Review Article:

Impacts of smog on safety and Health of various

occupations: Challenges and mitigation Strategies
Fatima Mohi Uddin
Department of Environmental Science
Government College University

Abstract:
Rapid and unchecked industrialization and the combustion of fossil fuels have
engendered a state of fear in urban settlements. Smog is a visible form of air
UNDERCOVER
pollution that arises due to the over-emissions of some primary pollutants like During the Great Smog of 1952,
volatile organic compounds (VOCs), hydrocarbons, SO2, NO, and NO2 which coal pollution blanketed the city of
further react in the atmosphere and give rise to toxic and carcinogenic secondary London, England. More than 4,000
smog components. Smog reduces the visibility on roads and results in road people died from respiratory
accidents and cancellation of flights. Uptake of primary and secondary pollutants ailments as a result. The smog was
of smog is responsible for several deleterious diseases of which respiratory so thick that the city had to shut
disorders, cardiovascular dysfunction, neurological disorders, and cancer are down roads, railways, and the
discussed here. Children and pregnant women are more prone to the hazards of airport. Robbers used the cover of
smog. smog to break into houses and
shops.

Introduction: What is a smog?

Smog is air pollution that reduces visibility. The term "smog" was first used in the early 1900s to describe a mix of smoke
and fog. The smoke usually came from burning coal. Smog was common in industrial areas, and remains a familiar sight in
some cities today. Today, most of the smog we see is photochemical smog. Photochemical smog is produced when sunlight
reacts with nitrogen oxides and at least one volatile organic compound (VOC) in the atmosphere. Nitrogen oxides come from
car exhaust, coal power plants, and factory emissions. VOC’s are released from gasoline, paints, and many cleaning solvents.
When sunlight hits these chemicals, they form airborne particles and ground-level ozone or smog.

Smog is unhealthy to humans and animals, and it can kill plants. Smog is also ugly. It makes the sky brown or gray. Smog is
common in big cities with a lot of industry and traffic. Cities located in basins surrounded by mountains may have smog
problems because the smog is trapped in the valley and cannot be carried away by wind. Los Angles, California, United States,
and Mexico City, Mexico, both have high smog levels partly because of this kind of landscape.

Many countries, including the United States, have created laws to reduce smog. Some laws include restrictions on what
chemicals a factory can release into the atmosphere, or when the factory can release them. Some communities have "burn
days" when residents can burn waste such as leaves in their yard. These limits on chemicals released into the air reduce the
amount of smog. (National geography)

Causes of Smog:
There are various causes of smog which are given below:

Using Coal as a Fuel:

Coal, one of the most important primary fossil fuels, is a solid carbon-rich material that is usually brown or black in colour
and occurs most commonly in stratified sedimentary deposits.Coal is defined as having more than 50% carbonaceous matter
by weight (or 70% by volume) produced by the compaction and hardening of altered plant remains, namely peat deposits.
Different types of coal exist due to differences in plant material (coal type), degree of coalification (coal rank), and impurity
range (coal grade).
Although the majority of coals are found in stratified sedimentary deposits, the deposits may later be subjected to elevated
temperatures and pressures caused by igneous intrusions or deformation during pathogenesis (i.e., mountain-building
processes), resulting in the formation of anthracite and even graphite. Although the concentration of carbon in the Earth’s
crust is less than 0.1 percent by weight, it is necessary for life and is the primary source of energy for humans. (Sripada et al.
2017).
Vehicular and Industrial Emissions:
Vehicle emissions are classified as either direct ‘tailpipe’ emissions – formed by fuel combustion in conventional vehicles –
or indirect by-products of gaseous reactions in the atmosphere. Below is a list of both types:

Carbon dioxide:
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a major component of a vehicle’s tailpipe emissions. Motor vehicles, as an end product of any fuel
combustion process, are estimated to contribute nearly 24 percent of the world’s direct CO2 emissions today. While these
may not pose any immediate health risks, their continued accumulation catalysis global warming, exacerbating climate change.

Carbon monoxide:
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a highly toxic gas that is colorless and odorless and is produced by the incomplete combustion of
fossil fuels. This is extremely harmful to one’s health because it impairs the body’s ability to absorb oxygen. According to
studies, vehicular emissions are the primary source of CO in highly polluted cities like New Delhi, which fell by nearly 86
percent during the Covid-19 lockdown due to restrictions on vehicular movement.

Nitrous oxide:
Nitrous oxide (NOx) is produced by the high-temperature combustion of fossil fuels and contributes to the formation of ozone.
Indian cities such as New Delhi, Bangalore, Mumbai, and Kolkata have some of the highest NOx levels in the country, which
are entirely due to vehicular pollution. Ground-level ozone is caused by an excess of NOx. Although not directly emitted by
transportation, the creation of this lethal secondary gas is strongly linked to respiratory diseases and asthma.

Particulate matter:
Particulate matter (PM) is a combination of solid and liquid pollutants that are easily inhaled, such as dust, soot, and smoke.
Depending on their diameter, these are classified as PM 2.5 or PM 10. These could be formed directly as a result of fuel
combustion or indirectly as a result of complex atmospheric reactions.
The transportation sector is responsible for one-third of India’s PM pollution and 20-35 percent of PM 2.5 pollution in Indian
cities.

What are the Effects of Smog?

Smog is a mixture of air pollutants that can endanger human health, harm the environment, and even cause property damage.
Smog can cause or exacerbate health problems such as asthma, emphysema, chronic bronchitis, and other respiratory issues,
as well as eye irritation and decreased resistance to colds and lung infections.
Smog ozone also inhibits plant growth and can cause widespread crop and forest damage.
Currently, various studies have provided knowledge to the general population about the relationship between smog and its
adverse effects on human health. Earlier researchers had confirmed that health effects are related to persons’ age, health, and
socioeconomic status. However, the impact of smog is also influenced by its time of exposure. The risk of long-term exposure
is much higher than that of short-term exposure. Both the long-term unceasing exposure and short-term peak do not have the
same consequences and they follow different dynamics. The effects range from short-term irritation in the trachea to long-
term genetic mutations. However, some recent studies have observed a link between adverse mortality and short-term
exposure to smog [4]. These adverse health effects have a broad array from sub-clinical effects like irritation in the trachea to
long-term genetic mutations and premature deaths. Some of the major diseases which are harbored by smog are respiratory
diseases (asthma, coughing, and bronchitis), cardiovascular disease, neurological disorders, cancer, infant health, low birth
weight, and other problems like eye irritation and breathing difficulties.

Research study on smog’s impacts of various occupations in Lahore:

Because of a high incidence of winter smog and air pollution [56], Lahore city (capital of the Punjab province, Pakistan) and
its adjoining areas were selected as the study domain (Figure 1). Lahore (31.5204° N, 74.3587° E) is a mega city with a
population of 11.13 million, which has doubled in the last 15 years (growth rate of 3.58% to the year 2017). Major industrial
activity in Lahore includes the chemical, automobile, manufacturing, and pharmaceutical sectors. The city is located in a
subtropical arid setting with high industrial and vehicular load, leading to an increase in air pollution and subsequent health
issues. The adjoining areas of Lahore municipality were included in order to compare the relative importance of location, i.e.,
between the urban core and the periphery. The study included the peripheral cities of Nankana, Kasur, Changa Manga, and
Sayed Walla (Figure 1). In both areas, fog is a common meteorological phenomenon occurring in the winter (November–
January), which results in smog when the various sources of pollution interact with the fog...( Khokhar, M.F.; Mehdi, H.;
Abbas, Z.; Javed, Z.2016)
 Figure 1. Map of Lahore and its adjoining areas with five sampling locations.

Data Collection:
The main data for this study were collected through semi-structured interviews of individuals working in selected
occupations (farmers, shopkeepers, office workers, drivers, household workers, and laborers). A total of 341 individuals
were randomly selected and interviewed from different occupations and locations. To facilitate the interviews, a semi-
structured questionnaire was prepared, which was tested before the main survey and finalized. The questionnaire was
translated into local languages (Urdu and Punjabi) for ease of understanding before the survey. The survey was conducted
in November–December 2018. In addition to the individual interviews, information was collected through focus group
discussions (FGD), key informant interviews (KII), and direct field observations. In each study site, at least one FGD and
one KI interview were conducted. In the FGDs, efforts were made to ensure participation of individuals from different
occupational groups. (Ali, M.U.; Rashid, A.; Yousaf, B.; Kamal, A 2017)

For key informant interviews, mainly town representatives (known locally as Numbardar) and health practitioners (medical
doctors) were identified for in-depth interviews in order to understand local context, as well as cross-validate survey data.
Efforts were made to include at least one people’s representative in each study sites. In total, 35 medical doctors were
interviewed using a prepared checklist with open-ended questions related to health, hospital admissions, and emergency cases
during these periods. They were further questioned about perceived vulnerable locations and populations belonging to various
occupations that are considered most likely to be affected by episodes of poor air quality (Table 1). The secondary data
consisted of various scientific reports, maps, journal articles, and newspaper reports.
Descriptive Results:
The descriptive analysis of surveyed individuals is summarized. The respondents were predominantly male (78%), reflecting
the local cultural context where mostly men work outside the home and women take care of household work. Most women
respondents were unpaid household workers, and some were involved in farming, factory labor, or office work. Almost half
of the respondents were either illiterate or had only a primary level of education, and a majority of the respondents were in
the age group of 20–45 years.
Overall, about 47% of the respondents reported having some form of preexisting health condition. Respiratory diseases (23%)
were the most reported preexisting health issue, followed by allergies (14%). There was some difference in the type of
preexisting health issues reported by respondents involved in outdoor and indoor occupations. Whereas respondents exposed
to outdoor ambient air pollution such as taxi drivers, laborers, and farmers reported respiratory diseases, the indoor occupation
group (office workers and household workers) reported both allergy and respiratory disease in equal frequency. Additionally,
respondents claimed that symptoms intensified in November and December when compared to other months.

Perception of Occupational Impacts of Winter Smog

Most respondents (91%), regardless of occupation, reported negative health impacts due to smog. Laborers (60%),
shopkeepers (57%), and farmers (57%) highlighted effects on work efficiency, availability, and mobility. Smog disrupted
daily routines for 41% of respondents, with drivers (46%) and farmers (27%) identified as the most vulnerable. Laborers on
daily wages faced challenges with job availability and productivity. Despite these impacts, only 38% adopted coping measures,
with office workers (71%) leading due to better awareness and resources.

Additional insights from FGDs and KIIs confirmed these findings. Drivers suffered income loss due to poor visibility, while
farmers faced reduced crop productivity and worsening respiratory issues during smoggy mornings and evenings. Office
workers were less economically affected but shared concerns about their children's health, a fear echoed by medical
professionals who identified children and the elderly as the most vulnerable groups.Key informants (43 interviews: 35 doctors
and 8 representatives) reported an increase in respiratory, ENT, and eye-related cases during smog periods. They attributed
the rise to dust particles, vehicular emissions, agricultural burning, and industrialization. Symptoms were prevalent across all
groups but most severe among children and the elderly in low-income families.

Discussion:
The study reveals that winter smog significantly impacts the health and livelihoods of Lahore residents, particularly during
November and December. Restricted mobility and adverse health effects, such as respiratory ailments (cough, wheezing,
shortness of breath), were commonly reported. Similar trends were observed in studies conducted in Rawalpindi, Pakistan.
Contrary to expectations, no significant difference in health symptoms was found between outdoor and indoor workers. While
outdoor workers were more prone to respiratory issues, indoor workers faced allergies. Interestingly, shopkeepers reported
more eye irritation than other occupations. Indoor workers, such as office staff, were more likely to adopt preventive measures,
like wearing masks, due to greater awareness. (Rao, S.; Chirkov, V.; Dentener, F.; Dingenen, Austria, 2011.)
(Lelieveld, J.; Evans, J.S.; Giannadaki, D.; Pozzer, Nature 2015)

Key variables influencing symptom occurrence included:

Age: Middle-aged individuals were six times more likely to exhibit multiple symptoms compared to adolescents, while older
adults were six times more likely to experience breathlessness.

Education: Less-educated individuals were 80% more likely to report symptoms due to limited awareness and preventive
measures. This aligns with studies showing the disproportionate impact of air pollution on low-socioeconomic groups.

Preexisting Conditions: Individuals with respiratory histories were four to six times more likely to experience symptoms, as
their compromised lung capacity worsened during smog episodes.

Coping mechanisms, such as wearing masks or staying indoors, were reported but were often insufficient due to the severity
of the smog. Behavioral constraints, such as discomfort with masks or the inability to take time off work, exacerbated the
vulnerability of poorer, more exposed populations.

Outcome:
According to interviews with individuals working in a variety of occupations with both outdoor and indoor work environments,
this study concludes that, while winter smog affects all selected occupations equally, age, preexisting health conditions, and
location all have a significant impact on health outcomes in this purview. It was found that certain health and socioeconomic
situations exacerbate the adverse health impact of individuals more than others. The existence of respiratory disease history
increased the chances of facing multiple respiratory health symptoms in individuals. Similarly, middle-aged people and people
with low literacy were more susceptible to respiratory health symptoms. While all the occupation groups, regardless of the
nature of their job, were affected by ambient air pollution during winter smog, very few of them reported taking coping
measures, and those measures were also not effective to protect them against the respiratory hazards posed by smog.

Mitigation Strategies:
Smog is still a problem in many places. Everyone can do their part to reduce smog by changing a few behaviors, such as:
 Drive less. Walk, bike, carpool, and use public transportation whenever possible. Take care of cars. Getting regular tune-
ups, changing oil when scheduled, and inflating tires to the proper level can improve gas mileage and thus reduce
emissions.
 Fuel up during the cooler hours of the day—night or early morning. This prevents gas fumes from heating up and
producing ozone. Avoid products that release high levels of VOCs. For example, use low-VOC paints. Avoid gas-
powered yard equipment, like lawn mowers. Use electric appliances instead.
 To mitigate the air pollution problem, many efforts have to be taken with the aim to decrease the pollutants emissions
coming from people. Each citizen may contribute to the mitigation of air pollution through behavioral changes in their
lifestyle as the reduction of energy consumption in transportation, households, and supply.

Public and active transport

Transportation is the central investigated sector for public health benefits obtained after air pollution reduction (Sarigiannis ET AL.
2017) (Lindsay ET AL. 2011). It is well known that vehicular transport produces about 70% of environmental pollution since
exhaust fumes from motors are a source of several pollutants (CO, NO2, VOC, and PM) (Xia ET AL. 2015). Consequently, programs
aiming at changing travel behaviors are essential (Guersola ET AL. 2017). Each citizen should use public transports (bus, tram,
subway, train) as much as possible and possibly travel actively (walking and cycling). The shift to active transport by reducing the
use of owned cars entails significant benefits for human health and environment (Rabl and de Nazelle 2012) (Maizlish ET al. 2013)
(Xia ET al. 2015). Recently, several studies have shown that the increase in physical activity reduces the incidence of several
diseases, especially at cardiovascular level (coronary heart disease, stroke), hypertension, and diabetes (Mueller ET al. 2015)
(Scheepers ET al. 2014). Furthermore, in this way, significant reductions of colon and breast cancer and the improvement of mental
health can be achieved (Rabl and de Nazelle 2012). Of course, benefits from physical activity are obtained by minimizing exposure
to atmospheric pollution; therefore, the outdoor activity has to be carried out in the environment with healthy air (Rabl and de
Nazelle 2012). Furthermore, commuters should be encouraged to use low-cost public bicycle sharing systems to combine benefits
concerning health and air pollution reduction (Rojas-Rueda et al. 2011).

Household sector
Nowadays, household air pollution is attributed to the residential use of the solid fuels from cooking activities (Stabile et al. 2014)
and space heating systems (Stabile et al. 2018), leading a significant hazard for the health of exposed populations (Gao et al. 2018).
Accordingly, actions to reduce energy use by households and buildings are essential because of their great contribution to gas
emissions (Datta et al. 2017). One of the appropriate strategies is the improvement of combustion efficiency of solid household fuels
(Venkataraman et al. 2010). Generally, traditional fuels have low combustion efficiency producing accordingly large amounts of
products due to incomplete combustion, with consequences for both environment and human health.

Nevertheless, more stringent regulations are required to guarantee high-quality biomass fuels and safer combustion technologies
(Marchetti et al. 2019). On their side, each citizen has to adopt some behavior actions to reduce energy consumption and emissions
deriving from home heating. Another essential structural adaptation is the introduction of new technologies to reduce energy use in
new buildings (Ruparathna et al. 2017). Porritt et al. (2012) showed how limited changes in building are able to eliminate overheating
during heat wave periods and reduce space energy use for internal climatization, such as external wall insulation, solar reflective
coatings (external shutters), and painting of the outer walls in lighter colors (Porritt et al. 2011) (Porritt et al. 2012). Furthermore,
green roof technologies can help to reduce local outdoor temperatures and improve the appropriate cooling inside buildings (Harlan
and Ruddell 2011).

Aeration
Despite efforts to reduce particle emissions deriving from outdoor activities, most of air pollution is related to indoor micro-
environment (Buonanno et al. 2017). The air quality inside buildings is affected by the air circulation, the construction materials,
the use of cleaning products, and the habits of occupants (smoking). A vast range of pollutants can concentrate in indoor
environments produced by individual activities in addition to outdoor concentrations (Settimo 2015). As a consequence, air
exchange with particle filters, ventilating (Debnath et al. 2017), and air-conditioning systems are a distinct way of reducing air
pollution in indoor spaces, like homes or shared communities (offices, schools, hospitals, sport facilities, restaurants, cinemas, and
public transport) (Kwong et al. 2019). Among public buildings, school is one of the worrisome indoor environments since children
represent a susceptible population to air pollution due to their age (Mainka et al. 2015). i

Healthy diet
Beyond mitigation strategies to reduce air pollution, each citizen can adopt some eating habits that can influence own health status
(Biesbroek et al. 2014). It was well demonstrated that the increased intake of antioxidants in foods could hinder and reduce the
adverse effects of atmospheric pollution (Kelly et al. 2003). Precisely, the antioxidants are substances able to neutralize free radicals
generated by some air pollutants (ozone and nitrogen dioxide). In this way, injury to respiratory tract like asthma can be avoided
after their oxidant exposure (Romieu et al. 2002). Therefore, it is necessary to reduce the consumption of food deriving from animal
source by promoting a healthy diet with higher consumption of fruit and vegetables.
Industrial sector
Even today, the primary source of energy are fossil fuels, responsible for the production of some pollutants notably particulate
matter (PM) (Salehi et al. 2015), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and sulfur oxides (SOx) (Chao 2008). The reduction of power generation
from fossil fuel sources (coal, oil, gas) imply health benefits by reducing local air pollutants, especially micronic and submicronic
particles (Karka et al. 2017). Recently, several initiatives to replace fossil fuels with alternative renewable fuels have been taken
into consideration (Ribeiro et al. 2015). Among the various technologies for energy production from renewable sources, the biomass
combustion can represent a valid alternative technology of fossil fuels (Sripada et al. 2017) (Giuliano et al. 2018a). Shrestha and
Shakya (2012) showed that the implementation of the cost minimization energy system MARKAL, based on the market allocation
framework, reduces the local pollutant emissions, improving the efficiency of the national overall energy consumption. This strategy
includes energy supply, conversion and process technology, end-use service demand, and environmental emissions promoting the
use of renewable energy resources (Shrestha and Shakya 2012). In this way, cities will have benefits if they will move toward low
carbon technologies (Ren et al. 2012).
Finally, the change in average working hours in a very efficient way that could have a good impact on consumption and related
environmental pressure (Bergh et al. 2011).

Agriculture and food sector

The majority of fine particulate originates not only from combustion processes in traffic, power plants, industry, and household
energy use but also from sources related to agriculture (Martins et al. 2015). Optimization (Zhao et al. 2017). In fact, the NH3
emission levels depend on the animal typology, with higher amounts for beef and sheep, and a lower amount for pigs and poultry.
Four strategies are identified in this study to reduce NH3 by focusing mainly on livestock:

1. Improvement in livestock farming efficiency: The livestock farming efficiency can be improved by supporting local farmers’
markets and community gardens, in order to reduce the traveled distances of transported goods. Agriculture and land use
increases the demand for deforestation, increasing the levels of atmospheric CO2 produced promoting climate change (Younger
et al. 2008).

2. Manure management optimization: Besides NH3 emission, livestock manure contributes to other substances, mainly methane
(CH4) and Nitrous oxide (N2O). These emissions derive from various phases in the use of manure ranging from the handling
and storage to the application as a fertilizer to soils (Mohankumar et al. 2017). Some abatement options need to be developed
like lowering the dietary crude protein content, external slurry storage via acidification, frequent removal of manure, and covers
of straw or artificial films (Mohankumar et al. 2017) (Hou et al. 2015).

3. Reduction in the use of fossil fuels: Another revolution in agricultural sector concerns the reduction of dependence on non-
renewable energy. Oil is also used to produce nitrogenous fertilizers (McMichael et al. 2007).

4. Reduction in the production and consumption of foods from animal sources: It is necessary to promote more healthy diets with
low consumption of foods from animal sources (Friel et al. 2009).

Shipping sector
Nowadays, the shipping sector provides low-cost and reliable delivery services in the economic field (Arunachalam et al. 2015).
Nevertheless, shipping-related activities have a considerable impact on air pollution, especially in coastal areas but also globally
(Buccolieri et al. 2016). The primary air pollutants are PM, VOCs, NOx, O3, SO2, and CO (Bailey and Solomon 2004). As a
consequence, a wide range of options toward “greener” seaports is needed (Bailey and Solomon 2004). Some of these measures are
easy to adopt such as the regulation of fuel quality (by using low-sulfur alternative fuels), the speed reduction (Lack et al. 2011),
and the use of alternative transportation equipment (Lai et al. 2011).

New regulations
Air quality management policies have to fix new air quality standards that maximize overall population benefits, reduce illness
related to air pollution and gas emissions from industrial, urban, or domestic activities (Fann et al. 2011). It is essential to identify
effective structural and exceptional measures throughout the national territory.

Advisory and prevention

Frequently, acting with mitigation strategies after critical levels of pollution does not solve the pollution emergency. For this reason,
it is necessary to move toward a “preventive approach to the emergency” by promoting effective measures before reaching critical
levels of pollution (Bandyopadhyay et al. 2014). In this context, the authorities should support new technologies for air pollution
monitoring (Mishra et al. 2015). Air pollution monitoring networks offer the possibility to measure the spatiotemporal distribution
of air pollution in the urban environment for the health and safety of citizens (Singla et al. 2018) (Sofia et al. 2018a). For example,
sensor networks offer the potential to focus on air pollution monitoring reflecting high spatial and temporal variability in pollutant
levels (Knox et al. 2013) (Sofia et al. 2018b). In this way, if a particular pollutant exceeds the target limit, efficient strategies should
be adopted to mitigate the air pollution issue and find the pollution sources. Furthermore, air quality prediction models are another
way to make a rational decision by political leaders (Vicente et al. 2018). The combination of air quality monitoring and modeling
is a valid approach for regulatory purposes (Vlachokostas et al. 2011).
Urban planning
Rapid urbanization has involved significant challenges in urban areas with dramatic consequences in air quality. The primary source
of atmospheric pollution is vehicular traffic (Pospisil and Jicha 2017). The emissions from vehicles are different throughout the day
with a maximum concentration during the more congested hours (Kumar et al. 2016). Therefore, policymakers have to support the
implementation of strategies and actions aimed at reducing air pollution in urban areas while promoting economic growth and higher
quality of life (Vranckx et al. 2015). In this context, the concept of “smart city” has emerged as a way to respond to the inhabitants’
needs more efficiently and sustainability. In urban planning, smart mobility represents a crucial factor. Since a major part of pollutant
emissions in cities are due to traffic, an appropriate transport design in the urban area is needed (Cariolet et al. 2018). Political
leaders have to promote changes in travel behaviors by supporting public transport (Sellitto et al. 2015) and the sharing of mobility.
The strong inclination toward traffic congestion reduction promoted by policymakers is not always conformed to health promotion.
Appropriate safety interventions must be proposed to have health benefits, especially for cyclists and pedestrians (Rojas-Rueda et
al. 2016).

In addition, the reduction in private cars use promotes the increase in public space for vegetation and retail goals. Roadside
vegetation barriers can be a potential mitigation strategy for near-road air pollution (Isakov et al. 2017). In their work, Tong et al.
(2016) demonstrated that a wide vegetation barrier combined with a solid barrier reduces pollutant concentrations significantly
(Tong et al. 2016). Urban vegetation impacts our ecosystem positively by filtrating airborne particulate matter, providing a scenic
public landscape and reducing flooding consequences (Al-thani et al. 2018).

Promotion of hybrid vehicles

It is well known that vehicle emissions (NOx, HC, O3, VOC, CO, and PM) contribute to air pollution (Wu et al. 2017). In this
scenario, besides the implementation of increasingly stringent standards for vehicle emissions, the most effective policy is the
promotion of the zero-emission vehicle (Perez et al. 2015). In particular, by using alternative fuels, respect to the traditional fossil
ones, like electricity, bio-fuels, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), natural gas (CHG, LNG), and, methane, this kind of cars can produce
lower concentrations of pollutants (Qiu et al. 2016).
With the rapid industrialization, the hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) technology is a valid alternative to the fuel prices rising and to
satisfy the more effective environmental policies (Xia et al. 2015) (Sabri et al. 2016). The combination to active travel with zero-
emission vehicles can reduce the cases of ischemic heart disease (Woodcock et al. 2009). The government has to make a series of
laws aimed at encouraging electric mobility such as tax incentives and lower prices for usage or parking (Leurent and Windisch
2011).

Conclusion:
Human activities like the burning of fossil fuels, coal combustion, and the smoke from exhausts of automobiles release toxic gases
which react in the atmosphere and give rise to secondary pollutants. All these pollutants collectively contribute to smog. Each year
rise in respiratory disease is related to smog episodes. Moreover, cardiovascular diseases, neurological disorders, underdevelopment
of fetuses, and cancer are the major diseases that are related to smog pollution. In conclusion, smog, a hazardous mixture of air
pollutants including smoke and fog, poses significant threats to human health and the environment, causing respiratory issues,
reduced visibility, and damage to ecosystems, highlighting the urgent need for stricter emission regulations and sustainable practices
to mitigate its harmful effects virus would have an additive effect on the respiratory and cardiovascular systems of the human. From.
They share an ambiguous relation. For a better future, anthropogenic emissions need to be controlled because vaccines are effective
against pandemics and not against air pollution.
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