloud services and communication scope, the participants, and the structures at the local, regional, and
10
national levels involved (Behmel et al., 2018). Despite the challenges, Apart from employing different technologies, multiple approaches
public participation should be considered, as the lack of incorporation of can increase data quality at different project stages. The actions include
participatory practices can result in WQMPs that do not reflect the volunteer training, validation with experts, peer reviews, the use of
public’s information needs (Behmel et al., 2016). standardized protocols and calibrated tools, and the implementation of
Within participative approaches, citizen science, which involves the novel statistical analysis technologies (Fritz et al., 2019). In this regard,
public’s participation in scientific research and knowledge generation, 85% of the examined articles either provided participant training, per
has gained significance in recent decades (Jollymore et al., 2017). Cit formed water quality data validation, or did both. The degree of quality
izen science is a non-traditional source of information relevant to assurance and quality control (QA/QC) varied significantly among the
achieving SDGs (Shulla et al., 2020). Traditional data sources, such as projects. While some projects relied on outlier detection alone, citizen
government ministries or institutions, currently provide the primary science organizations like Texas Stream Team and Florida LAKEWATCH
input of water quality data but face limitations such as low monitoring have established robust QA/QC measures to produce high-quality water
frequencies, and consequently, information becomes quickly outdated quality data. Shared salient measures of these organizations include (1)
(Fritz et al., 2019). A further concern is that data are commonly reported on-site participant training with annual refresher sessions, (2) imple
on a national or regional scale, and local spatial variations are often mentation of standard operating procedures for field and laboratory
overlooked (König et al., 2021). Citizen science can potentially improve analysis, (3) continuous evaluations of data precision and accuracy, (4)
temporal and spatial data resolution, overcoming the previous con and comparison studies with professional organizations (Albus et al.,
straints on water quality data (San Llorente Capdevila et al., 2020). 2020; Hoyer and Canfield, 2021).
The recent interest in citizen science mainly derives from its multiple Appropriate training can ensure that the participants have the
advantages beyond generating scientific knowledge, such as raising required information to produce data of sufficient quality. However,
public awareness, promoting more effective legislation, and directing mandatory training may lower participation rates (Peeters et al., 2022).
public spending towards priority areas (Fraisl et al., 2022). Moreover, Therefore, training needs to be dynamic, accessible, inclusive, and
citizen science contributes to an increase in the scientific literacy of the appealing to achieve a good level of commitment from volunteers
public participating in the project (Phillips et al., 2018). Citizens may (Pérez-Belmont et al., 2019). Training can be provided using different
participate in either some or multiple stages of the scientific process. approaches, such as videos, step-by-step guides, or workshops (Shupe,
These stages may include the formulation of the research question 2017; George et al., 2021; Hegarty et al., 2021). Training may also
(Parris et al., 2023), co-designing of the project (Clarke et al., 2023), involve testing the skills of the volunteers by comparing their mea
data collection (Moshi et al., 2022), data analysis (Hoyer and Canfield, surements with those taken by instructors and providing customized
2021), and results communication (Araújo et al., 2022). feedback on how to improve measurements (Shupe, 2017) or requiring
Despite the previous advantages, implementing citizen science for participants to pass a test before being able to collect water quality data
WQM faces multiple challenges. One of the most significant concerns is (Quinlivan et al., 2020). In addition to the specific project training,
the potential for data quality uncertainties (Burgess et al., 2017). Mea academic institutions such as Cornell University and University College
surement uncertainties were reported to be a challenge for approxi London currently offer citizen science certifications that can help
mately 26% of the reviewed studies. Some of these uncertainties can be improve participants’ scientific knowledge and skills.
attributed to the nature of the methods used for determining water Standardized procedures can also improve data quality by ensuring
quality (Cakmak et al., 2021; Moshi et al., 2022). Testing kits, used in reproducibility, consistency, and comparability of measurements.
nearly 60% of the reviewed publications, are usually based on colori Standardized procedures are particularly relevant to enhancing the
metric methods to readily determine the values of water quality pa scientific community and decision-makers’ acceptance of the moni
rameters such as nitrate and phosphate. However, participants may toring results (Brown and Williams, 2019). Citizen science projects can
experience difficulties interpreting the test results and deciding the either develop their procedures or adhere to those established by other
concentration range of a parameter based on the color (Quinlivan et al., initiatives or organizations. Through its FreshWater Watch global proj
2020). ect, international organizations such as Earthwatch Europe have estab
While on-site probes offer the potential to enhance data accuracy in lished standardized measurement protocols, training, and quality
citizen science projects, they also present challenges. A study performed control processes to increase the comparability of citizen-gathered data
in Hong Kong where citizens were given a Horiba U-50 multiparameter worldwide (Earthwatch Europe, 2023a).
water quality meter revealed that some participants found the Another challenge, reported in 26% of the reviewed studies, is
measuring procedures very technical to follow, and sometimes they related to the engagement of citizen scientists. Reported issues include
forgot or overlooked some minor steps or guidelines given to them in failing to recruit a sufficient number of participants (Diviacco et al.,
training (Ho et al., 2020). Similar findings were reported in a study 2021), difficulties maintaining volunteer engagement (Biraghi et al.,
conducted in Myanmar, where simple sensors outperformed a high-end 2022; George et al., 2021; Peeters et al., 2022; Zheng et al., 2017), low
multiparametric probe due to volunteers’ difficulty in troubleshooting levels of interest (Quinlivan et al., 2020), and time-consuming processes
technical issues with the equipment, resulting in data loss and periods of needed for engagement (Thornhill et al., 2018). In this regard, under
inactivity (Thatoe Nwe Win et al., 2019). Furthermore, highly special standing participant motivations is fundamental to (1) developing tasks
ized equipment will increase monitoring costs, which is only feasible for that align with multiple interests, (2) ensuring that these tasks meet
some initiatives. participant expectations, (3) allowing for continuous volunteer feed
Previous findings suggest that the technology employed for citizen back, and (4) integrating citizen scientists into co-design processes in the
science WQM should be affordable, user-friendly, and capable of project (Fraisl et al., 2022).
generating accurate results. IoT devices and smartphone-based sensors Motivation depends on the context, varies among participants, and
hold promise in this regard. However, the systematic analysis only may change over time. However, it has been reported that one of the
revealed one study regarding IoT devices and another on a smartphone- citizen scientists’ main motivations is to contribute towards environ
based sensor. The IoT device, deployed on small vessels employed for mental preservation (Jollymore et al., 2017; Lopez, 2021; Shupe, 2017).
leisure or fishing in Italy, could monitor seawater temperature, salinity, Thus, communicating how their participation contributes to this goal is
dissolved oxygen, and pH and automatically transmit the collected re essential to prevent participants’ disappointment (Jollymore et al.,
sults to a database (Diviacco et al., 2021). The smartphone-based device 2017). Sustained participation will require developing projects consid
was reported in a publication where students determined nitrate and ering participants’ interests and designating staff to education,
phosphate concentrations in a river in China (Zheng et al., 2022). Ac communication, and engagement activities (Peeters et al., 2022).
cording to their respective authors, both devices provided accurate data. Establishing partnerships with organizations or academic institutions
11
can also improve the project’s reach (George et al., 2021). and necessary expenditures (Gradilla-Hernández et al., 2022).
While deficiencies in the project design may cause engagement is Securing participation when specific sampling locations and peri
sues, some contexts can be particularly challenging for implementing odicity are essential can be challenging. However, some projects have
successful citizen science projects. As noted by Fraisl et al. (2022), in obtained good results by integrating WQM into school activities or the
places that are affected by a high degree of social inequality, these ini participants’ work. Araújo et al. (2022) incorporated middle school
tiatives may only result in the engagement of certain parts of society, students into a citizen science WQM project to promote chemistry
excluding either or both citizens with low income and individuals learning. In this initiative, teachers considered the participation of stu
belonging to underrepresented groups. In these situations, it is essential dents in the project and designed the school year schedule to allow some
to implement strategies to enhance the participation of these groups. of the project tasks to be completed during school hours, hence facili
Providing economic incentives has proved successful in increasing and tating the project implementation. Another initiative involving a
maintaining engagement (Zheng et al., 2017) and may be necessary to collaboration between the financial organization HSBC and Earthwatch
motivate the participation of low-income individuals. promoted the participation of volunteer employees from HSBC by
Spatial or geographical sampling bias is another concern observed in considering the project as part of their jobs (Pérez-Belmont et al., 2019).
26% of the reviewed citizen science projects. Sampling bias can be Nevertheless, applying the previous approaches in all contexts may not
attributed to the project design as it mainly arises when volunteers are be feasible, requiring the project engagement strategies to be adapted to
not assigned to monitor specific sampling locations. When participants meet monitoring requirements.
are invited to self-select sampling locations, they often choose easily Though explicitly mentioned in only three studies, the underutili
accessible areas or places of local interest (Bishop et al., 2020; Hegarty zation of the results from citizen science studies on WQMP remains a
et al., 2021). This leads to more observations closer to urban centers and critical issue demanding attention. This underutilization may stem from
road networks. Volunteers may also prefer to monitor visually appealing the perception that citizen-generated data is less reliable than the in
sites, such as ponds in parks, over less scenic sites (McGoff et al., 2017). formation produced by professional scientists. However, research has
Additionally, a higher participation of city volunteers can lead to an shown that citizens can provide valuable and reliable contributions of
overrepresentation of urban areas and an underrepresentation of rural similar quality to those produced by professionals when adequate
regions (Biraghi et al., 2022). training, procedures, and methods are provided (Kosmala et al., 2016).
Project design can also lead to temporal bias or fewer observations. Citizen science programs such as Texas Stream Team and Florida
For instance, only 26% of the reviewed studies had a determined peri LAKEWATCH have relevant QA/QC protocols to comply with United
odicity. When periodicity is not defined, volunteers may monitor water States federal standards and have been producing high-quality infor
quality during their spare time, leading to more observations produced mation for decades, yet much of the information has remained
during weekends. In other cases, observations can be produced underutilized (Albus et al., 2020; Hoyer and Canfield, 2021).
randomly upon finding polluted water (Zheng et al., 2017). Addition Carlson and Cohen (2018) explored the relationships between citizen
ally, some projects integrate public events into their regular monitoring water monitoring and water initiatives led by the Canadian government.
activities (e.g., monitoring campaigns with schools), resulting in a Their findings indicate that even though citizen organizations followed
temporal increase in observations during the event (Biraghi et al., 2022). standardized monitoring protocols, less than half of them stated that
Geographical and temporal sampling biases are not entirely nega their data is being used to inform government water policy. Further
tive. Highly engaged individuals who frequently monitor a particular more, more cooperation was observed among citizen monitoring orga
site are more likely to encounter abnormal events that can be undetected nizations than between citizen organizations and the government. The
when using a higher spatial distribution approach (Jollymore et al., scientific value underestimation of citizens’ data and the lack of effec
2017). Furthermore, monitoring small local water bodies such as ponds, tive communication must be assessed for the effective valorization of
small streams, or ditches is valuable, as these water bodies are often citizen science. Establishing partnerships among government agencies,
overlooked by national and international legislation (McGoff et al., scientific institutions, and citizen science groups is essential to designing
2017; Thornhill et al., 2018). Lastly, it is relevant to consider that even and successfully implementing projects that fulfill shared requirements
though citizen science can increase spatiotemporal coverage and com and achieve mutual goals (Agarwal et al., 2023).
plement official databases in some instances, it is not designed to assume A topic that did not receive the required attention in the reviewed
complete responsibility for WQM (Cakmak et al., 2021). articles was evaluating the communication process in citizen science
Geographical and temporal sampling biases can be minimized initiatives. None of the studies evaluated whether the general popula
through careful project design, collaboration with experts, and strategic tion understood their published results. Only one study tested whether
sampling approaches. Defining specific sampling locations or con participants understood water quality parameters better after the citizen
straining sampling areas can significantly reduce spatial bias while science project (Araújo et al., 2022). Evaluating participants’ under
establishing a defined monitoring periodicity can address temporal bias. standing of the data they collected and its use is relevant for maintaining
However, establishing spatial or temporal constraints results in a lower engagement (Lopez, 2021). In some initiatives, the transfer of infor
level of participation and, consequently, fewer observations (Jollymore mation can be unidirectional from scientists to citizens or from more
et al., 2017; McKinley et al., 2017). The requirement to designate precise experienced participants to newly incorporated ones. The absence of a
monitoring sites or sampling frequencies will ultimately be contingent reciprocal knowledge exchange hinders the effective integration of
on the project goals and should consider the repercussions for public contextual, traditional, and local knowledge, often recognized as valu
involvement. able but surprisingly absent in many documented citizen science
When the project objective is to fill temporal gaps of an existing implementations (Jollymore et al., 2017).
WQMP or validate data quality, monitoring points should match those Lastly, it is essential to consider the channels used to communicate
used by professionals, as variations in sampling locations may impact citizen-collected data. Most of the reviewed studies (~78%) used either
the level of agreement between both datasets (Albus et al., 2020). a website or a web-based platform to publish their results, followed by
Conversely, if the goal is to increase the spatial coverage or resolution of smartphone apps (~11%) or social media (~7%). While the public may
a WQMP, project leaders must select distinct monitoring points from prefer these channels in some contexts, communication strategies
those already monitored by professionals. Citizen initiatives should should be specifically designed for the place of implementation of citi
collaborate with government and academic institutions when estab zen science projects. Communication channels dependent on the
lishing monitoring points and frequencies to maximize the value of the Internet may be unsuitable in places with limited access to this tech
produced information. Coordination among stakeholders can facilitate nology as they can exclude a significant part of the population. More
the achievement of shared monitoring goals by distributing the efforts over, only four reviewed studies indicated using multiple
12
communication channels (Biraghi et al., 2022; George et al., 2021; Providing the public with water quality information with a
Hegarty et al., 2021; H. Zheng et al., 2017). As discussed in the next complexity like that found in university-level reading materials could
section, employing multiple communication channels is needed to in create barriers for a substantial portion of the population. For instance,
crease the likelihood that the information reaches the population, as 48% of individuals aged 25 to 34 in OECD countries held a university
some individuals may prefer one channel over another. degree or higher qualifications in 2021(OECD, 2022). This suggests that
Incorporating technological tools such as web-based platforms and nearly half of the population within that age group may face challenges
mobile applications into WQM has multiple advantages, as these tech understanding CCR. Furthermore, comparing both studies shows that
nologies can also be employed for data collection. Both tools can provide the readability ease of CCR has not increased in more than seven years,
participants with a user-friendly interface to improve their under indicating that the topic has not received sufficient attention. Hence, the
standing of the monitored ecosystem. Additionally, they can increase public keeps receiving information that can only be adequately inter
data quality as measurements can be georeferenced and timestamped preted by some individuals rather than being accessible to all citizens.
before being captured into a server (Biraghi et al., 2022; George et al., Phetxumphou et al. (2015) evaluated the clarity of message
2021). These applications should be able to function offline to capture communication of United States CCR by using the CDC’s Clear
information in remote rural areas with low or non-existent internet Communication Index, a tool created to develop and assess public
connectivity (Cakmak et al., 2021). However, centering the project communication materials. This index evaluates the material in seven
around these tools may decrease participation in contexts with reduced different areas using 20 items to provide an overall score from 0 to 100,
technological accessibility, requiring a mixed approach in which printed where 100 represents complete clarity and 90 or higher is a passing
materials are used (US General Services Administration, 2023). score (CDC, 2019). All the assessed CCR obtained scores lower than the
Communication of citizen-collected data can be further improved by passing score, and the overall score across CCR was 50 ± 14. Based on
increasing the visibility of the initiative. Visibility can be enhanced the results, the authors concluded that a large proportion of the public
through collaboration with widely recognized organizations or gov will probably not understand the message provided by the CCR, and
ernment agencies, allowing participants to use existing communication hence, they will not know the degree to which local water is safe to
platforms to disseminate their findings to the public. Multiple citizen drink.
science initiatives publish their results in Earthwatch Europe’s Fresh Considering the preceding findings, an effort must be made to
Water Watch web platform, making their results available to people improve the clarity of water quality information. The public requires aid
worldwide (Earthwatch Europe, 2023b). However, data quality con in interpreting water quality data to understand the risks of deviations in
cerns continue to hinder citizen science data communication by gov a particular parameter and the overall risks associated with using their
ernment institutions (de Sherbinin et al., 2021). Citizen scientists should water (Brouwer et al., 2020). Additionally, citizens must understand the
collaborate closely with government agencies and the scientific com available information to assess whether the designated authorities
munity to establish consensus protocols and the quality standards manage their water efficiently. The comprehension of water quality
needed to enable their data to be reported alongside official data (Fritz empowers citizens to instigate interventions from authorities as needed.
et al., 2019). The overall clarity of the transmitted information can be enhanced by
implementing clear communication guidelines in water quality reports,
4.3. Water quality communication such as the CDC’s Clear Communication Index.
According to some recommendations of the CDC’s Clear Communi
WQC, like any other form of communication, should follow a pro cation Index, documents should (1) contain one main message statement
cess. In general terms, communication is a two-way process in which a located at the beginning of the material and emphasized with visual cues
sender encodes a message that is transmitted through one or more (e.g., bolds, font size, color) to draw the attention from the reader; (2)
channels to a receiver which decodes and interprets the message; where have images or graphs that support the main message; (3) include one or
message interpretation is influenced by the context and can be affected more calls to action for the audience even when the purpose is to inform;
by noise (DeVito, 2016). Effective communication involves clear mes (4) use active voice and words that are understood by the audience; (5)
sages being delivered using appropriate platforms, designed to target present information in an organized way using headings and lists when
diverse audiences, and shared by trusted individuals (Hyland-Wood needed; (6) provide authoritative sources of information and recognize
et al., 2021). Efficient communication is essential when sharing the re uncertainty; (7) present numbers that the main audience uses (avoid
sults of WQMPs, as these are the indicators stakeholders use to evaluate using scientific notation or very large or small numbers by adjusting
the efficiency of management strategies (Behmel et al., 2018). measurement unit scale); (8) always explain what the numbers mean;
One of the main challenges affecting WQC is the low message clarity and (9) present and explain associated risks (CDC, 2019).
produced by the complex coding of information. This issue has been Another strategy to increase message clarity when presenting water
identified in Customer Confidence Reports (CCR), which are water quality information to the public is developing communication tools
quality reports that community water systems or water utilities must such as water quality indices (Ewaid et al., 2020; Woodward et al.,
provide each year to citizens in the United States. These reports contain 2021). These indices generally summarize water quality into a single
information about the water source, regulated contaminants found in number, allowing non-experts to quickly understand the status of water
water, and potential health effects associated with those contaminants without the need to review each monitored parameter separately and try
(US EPA, 2023a). to interpret the units in which results are presented (Casillas-García
Studies evaluating CCR readability have consistently found that et al., 2021; Fernández del Castillo et al., 2022). Indices are often used to
these reports are difficult to read, requiring a specialized reading level. report the water quality of water bodies and can serve as tools for
For instance, Nicholas and Vedachalam (2021) assessed the readability stakeholders to evaluate the government’s management of a water
of 243 CCR distributed across the United States in 2020 using the Flesch source once the results of a WQMP are obtained (Kachroud et al., 2019).
Reading Ease Score (FRES), a tool widely employed to measure the While a single index can provide a general overview, employing
complexity of a document and the difficulty of reading it. The FRES multiple indices tailored to specific aspects of water quality, such as
returns a value of 0 if the text is practically unreadable and 100 if it is heavy metal or microbiological contamination, can offer more detailed
easy to read (Flesch, 1948). The average CCR readability was 7.46, insights into the types of pollution present (Haghnazar et al., 2022;
indicating that the documents require the reading level of a university Karaouzas et al., 2021). Visual aids such as color-coded scales can
graduate. Similar results were previously observed by Roy et al. (2015), further enhance the public’s understanding of these indices (Cham et al.,
who evaluated 30 CCR issued from 2011 to 2013 and found an average 2020). One innovative approach is a graphical index developed by Sakai
FRES of 36.35, corresponding to a university reading level. et al. (2018) that visualizes water quality using a heart shape, where a
13
Table 4 website and that data were presented in different layers, allowing
Examples of digital platforms for water quality communication. interested individuals to navigate from a general water quality summary
Platform name Level Purpose Reference to information about each parameter.
Previous studies have shown that the public prefers to access infor
State of Bathing International Provide information European
Waters about coastal and Environment mation online through digital platforms. These platforms are valuable
inland bathing water Agency (2022) for achieving effective communication because they allow the infor
locations and their mation to be displayed interactively and using visual aids, which can be
quality within the advantageous when communicating a topic such as water quality, where
European Union.
National Water National Provide real-time (U.S. Geological
usually multiple parameters are reported simultaneously (Cham et al.,
Dashboard stream, lake, and Survey, 2023) 2020). Platforms may allow users to summarize data using charts, re
reservoirs, view data in a georeferenced way, or perform statistical analyses.
precipitation, and Additionally, online platforms can communicate water quality indices
groundwater
alongside parameters to enhance the public’s comprehension of water
information from
United States quality. Table 4 provides examples of platforms that communicate water
Geological Survey quality to the public at different spatial levels.
observation stations Decision support systems (DSS) can also be implemented within a
across the country. digital platform. These systems aim to assist decision-making by har
LAWA River National Present river water (Land, 2023)
Quality quality information
nessing data from different sources to provide objective advice and
for multiple background support on solving complex problems (Zhai et al., 2020).
monitoring points DSS can also serve as a mechanism for transparency, as users can
throughout New replicate the decision procedure and assess the decisions regarding
Zealand.
feasibility, strength, and robustness (McIntosh et al., 2011). However, as
Protecting State Deliver water quality (Protecting Florida
Florida information of Together, 2023) discussed by Walling and Vaneeckhaute (2020), the effective imple
Together multiple water bodies mentation of DSS remains complex as there are challenges associated
Water Quality located in Florida. with (1) stakeholders’ participation, identification, and fulfillment of
Status Map Additionally, the map their expectations; (2) the selection and implementation of the models
showcases ongoing
within the system; and (3) the system design in terms of the user
restoration projects
that are relevant to interaction to obtain relevant results.
water quality issues. Digital platforms can also be used to promote public engagement.
Chesapeake Bay Watershed Consolidate and (Lower Public engagement in government affairs can take multiple forms,
Watershed provide accessibility Mississippi-Gulf
ranging from only requesting feedback on the published information to
Data within a single Water Science
Dashboard platform to Center, 2019) seeking a sustained dialog to achieve consensual solutions to significant
information that can challenges (Bertot et al., 2010). Digital platforms can serve to fulfill both
be used to guide purposes. Platforms should not only function as channels to convey the
watershed restoration status of a water body but also as systems that welcome and disseminate
efforts.
water quality data gathered by citizens, as well as proposals aimed at
enhancing water quality and its communication. However, it is essential
perfect heart represents clean water, and a fragmented heart indicates to consider that WQC should use more than just a single channel to reach
pollution. This index is expected to raise public awareness of water the public because there are population groups that may not be inter
quality issues and facilitate community engagement. However, further ested in using digital platforms, do not have access to them, or prefer
research is needed to evaluate its effectiveness. other communication channels. Therefore, it is vital to identify the
A second issue with WQC concerns the selection of communication preferred channels in the geographical context where water quality is
channels for message delivery. Dunn et al. (2014) identified that despite being communicated and adapt the communication strategy to employ
water quality information being reported annually by water suppliers in multiple channels (e.g., social media, newspapers, notice boards) to
British Columbia, the public often remains unaware of its existence or reach most of the population.
does not know where to find it. Another study by Ochoo et al. (2017) in Lastly, a third issue with WQC is the lack of bi-directionality or
Newfoundland found a disconnection between public perception and feedback. Evans and Carpenter (2019) studied how water utilities
actual water quality, suggesting that information was not disseminated evaluate the effectiveness of CCR in terms of consumer understanding,
appropriately. Prior research indicates that the mere publication of in engagement, and shaping water quality perceptions. The authors found
formation is inadequate; it is imperative to ascertain the favored that from 238 water utilities distributed across the United States, about
communication channels within each social context and tailor commu 55% did not track consumer engagement or understanding of the CCR,
nication strategies accordingly. 68% did not monitor consumer perceptions about water quality, and
Behmel et al. (2018) performed a study to identify the knowledge 46% did not use any methods to understand what information the public
needs, concerns, and preferred modes of communication on water would like in their reports. Previous data emphasizes the need for
quality and quantity from the public of two distinct watersheds in incorporating mechanisms to receive or gather public feedback. Surveys
Quebec. Researchers found that the communication channel preferences or follow-up calls can be employed to evaluate public perceptions and
diverged among the population and changed between watersheds. Cit their needs in terms of communication.
izens of the first watershed mostly preferred interactive maps, followed A two-way communication is essential to evaluate the effectiveness
by municipal websites and notice boards. Citizens from the second of WQC and prevent misconceptions about water quality. Receiving
watershed preferred interactive maps, followed by municipal websites feedback from the public is valuable as it can help institutions improve
and social media sites. The least preferred communication channels the readability, clarity, understandability, and accuracy of water quality
were special bulletins and television news for the first watershed and communications (Evans and Carpenter, 2019). Government institutions
scientific papers and television news for the second watershed. Simi such as the United States Environmental Protection and the US EPA,
larly, a study performed by Brouwer et al. (2020) in the Netherlands 2023b and state-level environmental agencies allow public involvement
found that most citizens preferred water quality data to be offered via a by accepting public comments, organizing public meetings and webinars
when proposing regulations, or accepting public reports of
14
environmental violations. However, there is still a need to establish and Table 5

evaluate the efficacy of mechanisms aimed at constantly receiving Identified challenges and suggestions for IoT, citizen science, and communica
feedback from the public on how to enhance WQC. tion in water quality monitoring.
Fischer et al. (2022) suggested that to facilitate communication Area Challenges Suggestions
bidirectionality, scientists and communicators should train key agents to Internet of Things Improving • Design the device considering
become citizen scientists who can communicate water quality to the (IoT) environmental the place of implementation.
public. Central agents can include political leaders, religious leaders, resilience • Use modular and reconfigurable
educators, or government officials, who can contribute to distributing hardware.
Optimizing sensor • Integrate predictive
information through different channels such as word of mouth or social
maintenance and maintenance algorithms.
media. Nevertheless, as discussed in the preceding subsection, citizen calibration • Develop mechanisms for
science WQM initiatives still require the integration of mechanisms to automatic sensor cleaning.
identify the communication channels preferred by the public and to Maximizing energy • Use energy-efficient compo
monitor their comprehension of the transmitted water quality infor efficiency nents, software, and communi
cation networks.
mation. Integrating the former mechanisms and clear communication • Integrate energy harvesting
tools within these initiatives can transform them into a more valuable technologies.
channel for WQC. Ensuring the provision • Use customized cloud services
of cloud services based on local servers when
feasible.
5. Future perspectives
• Select the appropriate
communication technology and
While IoT and citizen science offer valuable alternatives for moni design devices to handle
toring water quality, these approaches must address certain limitations variable network conditions.
Implementing data • Incorporate multiple security
to establish themselves as robust sources of water quality information.
security measures layers to protect the devices,
The reviewed literature concerning the implementation of IoT-based communication channels, and
WQM devices underscores the necessity for (1) increasing their robust applications.
ness to withstand changing environmental conditions, (2) solving the • Consider using AI and
need for regular cleaning and calibration of the sensors to prevent blockchain technology.
Citizen science Minimizing • Provide appropriate volunteer
fouling and ensure accurate readings, (3) increasing the energy effi
measurement training.
ciency of their components and reliability of their power sources, (4) uncertainties • Establish robust quality
ensuring the continuous provision of cloud services, and (5) imple assurance and quality control
menting robust security measures to safeguard against data breaches mechanisms.
and cyberattacks and guarantee data traceability. Further advancements • Consider including automated
monitoring devices into projects.
in the IoT technologies focused on WQM will allow the development of Sustaining citizen • Communicate effectively with
more robust devices at reduced costs, promoting the incorporation of engagement participants and understand
IoT into WQMPs. their motivations.
Citizen science projects must surmount obstacles like (1) minimizing • Design flexible projects that can
adapt to changes in participant
measurement uncertainties, (2) sustaining citizen engagement, (3)
interests.
reducing sampling bias, (4) increasing the number of observations and • Designate staff to engagement
collected data, and (5) establishing trust among scientists and author and communication activities.
ities. Citizen initiatives should continue incorporating and improving Mitigating sampling • Establish specific sampling
their mechanisms to guarantee data quality. Projects should be designed bias locations and periodicity during
the project’s design stage.
considering that each context is different and constantly changing; thus, • Collaborate with governments
the initiative should have sufficient flexibility to adapt to changes in and academic institutions during
participant interests to maintain engagement. Citizen science initiatives the design of the project.
should collaborate with governments and academic institutions to build Increasing the amount • Involve private and public
of collected data institutions in the project to
and execute projects that meet shared objectives. These partnerships
increase the number of
will play a pivotal role in elevating their public visibility, expanding volunteers and secure
avenues for funding, and shifting the prevailing perception of limited participation.
data reliability. • Apply strategies for sustaining
In addition to preceding concerns, future citizen science and IoT participant engagement.
Building trust among • Co-design of the project with
projects should evaluate if their communication channels suit their scientists and scientists and practitioners.
intended end-users, especially when aiming to communicate with the practitioners • Establish partnerships and
public. Mechanisms to evaluate the effectiveness of WQC should be effective communication
incorporated into the design of IoT and citizen science initiatives. mechanisms among government
agencies, scientific institutions,
Without integrating these mechanisms, the former monitoring ap
and citizen science groups.
proaches will continue to increase the amount of water quality data but Water quality Enhancing message • Design communications
not the public understanding of water bodies. While we did not analyze communication clarity strategies following clear
data-sharing practices among different users in this study, we encourage guidelines.
the adoption of FAIR principles (findability, accessibility, interopera • Develop communication tools
such as water quality indices.
bility, and reusability) to facilitate the appropriate sharing of data Selecting appropriate • Identify and use the preferred
generated by these projects among stakeholders (Wilkinson et al., 2016). communication channels in the geographical and
Although multiple IoT and citizen science WQM projects have been channels cultural context where water
reviewed, the extent of this study did not encompass citizen science and quality is being communicated.
• Employ multiple
IoT implementations focused on using technologies like remote sensing
communication channels.
or uncrewed vehicles, nor WQM projects focusing on groundwater,
aquaculture, and agriculture. Therefore, further studies on the former
applications are needed, which could offer valuable insights into
15
Table 5 (continued ) Declaration of competing interest

Area Challenges Suggestions
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
Encouraging • Develop and implement
bidirectional mechanisms to receive and
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
communication request constant feedback from the work reported in this paper.
citizens.
• Promote participative Data availability
approaches such as citizen
science.
Data will be made available on request.
common challenges and potential solutions. Similarly, this work Acknowledgements

considered only peer-reviewed publications, excluding project reports,
websites, and non-academic works from which practical conclusions can The authors thank Tecnologico de Monterrey for providing the
be obtained, especially regarding citizen science and WQC. required library services. Fernando Amador-Castro thanks Mexico’s
Lastly, addressing the shortcomings of current water quality CONAHCYT for scholarship funding (CVU: 104808). Gabriela Lopez-
communication practices requires the implementation of strategies that Gonzalez thanks the University of Leeds International Strategic Fund
(1) enhance message clarity, (2) align communication channels with for supporting her collaboration. This research received no specific grant
public preferences, and (3) foster bidirectional communication. Well- from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit
established guidelines such as the CDC’s Clear Communication Index sectors.
can be employed to make the information accessible to a wide range of
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Journal of Environmental Management 352 (2024) 119959

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Environmental Management

Internet of Things and citizen science as alternative water quality

1. Introduction sanitation availability and sustainable management.

flow module panel - et al. (2022)

Journal of Environmental Management 352 (2024) 119959

Journal of Environmental Management 352 (2024) 119959

Journal of Environmental Management 352 (2024) 119959

solar panel–battery systems were employed in 47% (n = 7) of the de Table 3

Table 3 (continued ) et al., 2023).

environmental violations. However, there is still a need to establish and Table 5

Table 5 (continued ) Declaration of competing interest

common challenges and potential solutions. Similarly, this work Acknowledgements

You might also like

presentation

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presentation

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Journal of Environmental Management 352 (2024) 119959

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Environmental Management

Internet of Things and citizen science as alternative water quality

1. Introduction sanitation availability and sustainable management.

flow module panel - et al. (2022)

Journal of Environmental Management 352 (2024) 119959

Journal of Environmental Management 352 (2024) 119959

Journal of Environmental Management 352 (2024) 119959

solar panel–battery systems were employed in 47% (n = 7) of the de­ Table 3

Table 3 (continued ) et al., 2023).

environmental violations. However, there is still a need to establish and Table 5

Table 5 (continued ) Declaration of competing interest

common challenges and potential solutions. Similarly, this work Acknowledgements

You might also like

solar panel–battery systems were employed in 47% (n = 7) of the de Table 3