PREPARATION OF TECHNICAL REPORTS

Dr. Ronald Francis

A technical report should be written in correct, non-colloquial language with due attention to clarity, completeness and conciseness, grammar,
diction, spelling, punctuation and style. It is well to have your report reviewed by a competent writer before handing it in--not with the idea of
having someone do the job for you (which you won't have in industry) but to learn from the association.
I. REPORT FORMAT
The major sections of reports are: abstract, introduction, experimental, results, discussion, conclusion, acknowledgement, references and
appendix. Sub-headings are a distinct aid to the reader. Use them to assist the flow of your report.
A. Cover
The covers will follow a standard format, prescribed for easy reference and filing. Place the experiment number, course number and the date the
report is submitted in the upper right corner. Place the title of the report about ten spaces above your name in the center of the page.
The title may be the title of an experiment. In any case, it should be chosen carefully in order to convey immediately, accurately and as completely
as possible, the subject matter of the report.
B. Abstract
A short statement of the purpose of the work, the pertinent conditions, and the results in brief. Since this is a concise summary, it should be the
last part written. It is designed for the reader's quick appraisal of the nature of your report. Remember-- the abstract may be the only part of your
report read so it must tell what you did, how, for what purpose and with what results in concise, yet meaningful statements. Abstracts are usually
done in one paragraph. When they are only three or four sentences, stick with this.
Statements of proposed additional work are not appropriate for an abstract.
C. Introduction
This is often called "Objectives", and the statement of objectives is the most important function of this section. This comprises the problems which
the experimentation was designed to answer. The objectives need to be exactly and clearly stated. The justification for performing the
investigation should be here also. This often takes the form of a brief historical review of the problem.
D. Experimental
Make this sufficiently clear and complete so that another person could repeat the work. A standard procedure or standard apparatus need not be
more than mentioned. Describe, however, any deviations from standard procedure. Do not list equipment and chemicals used. It may be
important for subsequent work to list the serial or property number of the specific instrument or lot number of a chemical reagent used. Under no
circumstance transcribe the lab instructions. Indicate calculations also, the approaches used in treating the data, e.g., definitions of sensitometric
and image quality parameters.
E. Results
Include raw data and calculated values, visual observations, plots. (Raw data that are extensive, such as density measurements, can remain in the
notebook. If, however, the author feels they are essential to the report, he may include them in the appendix or simply reference them to a
notebook if the report distribution is limited).
Great pains need to be taken in the presentation of this section. Place tabulated data and calculated results in tables wherever possible; use
overlay on graphs, place families of curves on the same page to make comparisons easy; illustrations, graphs and tables can eliminate the need for
pages of description. Sample calculations belong in the appendix.
Complex coding of sample should be avoided in the final report. Readers won't bother to leaf through pages of report to try to figure out what
sample 6-d-1 or 4-b-8 is. On plots, in tables and in discussion, it is better to describe the sample. If this is not possible, put in a table of sample
numbers and descriptors so that the reader may be able to turn to one place to break your code. Be sure also that your results are presented in
logical order so that the reader will not have to look back and forth in this section to find it intelligible.
IMPORTANT POINT: you want the reader to be induced to read your report, not somebody else's. Make it as easy for him as possible.
F. Discussion
The entire experiment and report to this point has been directed toward collection of material for this section.
This section should discuss the significance of what you have done. Do not simply put into words what you got for results. Analyze! Make
quantitative comparisons of the data in view of what you know.
Build a case for your conclusions. Speculate if you don't know anything. What seems reasonable to you. Discuss the merit of the whole
experiment as a means of obtaining the information you were after. What is the validity of the data. Above all, be quantitative.
G. Conclusion
The conclusion is the statements of fact which are inferred from your experiment results. In a successful experiment, the conclusion is the answer
to the problem stated in the objectives. There are three approaches to the conclusion section: 1) It may stand alone as indicated here. 2) At times,
it is impossible, awkward or tedious to set it as a separate section when it fits better into the discussion. In this case, the two sections become one
under the title "Conclusion". 3) Placing the conclusions in tabular form at the front of the report after the abstract is becoming very common in
government and company reports. This presumable gives the reader the main thing he is looking for from the onset of his reading.
H. Acknowledgment
Credit persons other than the author or authors who have made substantial contributions to the success of your work, such as through
discussions with you, loan of equipment, computations, a small experiment or some other service.
I. References
J. Appendix
Information relevant to the report, but of a supplementary nature is presented. This might include such things as:
a) sample calculations.
b) detailed and involved diagrams of equipment, supplemental testing procedures.
c) long tables of data.
d) supplemental discussion such as a vaguely related application of the results.
K. Recommendations for Future Work
These are part of your conclusions and belong in that section.
 What’s the difference between qualitative and quantitative approaches?

Adar Ben-Eliyahu, Ph.D.

In the world of research, there are two general approaches to gathering and reporting information: qualitative and quantitative approaches. The
qualitative approach to research is focused on understanding a phenomenon from a closer perspective. The quantitative approach tends to
approximate phenomena from a larger number of individuals using survey methods. In this research corner, I describe methods that are generally
used in each strand of research. Each approach has its benefits and detriments, and is more suitable to answering certain kinds of questions.

Qualitative Approach

The qualitative approach to gathering information focuses on describing a phenomenon in a deep comprehensive manner. This is generally
done in interviews, open-ended questions, or focus groups. In most cases, a small number of participants participate in this type of research,
because to carry out such a research endeavor requires many resources and much time. Interviews can vary from being highly structured and
guided by open-ended questions, or be less structured and take the form of a conversational interview. Because of the investment in this type of
research and the relatively few number of participants, findings from qualitative research cannot be generalized to the whole population.
However, such research serves as a spring board for larger studies and deeper understanding that can inform theory, practice, and specific
situations.

Benefits of the qualitative approach:

Using open-ended questions and interviews allows researchers and practitioners to understand how individuals are doing, what their experiences
are, and recognize important antecedents and outcomes of interest that might not surface when surveyed with pre-determined questions.
Although qualitative research can be thought of as anecdotal, when pooled across a number of participants it provides a conceptual
understanding and evidence that certain phenomena are occurring with particular groups or individuals.

 Allows identification of new and untouched phenomena

 Can provide a deeper understanding of mechanisms
 Gives a one-on-one and anecdotal information
 Provides verbal information that may sometimes be converted to numerical form
 May reveal information that would not be identified through pre-determined survey questions
Limitations:

 Cannot generalize to the general population

 Challenges in applying statistical methods
 Difficulty in assessing relations between characteristics
Quantitative Approach

The quantitative approach to gathering information focuses on describing a phenomenon across a larger number of participants thereby providing
the possibility of summarizing characteristics across groups or relationships. This approach surveys a large number of individuals and applies
statistical techniques to recognize overall patterns in the relations of processes. Importantly, the use of surveys can be done across groups. For
example, the same survey can be used with a group of mentors that is receiving training (often called the intervention or experimental groups)
and a group of mentors who does not receive such a training (a control group). It is then possible to compare these two groups on outcomes of
interest, and determine what influence the training had. It is also relatively easy to survey people a number of times, thereby allowing the
conclusion that a certain features (like matching) influence specific outcomes (well-being or achievement later in life).

Benefits of the quantitative approach:

Using survey methods across a large group of individuals enables generalization. For example, if policy makers wanted to instantiate a policy
about mentor training, they would likely require some evidence that this training actually works. Interviewing a few individuals, or conducting a
focus group with forty matches, might be reflective of specific cases in which the mentoring training worked, however, it would not provide strong
evidence that such training is beneficial overall. Stronger support for successful training would be evident if using quantitative methods.

 Enables gathering information from a relatively large number of participant

 Can conduct in a number of groups, allowing for comparison
 Allows generalizing to broader population
 Provides numerical or rating information
 Informative for instantiating policy or guidelines
 Lends to statistical techniques that allow determining relations between variables (think of better word)
Limitations:

 Difficulty in recognizing new and untouched phenomena

 Caution in interpretation without a control group

Memorandum
A memorandum (memo for short) is a short piece of writing generally written by the officers of an organization for sharing
information among them. The main purpose of writing a memorandum is to keep record or convey information and decisions
or to make short requests. To achieve its purpose a memo is usually written in an easy-to-understanding language. Plain and
direct statements of facts are made to achieve its purpose.

A memo plays a very useful role in an organization. It also enables officers to maintain good business relationships. Another
useful function of a memo is to establish accountability. Many organizations use printed memo forms. One can quickly write
the message and transmit it to the concerned officer. Writing a memo takes comparatively less time since it does not contain
several details which a letter has.

Memos have a twofold purpose: they bring attention to problems and they solve problems. They accomplish their goals by
informing the reader about new information like policy changes, price increases, or by persuading the reader to take an
action, such as attend a meeting, or change a current production procedure. Regardless of the specific goal, memos are most
effective when they connect the purpose of the writer with the interests and needs of the reader.

Professional, Formal Tone

Memos are often announcements, and the person sending the memo speaks for a part or all of the organization. While it
may contain a request for feedback, the announcement itself is linear, from the organization to the employees. The
memo may have legal standing as it often reflects policies or procedures, and may reference an existing or new policy in
the employee manual, for example.
Subject Emphasis
The subject is normally declared in the subject line and should be clear and concise. If the memo is announcing the
observance of a holiday, for example, the specific holiday should be named in the subject line—for example, use
“Thanksgiving weekend schedule” rather than “holiday observance”.
Direct Format
Some written business communication allows for a choice between direct and indirect formats, but memorandums are
always direct. The purpose is clearly announced.
Objectivity
Memos are a place for just the facts, and should have an objective tone without personal bias, preference, or interest on
display. Avoid subjectivity.
Reference:
Lewis, L. (2009, February 13). Panasonic orders staff to buy £1,000 in products. Retrieved
from http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/markets/japan/article5723942.ece

Writing Minutes of Meeting

Taking meeting minutes is essential to a meeting: you have your project written with plenty of important
details such as: who is responsible for what action, when, how, and so on.
You may or may not be asking yourselves: “What are, and how to take meeting minutes?”
Meeting minutes can be defined as written or recorded documentation that is used to inform people of
what happened during the meeting and define the next step planned. To write effective meeting
minutes you should include:
 The names of the participants
 Agenda items
 Calendar or due dates
 Actions or tasks
 The main points
 Decisions made by the participants
 Record what is the most important points
 Future decisions
 Documents: images, attached files

Different Types of Formal Reports:

Informational Reports:

Periodic Reports are routine reports with accurate data that are normally updated every week, month, or year. Most formal business

reports are considered periodic; however one could easily distinguish the four types that reflect this particular aspect: The periodic

inspection report, the periodic safety report, the routine management report, and the compliance report.

Periodic inspection report corresponds to the installation of electrical business . For example: After the completion of electrical
installation in a home, reports will then be sent to the home owners on a regular basis in an effort to avoid future incidents.
Periodic Safety reports transmit information about the safety procedures in certain industries or firms. For example: in the food industry,
whenever provisions of any sort are imported or exported, a report is delivered underlining the effect of these activities.
Routine management reports are repeatedly sent to the managers of certain businesses by their employees in order to keep them
updated of their financial progression. Crucial information is also included in these reports to advise key decision makers.
Compliance reports are comprised of multiple procedures that underline the general activities and direction an organization follows. To
keep a business running affectively, there are rules and regulations that must be respected towards other competitors as well as the
government; therefore an up-to-date report is given on these specific policies. To avoid infractions and major fines, these reports are
considered as a warning to entrepreneurs.
ANALYTICAL REPORTS:
Progress reports are also known as periodic reports, and interim progress reports. They are a general analysis describing the progress
of a given business in comparison to its original outline. The writer informs the customer about their recent work on the project, any
problems they may have encountered, offer solutions if necessary, and finally outline future plans in accordance with the given budget and
the time limit.
Trip, Convention, and Conference reports provide extensive details of which members in a particular business organization are sent on
trips or conferences to collect findings which are imperative to keep their business functioning correctly. Solutions are given to problems
that could possibly be affecting their production, and furthermore, where trip reports are concerned, organizations ask their travelling
representatives to hand in separate reports outlining their expenditures, ensuring that the company’s money was well spent.
Annual Reports are essential statements that conclude a company’s accomplishments and reflect their financial standing during the
previous year. This will enable employees, both present and future when choosing the most profitable firm. When compiling this annual
report, the writer must ensure its purpose well serves the audiences expectations, therefore the strengths, and weaknesses of the firm's
financial data must be taken seriously into consideration.
Situational reports also known as incident or accident reports are isolated reports that provide the reader with a unique problem or
situation dealing with certain consequences or opportunities that must be considered without delay.
Audit Reports written by internal auditors, focus mainly on circumstances within the organization whereas external auditors focus mainly
on problems outside the organization. These reports evaluate every aspect of the business. As a result, the opinion is given to the
corporation by the auditor, or individual who confirms the report, in order to create a center of attention around the location of the
industry. They will then subsequently have an increase in their clientele, hopefully attracting more investors.
Closure Report confirms that the objectives have been attained. By handing in this statement to the client, every detail concerning the
demands for approval to closing has been reached. As a result the managers will be able to carry on with their work in order to complete
the development in need.
Research Report are also known as Feasibility reports. In able to make important decisions on a company’s product, a company’s
location or anything that influences the future of a company in a short or long term, the manager relies on research reports. They need an
overview on the investigations made on the company's history, in order to see how they should prioritize their decision making for the
company's needs.
Justification Reports are also known as internal proposals. Justification reports are planned for the higher management. These reports
are made in order to convince the decision makers to approve on an investment project, or anything that might be considered as a plus for
the enhancement of the company. In this report, the clarification, the process, the cost and benefits of the project suggested, are clarified.
Troubleshooting Reports are also known as Investigative Reports. Troubleshooting reports are asserted by the top management.
Similar to the research reports, this specific report analyzes actions as well; however they are aimed mostly at existent problems.
Whenever there is a problem in a company, a report is asked to be fulfilled. First it is important to know how this problem was triggered,
then analyze how big of an issue it is, and finally recommend solutions.
Comparative Analysis Reports are also called Yardstick Reports. Sometimes referred to as the research report, it seeks to develop and
upgrade a company’s condition. This type of report is mainly written from an unbiased point of view. Although a recommendation typically
follows the end of the report. The evaluation of different plans, products and everything pertaining to improve a company’s image is
essential in the comparative analysis report.

Writing a Field Report

HOW TO BEGIN
Field reports are most often assigned in disciplines of the applied social sciences where it is important to build a bridge of relevancy
between the theoretical concepts learned in the classroom and the practice of actually doing the work being taught to do.
 Systematically observe and accurately record the varying aspects of a situation. Always approach your field study with a detailed plan
about what you will observe, where you should conduct your observations and the method by which you will collect and record the
data.
 Continuously analyze your observations. Always look for the meaning underlying the actions you observe. Ask yourself: What is going
on here? What does this observed activity mean?
 Keep the report’s aims in hand while you are observing.
 Consciously observe, record, and analyze what you hear and see in the context of a theoretical framework.
TECHNIQUES TO RECORD YOUR OBSERVATIONS
 Note taking
 Photography
 Video and Audio recordings
 Illustrations or drawings
EXAMPLES OF THINGS TO DOCUMENT WHILE OBSERVING
 Physical setting- the characteristics of an occupied space and the human use of the place where the filed report is conducted
 Objects and material culture- this refers to the presence, placement, and arrangement of objects that impact the behavior or actions of
those being observed. If applicable, describe the cultural artifacts representing the beliefs, values, ideas, attitudes, and assumptions
used by the individuals you are observing.
 Use of language
 Behavior cycles
 The order in which events unfold.
 Physical characteristics of subjects- note age, gender, individuals being observed
 Expressive body movements
Note: Field reports are written in the past tense. Format and structure vary according to discipline.

Writing a Survey Report

Structure
Title
I. Introduction/ Background: State the purpose or aim of the report, and how the information was gathered.
II. Survey Instrument: Creation of the survey questionnaire, content of the survey questionnaire, types of respondents
(age, sex, place of residence, etc.)and sampling technique used. (Subheading can be used to separate each piece of
information)
III. Analysis of the Survey Results: Narration of the conducted survey, discussion of the responses per question given
(tables or graphs are shown and with textual presentation.
IV. Conclusion and Recommendation: Summary of the results of the survey conducted and recommendation.
References
Appendices
 Comments on Survey Responses: Who responded? Who did not respond?
 Images taken during the conduct of survey
 Sample Survey Questionnaire
 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
What is data collection?
The process by which the researcher collects the
information needed to answer the research problem.
In collecting the data, the researcher must decide: METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
Which data to collect ; How to collect the data ; Who What is data collection?
will collect the data and When to collect the data The process by which the researcher collects the
The selection of data collection method should be information needed to answer the research problem.
based on the following: In collecting the data, the researcher must decide:
 The identified hypothesis or research problem Which data to collect ; How to collect the data ; Who
The research design  The information gathered about will collect the data and When to collect the data
the variables The selection of data collection method should be
 The methods of data collection vary according based on the following:
to: Degree of structure ; Degree of quantifiability ;  The identified hypothesis or research problem
Degree of obtrusiveness and Degree of objectivity The research design  The information gathered about
the variables
RESEARCHINSTRUMENTS are described as a device  The methods of data collection vary according
used to collect the data which facilitate variable to: Degree of structure ; Degree of quantifiability ;
observation and measurement. Degree of obtrusiveness and Degree of objectivity
The type of instrument used by the researcher
depends on the data collection method selected. RESEARCHINSTRUMENTS are described as a device
“Massey states that the “Instrument development used to collect the data which facilitate variable
requires a high degree of research expertise, as the observation and measurement.
instrument must be reliable and valid.” The type of instrument used by the researcher
depends on the data collection method selected.
Ways of Searching for Research Instruments “Massey states that the “Instrument development
 Read professional journals to learn what kind of requires a high degree of research expertise, as the
instruments are being used for similar studies, their instrument must be reliable and valid.”
format, style, and how they are used by the writers.
 Read books that provide a description or an Ways of Searching for Research Instruments
actual copy of various instruments for the reader.  Read professional journals to learn what kind of
 Talk with other researchers who may know of instruments are being used for similar studies, their
certain tools they have developed for themselves, or format, style, and how they are used by the writers.
may have used tools developed by others.  Read books that provide a description or an
 Combine or adapt one or more tools used by actual copy of various instruments for the reader.
other researchers.  Talk with other researchers who may know of
 Develop his/her own instrument to fulfill a certain tools they have developed for themselves, or
specific need. may have used tools developed by others.
 Combine or adapt one or more tools used by
Guidelines for Developing an Instrument- the other researchers.
instrument must be suitable for its function.  Develop his/her own instrument to fulfill a
 The research tool will only be effective only as it specific need.
relates to its particular purpose.
 The instrument must be based on the theoretical Guidelines for Developing an Instrument- the
framework. instrument must be suitable for its function.
 The instrument must be based on the  The research tool will only be effective only as it
theoretical framework selected for the study. relates to its particular purpose.
 The instrument should be valid.  The instrument must be based on the theoretical
 The content of the instrument must be framework.
appropriate to test the hypothesis or answer the  The instrument must be based on the
question being studied. theoretical framework selected for the study.
 The instrument should be reliable.  The instrument should be valid.
 The devised research tool should provide  The content of the instrument must be
comparable data every time the subject uses the appropriate to test the hypothesis or answer the
instrument. question being studied.
 An instrument should include an item that  The instrument should be reliable.
directly asks the hypothesis.  The devised research tool should provide
 The research tool should be designed and comparable data every time the subject uses the
constructed in such a way that cheating is minimized instrument.
 The instrument should be free of bias.  An instrument should include an item that
 A good instrument is free of build-in clues. directly asks the hypothesis.
 The instrument should not contain measures  The research tool should be designed and
that function as hints for desired responses. constructed in such a way that cheating is minimized
 The researcher may need to read extensively to  The instrument should be free of bias.
identify which aspects of the theory are appropriate for  A good instrument is free of build-in clues.
investigation.  The instrument should not contain measures
 The researcher, through the instrument, must be that function as hints for desired responses.
able to gather data that are appropriate in order to test  The researcher may need to read extensively to
the hypothesis or to answer the question under identify which aspects of the theory are appropriate for
investigation. investigation.
 The researcher should gather a group of items  The researcher, through the instrument, must be
from such sources. able to gather data that are appropriate in order to test
 The researcher should gather a group of items the hypothesis or to answer the question under
from such sources as persons knowledgeable in the investigation.
field, accepted theories or hypotheses, personal  The researcher should gather a group of items
experience, or material from studies reported in books from such sources.
and professional journals.  The researcher should gather a group of items
 The response given by each respondent in the from such sources as persons knowledgeable in the
research study should solely be his own. There should field, accepted theories or hypotheses, personal
be no contamination through outside influences, such experience, or material from studies reported in books
as someone else’s ideas or products. and professional journals.
 Therefore, the respondent who agrees to  The response given by each respondent in the
participate in a study is responsible for supplying research study should solely be his own. There should
information or for exhibiting behavior that is truly his be no contamination through outside influences, such
own. as someone else’s ideas or products.
 Therefore, the respondent who agrees to
Types of Research Instruments participate in a study is responsible for supplying
1. Questionnaire information or for exhibiting behavior that is truly his
2. Checklist own.
3. Distribution
4. Interview Types of Research Instruments
5. Observation 1. Questionnaire
6. Records 2. Checklist
7. Experimental Approach 3. Distribution
8. Survey Approach 4. Interview
5. Observation
6. Records
7. Experimental Approach
8.SurveyApproach
Types of Research Instruments
1. Questionnaire
A series of questions designed to elicit information, which is filled in by all participants in the sample. This can be
gathered either by oral interview or by written questionnaire. This is the most common type of research instrument.
Advantages of a Questionnaire
o Relatively simple method of obtaining data.
Less time is consumed.
Researcher is able to gather data from a widely scattered sample.

Disadvantages of a Questionnaire
o Responses to a questionnaire lack depth.
o Respondent may omit or disregard any item he chooses.
o Some items may force the subject to select responses that are not his actual choice.
o Length of the questionnaire is limited according to the respondent’s interest.
o Printing may be costly especially if it is lengthy.
o Data are limited to the information that is voluntarily supplied by the respondents.
o Some items maybe misunderstood.
o The sample is limited to those who are literate.
Techniques for Developing Questionnaire

o Researcher may read literatures about the topic look through available questionnaires or obtain help from
experts.
o Open - ended questions are preferable than closed questions since they reflect respondent’s attitudes, feelings,
which are expressed in his own words.
o If yes - no questions are used; additional information may be gained by leaving space for respondent’s own
idea.
o The possibility of a middle ground statement is also important.
o Every item in a questionnaire should relate to the topic under study.
Criteria of a Good Questionnaire
o Clarity of Language - It must meet the level of understanding of the respondents in order to generate needed
responses.
o Singleness of Objective - An item must have one and only one answer
o One-to-One Correspondence -The questionnaire as a whole must correspond with the objectives of the study
o Correct Grammar, Spelling, and Construction - The questionnaire must be constructed observing grammatically
correct sentences, correctly spelled words, coherence in construction of sentences, etc.
Characteristic of a Good Questionnaire
o Well-stated title
o Has statement of purpose
o It assures the respondents about the confidentiality of responses
o It is designed to achieve the objectives of the study
o It has a clear direction
o There are no double-negative questions
o It avoids double barreled questions
o The design corresponds to an easy tabulation of data

Types of Research Instruments

1. Questionnaire
A series of questions designed to elicit information, which is filled in by all participants in the sample. This can be
gathered either by oral interview or by written questionnaire. This is the most common type of research instrument.
Advantages of a Questionnaire
o Relatively simple method of obtaining data.
Less time is consumed.
Researcher is able to gather data from a widely scattered sample.

Disadvantages of a Questionnaire
o Responses to a questionnaire lack depth.
o Respondent may omit or disregard any item he chooses.
o Some items may force the subject to select responses that are not his actual choice.
o Length of the questionnaire is limited according to the respondent’s interest.
o Printing may be costly especially if it is lengthy.
o Data are limited to the information that is voluntarily supplied by the respondents.
o Some items maybe misunderstood.
o The sample is limited to those who are literate.
Techniques for Developing Questionnaire

o Researcher may read literatures about the topic look through available questionnaires or obtain help from
experts.
o Open - ended questions are preferable than closed questions since they reflect respondent’s attitudes, feelings,
which are expressed in his own words.
o If yes - no questions are used; additional information may be gained by leaving space for respondent’s own
idea.
o The possibility of a middle ground statement is also important.
o Every item in a questionnaire should relate to the topic under study.
Criteria of a Good Questionnaire
o Clarity of Language - It must meet the level of understanding of the respondents in order to generate needed
responses.
o Singleness of Objective - An item must have one and only one answer
o One-to-One Correspondence -The questionnaire as a whole must correspond with the objectives of the study
o Correct Grammar, Spelling, and Construction - The questionnaire must be constructed observing grammatically
correct sentences, correctly spelled words, coherence in construction of sentences, etc.
Characteristic of a Good Questionnaire
o Well-stated title
o Has statement of purpose
o It assures the respondents about the confidentiality of responses
o It is designed to achieve the objectives of the study
o It has a clear direction
o There are no double-negative questions
o It avoids double barreled questions
o The design corresponds to an easy tabulation of data
Task: Problem or Issue Survey
Think of a problem in your school or community that requires some research to solve. List at least five problems or
issues in your community and five school problems or issues. From the list identify one subject for your technical report.
(Either school problem or community problem) Put a check on your chosen issue or problem.

School issues Community Issues

Question: Why do you think research is needed to solve the issue/problem?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Task: Problem or Issue Survey

Think of a problem in your school or community that requires some research to solve. List at least five problems or
issues in your community and five school problems or issues. From the list identify one subject for your technical report.
(Either school problem or community problem) Put a check on your chosen issue or problem.

School issues Community Issues

Question: Why do you think research is needed to solve the issue/problem?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Task: Problem or Issue Survey

Think of a problem in your school or community that requires some research to solve. List at least five problems or
issues in your community and five school problems or issues. From the list identify one subject for your technical report.
(Either school problem or community problem) Put a check on your chosen issue or problem.

School issues Community Issues

Question: Why do you think research is needed to solve the issue/problem?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Task: Problem or Issue Survey

Think of a problem in your school or community that requires some research to solve. List at least five problems or
issues in your community and five school problems or issues. From the list identify one subject for your technical report.
(Either school problem or community problem) Put a check on your chosen issue or problem.

School issues Community Issues

Question: Why do you think research is needed to solve the issue/problem?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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Degree of Structure Questions
1. Open-ended questions -This gives the respondents the ability to respond in their own words
2. Close-ended or fixed alternative - This allows the subject to choose one of the given alternatives.
Specific Types of Closed-ended Question:
1. Dichotomous questions - This requires the respondent to make a choice between two responses
such as :
yes/no, male/female, or married/unmarried.
Example: Have you been ligated? ___ Yes ___ No
2. Multiple questions
This offers more than one choice.
Example: How favorable is it to you to become pregnant at this time?
___ Very favorable ___ Favorable ___ Not sure ___ Unfavorable ___ Very unfavorable
3. Cafeteria questions - A special type of multiple-choice question.
The respondents are asked to select a response according to their own point of view.
Example: People have different views on “family planning”, which of the following best represent
your views?
1. Family planning is necessary to quality life. ___
2. Family planning is immoral and should be totally banned. ___
3. Family planning has undesirable side effects that suggest need for caution. ___
4. Family planning has beneficial effects that merit its practice. ___
5. Family planning is moral and should be practiced.______
4. Rank-Order questions  The respondents are asked to choose a response from the “most” to the
“least”.
Example: Why must family planning be practiced? Rank your answers from the 1-most reasonable to
5-least reasonable?
___ Limits maternal disabilities.
___ Gives parents more time to meet family needs.
___ Helps maintain financial viability of the family.
___ Affords more working hours for couples.
___ Ensures family capability to educate all the children in the future.
5. Rating questions -The respondents are asked to judge something along an ordered dimension.
This is typically bipolar in nature, with the end points specifying the opposite extremes of a
continuum.
Example: On the scale of 1 to 5 where 1 means strongly disagree and 5 means strongly agree, the
Health Center in Barangay A provides you the necessary services.
Scale ___ 5 - Strongly agree ___ 4 - Agree ___ 3 - Uncertain ___ 2 - Disagree ___ 1 - Strongly disagree

Degree of Structure Questions

1. Open-ended questions -This gives the respondents the ability to respond in their own words
2. Close-ended or fixed alternative - This allows the subject to choose one of the given alternatives.
Specific Types of Closed-ended Question:
1. Dichotomous questions - This requires the respondent to make a choice between two responses
such as :
yes/no, male/female, or married/unmarried.
Example: Have you been ligated? ___ Yes ___ No
2. Multiple questions
This offers more than one choice.
Example: How favorable is it to you to become pregnant at this time?
___ Very favorable ___ Favorable ___ Not sure ___ Unfavorable ___ Very unfavorable
3. Cafeteria questions - A special type of multiple-choice question.
The respondents are asked to select a response according to their own point of view.
Example: People have different views on “family planning”, which of the following best represent
your views?
1. Family planning is necessary to quality life. ___
2. Family planning is immoral and should be totally banned. ___
3. Family planning has undesirable side effects that suggest need for caution. ___
4. Family planning has beneficial effects that merit its practice. ___
5. Family planning is moral and should be practiced.______
4. Rank-Order questions  The respondents are asked to choose a response from the “most” to the
“least”.
Example: Why must family planning be practiced? Rank your answers from the 1-most reasonable to
5-least reasonable?
___ Limits maternal disabilities.
___ Gives parents more time to meet family needs.
___ Helps maintain financial viability of the family.
___ Affords more working hours for couples.
___ Ensures family capability to educate all the children in the future.
5. Rating questions -The respondents are asked to judge something along an ordered dimension.
This is typically bipolar in nature, with the end points specifying the opposite extremes of a
continuum.
Example: On the scale of 1 to 5 where 1 means strongly disagree and 5 means strongly agree, the
Health Center in Barangay A provides you the necessary services.
Scale ___ 5 - Strongly agree ___ 4 - Agree ___ 3 - Uncertain ___ 2 - Disagree ___ 1 - Strongly disagree
Checklist (Research tool)  Records often cover a long period of time.
 These are items that comprise several questions  Inexpensive
on a topic and require the same response Disadvantages of Records
format.  All the researcher can have is what is there. If
Example: Here are some characteristics of birth-control the record is incomplete, there is no way it can
devices that are of varying importance to different be completed.
people.  No one can be sure of the conditions under
How important are the following in choosing a birth- which the records were collected.
control method?  There is no assurance of the accuracy of the
Characteristic of birth- records.
1. Comfort
2. Cost
3. Ease of Use Checklist (Research tool)
4. Effectiveness  These are items that comprise several questions
5. Noninterference of spontaneity on a topic and require the same response
6. Safety format.
7. Safety to partner Example: Here are some characteristics of birth-control
Interview (Research tool) devices that are of varying importance to different
Interview involves either structure or people.
unstructured verbal communication between the How important are the following in choosing a birth-
researcher and subject, during which information is control method?
obtained for a study. Characteristic of birth-
Types of Interview 1. Comfort
1. Unstructured Interviews 2. Cost
 more conversational 3. Ease of Use
 long sometimes (hours) and 4. Effectiveness
 conducted in a usual situation. 5. Noninterference of spontaneity
 flexibility in questioning the subject 6. Safety
2. Structured Interviews 7. Safety to partner
 always operates within formal written Interview (Research tool)
instrument referred as interview schedule. Interview involves either structure or
 researcher designed the questions to be asked unstructured verbal communication between the
prior to interview including the order of the researcher and subject, during which information is
questions. obtained for a study.
 questions are asked orally in either face to face Types of Interview
or telephone format. 1. Unstructured Interviews
Advantages of Interview  more conversational
1. Data from interview are usable  long sometimes (hours) and
2. Depth of response can be assured  conducted in a usual situation.
3. In an exploratory study, the interview  flexibility in questioning the subject
technique provides basis for the formulation of 2. Structured Interviews
questionnaire  always operates within formal written
4. Clarification is possible instrument referred as interview schedule.
5. No items are overlooked  researcher designed the questions to be asked
6. Higher proportion of responses is obtained prior to interview including the order of the
7. Greater amount of flexibility is allowed questions.
Disadvantages of Interview  questions are asked orally in either face to face
1. Time element or telephone format.
2. Biases may result Advantages of Interview
3. Costly 1. Data from interview are usable
Observation (Research Tool) 2. Depth of response can be assured
Observation is most commonly used in qualitative 3. In an exploratory study, the interview
research. technique provides basis for the formulation of
Types of Observation questionnaire
1. Unstructured observation is a method of 4. Clarification is possible
collecting research data that has both 5. No items are overlooked
opponents and proponents. 6. Higher proportion of responses is obtained
2. Structured observation is the preparation of 7. Greater amount of flexibility is allowed
record-keeping forms such as category systems, Disadvantages of Interview
checklists and rating scales. The researcher 1. Time element
typically has some prior knowledge about the 2. Biases may result
behavior or event of interest. 3. Costly
Advantages of Observation Observation (Research Tool)
 Produces large quantities of data w/ relative Observation is most commonly used in qualitative
case. research.
 All data obtained from observation are Types of Observation
usable. 1. Unstructured observation is a method of
 Relatively inexpensive. collecting research data that has both
 All subjects are potential respondents. opponents and proponents.
 Subjects are usually available. 2. Structured observation is the preparation of
 The observation technique can be stopped or record-keeping forms such as category systems,
begun at any time. checklists and rating scales. The researcher
 Observation may be recorded at the time they typically has some prior knowledge about the
occur eliminating bias because of recall. behavior or event of interest.
Disadvantages of Observation Advantages of Observation
 Accurate prediction of a situation or event to  Produces large quantities of data w/ relative
be observed is unlikely. case.
 Interviewing selected subjects may provide  All data obtained from observation are
more information, economically, than waiting usable.
for the spontaneous occurrence of the  Relatively inexpensive.
situation.  All subjects are potential respondents.
 The presence of an observer gives the subjects  Subjects are usually available.
a quality normally absent.  The observation technique can be stopped or
 Observed events are subject to biases. begun at any time.
 Extensive training is needed.  Observation may be recorded at the time they
Records (Research tool) occur eliminating bias because of recall.
A record refers to all the numbers and statistics Disadvantages of Observation
that institutions, organizations and people keep as a  Accurate prediction of a situation or event to
record of their activities. be observed is unlikely.
Sources : (1)Census data(2)Educational  Interviewing selected subjects may provide
records(3)Hospital/clinic records more information, economically, than waiting
Advantages of Record for the spontaneous occurrence of the
 Records are unbiased. situation.
  The presence of an observer gives the subjects Appearance: Ensure the finished document is visually appealing and
a quality normally absent. easy to read.
 Observed events are subject to biases.
 Extensive training is needed.
Records (Research tool) 4. Distribute the Memo
A record refers to all the numbers and statistics When you are sure the memo is ready to go, hand-write your initials
that institutions, organizations and people keep as a by your name on the 'from' line, then copy and distribute the
record of their activities. document to the recipient(s) if you are sending hard copies.
Sources : (1)Census data(2)Educational
records(3)Hospital/clinic records
Advantages of Record If you are sending the memo via email, you may want to
 Records are unbiased. convert it to a PDF document before sending, so that you
 Records often cover a long period of time. can be sure the format will carry through to everyone who
 Inexpensive receives it. One you have done that, simply enter the
Disadvantages of Records
 All the researcher can have is what is there. If
appropriate email addresses, attach the memo and add a
the record is incomplete, there is no way it can descriptive subject line. You may also want to add a few
be completed. lines of introductory text in the body of the email directing
 No one can be sure of the conditions under readers to open the attachment before clicking 'send.'
which the records were collected.
 There is no assurance of the accuracy of the
records.

Four Steps in Writing a Business Memo Four Steps in Writing a Business Memo
1. Create the Heading 1. Create the Heading
Business memos that will be printed or emailed as attachments Business memos that will be printed or emailed as attachments
should begin with a heading that lists the name(s) of the staff should begin with a heading that lists the name(s) of the staff
members who will be receiving it. If the memo will be included in the members who will be receiving it. If the memo will be included in the
body of an email, this section is not necessary because the email body of an email, this section is not necessary because the email
program will provide the information typically included in a memo program will provide the information typically included in a memo
heading for you. heading for you.
Example memo heading: Example memo heading:

Memo To: fill in recipient name(s) Memo To: fill in recipient name(s)
From: sender's full name From: sender's full name
Date: date memo is sent Date: date memo is sent
RE: specific subject line RE: specific subject line
CC: names of people who will be copied on the email. CC: names of people who will be copied on the email.
Headings should include the full name (no nicknames) of the person
Headings should include the full name (no nicknames) of the person
or people who will receive the document. You should also include
or people who will receive the document. You should also include
your full name, and the date the memo was prepared. The next part
your full name, and the date the memo was prepared. The next part
of the heading is the subject of the memo, which is usually indicated
of the heading is the subject of the memo, which is usually indicated
by "RE:", which stands for "regarding." Make the subject as specific as
by "RE:", which stands for "regarding." Make the subject as specific as
possible. Instead of a general heading such as "New Policy," choose
possible. Instead of a general heading such as "New Policy," choose
"New Policy for Scheduling Vacations." If the menu will be copied to
"New Policy for Scheduling Vacations." If the menu will be copied to
other people, end the heading with a CC: line.
other people, end the heading with a CC: line.
2. Write the Body
2. Write the Body
The body of a memo includes three components:
The body of a memo includes three components:
 Introduction: This should be a short paragraph of two or three
 Introduction: This should be a short paragraph of two or three
sentences that lets people know the reason for the memo in a
sentences that lets people know the reason for the memo in a
direct manner.
direct manner.
 Recommendations or purpose: This section gets to the meat of
 Recommendations or purpose: This section gets to the meat of
the message using key points, highlights or background
the message using key points, highlights or background
information. It may include supporting detail like facts and
information. It may include supporting detail like facts and
statistics, as well as examples and reasons for the memo.
statistics, as well as examples and reasons for the memo.
 Conclusion: The conclusion will make it clear what action
 Conclusion: The conclusion will make it clear what action
needs to be taken and when it needs to be completed or
needs to be taken and when it needs to be completed or
reiterates the timely news included in the memo.
reiterates the timely news included in the memo.
3. Finalize the Document
3. Finalize the Document
Proof the memo carefully before you send it. Make sure that is free
Proof the memo carefully before you send it. Make sure that is free
from typos and that the document accurately conveys the point(s)
from typos and that the document accurately conveys the point(s)
you want to get across.
you want to get across.
Use the following guidelines when evaluating what you have written
Use the following guidelines when evaluating what you have written
and make changes as needed.
and make changes as needed.
Audience-appropriate: Verify the document is appropriate for the
Audience-appropriate: Verify the document is appropriate for the
education, background, company status and needs of the recipients.
education, background, company status and needs of the recipients.
Concise: Remove needless words and keep the memo to one page or
Concise: Remove needless words and keep the memo to one page or
less in most circumstances.
less in most circumstances.
Coherent: Make sure that the memo structure is simple and logical
Coherent: Make sure that the memo structure is simple and logical
and that each paragraph is limited to one idea.
and that each paragraph is limited to one idea.
Readability: Make sure to keep paragraphs short and use bullet
Readability: Make sure to keep paragraphs short and use bullet
points to list key details.
points to list key details.
Terminology: Use appropriate terminology that the audience can be
Terminology: Use appropriate terminology that the audience can be
expected to understand.
expected to understand.
Factual tone: Verify that the tone is professional and that you have
not included emotionally-charged words.
Factual tone: Verify that the tone is professional and that you have If you are sending the memo via email, you may want to
not included emotionally-charged words. convert it to a PDF document before sending, so that you
Appearance: Ensure the finished document is visually appealing and can be sure the format will carry through to everyone who
easy to read. receives it. One you have done that, simply enter the
appropriate email addresses, attach the memo and add a
4. Distribute the Memo descriptive subject line. You may also want to add a few
When you are sure the memo is ready to go, hand-write your initials lines of introductory text in the body of the email directing
by your name on the 'from' line, then copy and distribute the readers to open the attachment before clicking 'send.'
document to the recipient(s) if you are sending hard copies.

Sample Minutes
Name of Committee
Day & Date
Time
Location

MINUTES (Title)

PRESENT: A list of first and last names of all those present at the meeting
REGRETS: A list of first and last names of Committee members who have contacted the Chairman to let them
know that they will be unable to attend the meeting
ABSENT: A list of first and last names of Committee members who DID NOT contact the Chairman to let them know that they won’t be in attendance

1. CALL TO ORDER/OPENING REMARKS

Time that the Chairperson called the meeting to order.
Any opening remarks from the Chairperson summarize here

2. APPROVAL OF THE MINUTES FROM (DATE) (You need a motion to approve the minutes of the
previous meeting as circulated or a motion to approve the minutes as amended. If any corrections are needed to the minutes.)
Motion: To approve the minutes of (DATE)

Motion: To approve the minutes of (DATE) as circulated (or AMENDED)

Motion By: Name of person (FIRST & LAST) who made the motion
Seconded By: Name of the person (FIRST & LAST)) who seconded the motion
Carried or Defeated
3. ADDITIONS TO THE AGENDA (If anyone has an item that they would like to be added to the agenda they would bring it up here and ask the
Chair if the item maybe added to the agenda or can be added to the next meeting’s agenda. See #8 below for added items to current meeting agenda.)

4. APPROVAL OF THE AGENDA

Motion: to approve the agenda as circulated (or AMENDED)
Motion By: name of person (FIRST & LAST) who made the motion
Seconded By: name of person (FIRST & LAST) who made the motion
Carried or Defeated
5. BUSINESS ARISING OUT OF THE PREVIOUS MEETING

a. Outstanding Items from the previous meeting that need to be updated or discussed further
b. Outstanding Items from the previous meeting that need to be updated or discussed further
c. Outstanding Items from the previous meeting that need to be updated or discussed further
6. ITEM # 1 TO BE DISCUSSED
Put a summary of the discussion around the topic
If a motion was made put the information in here
If further information is needed agree on who is to do the follow up and put their name and a timeline that this information will be completed
Task: put who is to do it and when it is to be completed by (DATE)

7. ITEM #2 TO BE DISCUSSED
Put a summary of the discussion around the topic
If a motion was made put the information in here
If further information is needed agree on who is to do the follow up and put their name and a
timeline that this information will be completed
Task: put who is to do it and when it is to be completed by (DATE)

8. ADDITIONS TO THE AGENDA

a) Added agenda Item # 1
Put a summary of the discussion around the topic
If a motion was made put the information in here
If further information is needed agree on who is to do the follow up and put their name and a
timeline that this information will be completed

Task: put who is to do it and when it is to be completed by (DATE)

b) Added agenda Item # 2
Put a summary of the discussion around the topic
If a motion was made put the information in here
If further information is needed agree on who is to do the follow up and put their name and a timeline that this information will be completed
Task: put who is to do it and when it is to be completed by (DATE)

9. ADJOURNMENT (Record the time the Chair adjourned the meeting.)

10. NEXT MEETING (DATE) (The next meeting date should be decided before everyone leaves the meeting. It is a handy reminder to put it at the
bottom of the minutes.)
NOTE:

 The minutes should be completed by the Recording Secretary and forwarded to the Chairperson to
review prior to being sent out to the rest of the Committee. The minutes should be distributed no
more than 2 weeks after the meeting was held. The minutes are a reminder of the tasks that need to be completed and items to be followed up on.
A copy of the minutes should also be saved for future references

. Experimental Approach
1. 45. 6. Experimental Approach  A powerful design for testing hypothesis of causal relationships
among variables.
2.  Researcher controls the independent variable & watches the effect on the dependent variable.
3. Two Groups of Experimental Approach
4. 1. Treatment / Experimental group
5. 2. Control group
6.  Advantages of Experimental Approach
7. 1. It is difficult to minimize all the variables in which the control and experimental groups might
differ.
8. 2. Causal relationships are difficult if not impossible to establish.
 9. 3. The time element may confound the results of experimental research.4. In an experimental
laboratory setting it may be difficult to obtain subjects, especially subjects who are unaware of the
experiment

7. Survey Approach
10. 48. 7. Survey Approach  Non-experimental type in which the researcher investigates a community
or a group of people.  Another name is FORMULATIVE OR EXPLORATORY research.
11. Advantages of Survey Approach
12. 1. Can provide information about the possibilities of undertaking different types of research
methods.
13. 3. Provides data about the present.
14. 5. Has a high degree of representativeness.
15. 7. Easy to get respondents and information often do not express their true reactions to the
questions.
16. 49.  Disadvantages of Survey Approach
17. 1. Yields a low degree of control over extraneous variables.
18. 2. Verbal behavior is quite unreliable and that people
19. 50. MEASUREMENT OF VARIABLES
20. 51. MEASUREMENT OF VARIABLES Measurement is the process by which the researcher assigns
specific number to the collected data (Massey, 1991).
21. 52. Levels of Measurement
22. 1. Nominal level (the lowest level)  This level includes assignment of numbers simply to classify
characteristics into categories.  “ASSIGNING A CODE TO LABEL” Example:  In relation to marital
status, 0 might represent single and 1 married.  Nominal level variables include sex, marital status
and health status

23. 53. Levels of Measurement

24. 2. Ordinal level (the second lowest level)  This permits the sorting of objects on the basis of their
standing on an attribute relative to each other.  Data are categorized and ranked, ordered from
“most” to “least: according to frequency of occurrence as explained by Dr. Barrientos-Tan. 
represent the rank order (1st, 2nd, 3rd etc.)
25. 54. 1. Likert scale2. Guttman scale3. Graphic Rating Scale4. Semantic Differential Scale
26. 55. Levels of Measurement3. Interval level (the second highest level)  This occurs when the
researcher can specify both the rank- ordering of objects attribute and the distance between those
objects.  do not have an absolute or rational zero point.  Use of mode, median, mean Example: 
Fahrenheit and centigrade temperatures  anxiety levels measured on a Likert scale
27. 56. Levels of Measurement4. Ratio level (the highest level)  The ratio level has a rational,
meaningful zero.
28. 57. RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF MEASUREMENT
29. 58. RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF MEASUREMENT Reliability  means the degree of consistency and
accuracy with which an instrument measures a variable. Validity  refers to the extent to which an
instrument measures what it is designed to measure.
30. 59. Testing Validity of Data Collection
31. 60. Testing Validity of Data Collection There are three categories of testing the validity of a data
collection instrument.2. Self-evident measures3. Pragmatic Measures
32. 61.  Self-evident measures  refers to the fact that the instrument appears what it is supposed to
measure. 1.1 Face validity (VALIDITY OF THE OBSERVER)  most basic level, when little or nothing is
known about the variable being measured;  the researcher typically verifies face validity by asking
experts to evaluate the instrument’s intent. 1.2 Content validity  relies on the assurance that you
can demonstrate an adequate coverage of the known field.  The researcher typically verifies this
by conducting a literature review to determine which content should be covered and by asking
experts to evaluate the instrument’s representativeness of the content.
33. 62.  Pragmatic Measures  the procedure essentially tests the practical value of a particular
research instrument or tool  Thus attempting to answer the question, “Does it work?”  Concurrent
validity  Predictive validity  Construct validity
34. 63.  Concurrent validity  refers to the extent to which an instrument can accurately identify
subjects that differ with respect to a given characteristic.  Researcher typically validates
concurrent validity by using the instrument in conjunction with a second instrument already known
to be valid.  Ex. a measure of job satisfaction might be correlated with work performance.  Note
that with concurrent validity, the two measures are taken at the same time.
35. 64.  Predictive validity  to predict some future occurrences.  the researcher commonly validates
this by using the instrument, then comparing the results with some future outcomes.
36. 65.  Construct validity  useful mainly for measuring the traits or feelings such as generosity, grief
or satisfaction.  is related to the theoretical ideas behind the personality trait under consideration
37. 66. Testing the Reliability of Research Instrument
38. 67. Testing the Reliability of Research Instrument1. Stability  The best indicator of an instrument’s
reliability.  This refers to the extent to which the same results are obtained with repeated use of
an instrument  There are two categories for tests of stability:  Test / Retest  Repeated
observations
39. 68. Testing the Reliability of Research Instrument2. Internal consistency  This refers to the extent
to which all parts of the measurement techniques are measuring the same concept.3. Test of
Equivalence  This refers to the consistency of the results by different investigators or similar tests
at the same time.

Observation Sometimes, the best way to collect data through observation. This can be done directly or indirectly with

the subject knowing or unaware that you are observing them. You may choose to collect data through continuous
observation or via set time periods depending on your project. You may interpret data you gather using the following

mechanisms:
1. Descriptive observations: you simply write down what you observe
2. Inferential observations: you may write down an observation that is inferred by the subject’s body
language and behavior.
3. Evaluative observation:
You may make an inference and therefore a judgment from the behavior. Make sure you can replicate these
findings.