Supplementary Reading on Project Management for the Course M.

AETM 72013 – Results-based Project Management & Evaluation

Part 5
Project Quality Management • Relevance - the characteristic of how a product or
service meets the actual needs of the beneficiaries, it
Quality has been defined as "the totality of characteristics should be pertinent, applicable, and appropriate to its
of an entity that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or intended use or application.
implied needs." The central focus of quality management
is meeting or exceeding stakeholder’s expectations and • Timeliness - how the product or service is delivered in
conforming to the project design and specifications. time to solve the problems when its needed and not after,
this is a crucial characteristic for health and emergency
Project Quality Management consists of four main relief work.
processes:
• Suitability - defines the fitness of its use, it
• Plan - Quality Definition and metrics or Indicators appropriateness and correctness, the agriculture
• Do - Quality Assurance, building quality in all equipment must be designed to operate on the soul
processes conditions the beneficiaries will use it on.
• Check - Quality Control and quality audits
• Adapt - Quality Improvements and changes to • Completeness - the quality that the service is complete
plans and includes all the entire scope of services. Training
sessions should be complete and include all the material
Inputs: Inputs for the project quality management include needed to build a desired skill or knowledge.
the following documents or sources of information: WBS,
Scope Statement, Quality Standards, Requirements of • Consistency - services are delivered in the same way
beneficiaries, Donor requirements. for every beneficiary.

Outputs: The project team will use the above information Quality Assurance and Quality Control
to develop three important documents for the project:
Quality Standards, Quality Control Plan, Quality Variance Quality Control is done at the end of a process or
Report activity to verify that quality standards have been met.
QC by itself does not provide quality, although it may
Quality characteristics identify problems and suggest ways to improving it.

These relate to the attributes, measures and methods Quality Assurance is a systematic approach to
attached to that particular product or service such as: achieving quality standards. QA is something that must
be planned from the earliest stages of a project, with
Functionality - is the degree, by which equipment appropriate measures taken at every stage.
performs its intended function, this is important especially Unfortunately, far too many development projects are
for clinical equipment that should function as expected. implemented with no quality assurance plan, and these
projects often fail to meet quality expectations of the
• Performance - how well a product or service performs donor and beneficiaries. To avoid these types of
according to the beneficiaries intended use. A water problems the project must be able to demonstrate the
system should be designed to support extreme consistent compliance with the quality requirements for
conditions and require little maintenance to reduce the the project.
cost to the community and increase its sustainability.
Quality Control Tools
• Reliability - the ability of the service or product to
perform as intended under normal conditions without Cause and Effect Diagram
unacceptable failures. Material used for blood testing
should be able to provide the information in a consistent This is also named as Fishbone Diagram because of
and dependable manner that will help identify critical their fish-like appearance, it is an analysis tool that
diseases. The diagnosis and treatment will depends on provides a systematic way of looking at effects and the
the quality of the tests. causes that create or contribute to those effects.
(C) Prof. Udith K. Jayasinghe-Mudalige, Dept. of Agribusiness Management, Faculty of Agriculture & Plantation Management, Wayamba University of Sri Lanka 2012 Page 1
 Supplementary Reading on Project Management for the Course M.AETM 72013 – Results-based Project Management & Evaluation

Figure 5.1 – Fishbone diagram

Pareto Charts

This is based on Pareto’s rule, which states that 80

percent of the problems are often due to 20 percent of
the causes. The assumption is that most of the results in
any situation are determined by a small number of
causes and helps identify the vital few contributors that
account for most quality problems. The chart is a form of
histogram that orders the data by frequency of
occurrence; it shows how many defects were generated
by a type of category of identified cause.

Figure 5.2 – Parato Chart

Control Charts

A graphical display of data that illustrates the results of a

process over time, the purpose of a control chart is to
prevent defects, rather than detect them or reject them,
the chart helps determine whether a process is in control
or out of control over a specified length of time. Control
charts are often used to monitor the production of large
quantities of products, but can also be used to monitor
the volume and frequency of errors in documents, cost
and schedule variances and other items related to project
quality management.

Figure 5.3 – Control Charts

(C) Prof. Udith K. Jayasinghe-Mudalige, Dept. of Agribusiness Management, Faculty of Agriculture & Plantation Management, Wayamba University of Sri Lanka 2012 Page 2
 Supplementary Reading on Project Management for the Course M.AETM 72013 – Results-based Project Management & Evaluation

RACI Chart (stands for Responsible, Accountable,

Part 6 Consult and Inform) - technique used to ensure that
Project Team Management responsibility and accountability is placed with the person
who really can be accountable for specific work. Often
Project team management includes the processes this results in accountabilities for actions being moved
required to make the most effective use of the people down to the most appropriate level.
involved with the project. The project team includes the
project manager and the project staff who have been Responsible (R) - the person who will complete the
assigned with the responsibility to work on the project. task or activity; responsible for any action or
Development projects, due to its complex nature, require implementation; responsibility can be shared and the
a diverse mix of individuals who must be integrated into degree of responsibility is determined by the
an effective project team; and this should not be individual who is accountable.
confused with bringing together a group of individuals to
work on the team. The difference between a group and a Accountable (A) - the person who is ultimately
team is on how their level of work dynamics has an answerable for the activity or decision; includes
impact in the overall project performance. Gathering a authority and veto power; only one person can be
number of individuals together in a group is the easy part; assigned as accountable to an activity or project.
but it requires the use of special skills, new attitudes and
a strong commitment to turn those individuals into an Consult (C) - an individual(s) (typically subject
effective team. matter experts) that can be consulted prior to a final
decision or action; a two-way communication in
Team Identification which input from the consulting role is required.

Skills identification - information on the skills needed Inform (I) – an individual(s) who needs to be
for the project comes from the WBS and the activity informed after a decision or action is taken; may be
definition document, the project manager develops a list required to take action as a result of the outcome; a
of the skills required. one-way communication.

Organization chart - identify the structure that the Figure 6.1 – RACI Chart
project will use to manage the project team. The chart
helps identify the reporting relationship among the project
team members. Team Building

Team Assignment Schedule (TAS) - facilitates the A project team does not happen by accident it is not
identification of who does when, by providing information enough to recruit people and assign them to a project. A
on the project activities; it shows when each activity team needs to be developed from the first day. Failure to
occurs and who is responsible for it. do that may result in a team that acts more like a group
of people than a team.
Team Allocation Matrix - can identify the resources that
are working above 40 hours per week, and were some Team building is the process of transforming a group of
resources are not being fully used. people who have different interests, expertise and
backgrounds into an effective and integrated work unit.
Job description
Team recruitment Building a project team is essentially a process of
Team induction change; where the skills of the team and the goals of the
project are merged transforming the group into an
Responsibility Assignment Matrix - a matrix that maps effective team whose total outputs are larger than the
project work as described in the WBS to the people individual contributions.
responsible for performing the work.

(C) Prof. Udith K. Jayasinghe-Mudalige, Dept. of Agribusiness Management, Faculty of Agriculture & Plantation Management, Wayamba University of Sri Lanka 2012 Page 3
 Supplementary Reading on Project Management for the Course M.AETM 72013 – Results-based Project Management & Evaluation

The purpose of building a team is to create teamwork, in attendance, conduct during meetings, confidentiality with
which individual interests are subordinated to the unity personal information, respect to the team and the
and efficiency of the project in a coordinated effort. individuals.

In the process of changing a group of people into a team, • Keep Open Communication Channels: the project
the project manager plays an active role as change agent manager needs to maintain a practice to keep open
and uses behavioral skills to overcome resistance to channels of communication with the team and among the
change. The project manager must first recognize that team, there is nothing that lowers the trust of a team
change is inevitable and unavoidable, and the focus must when there is no open communication channels, the
be placed on developing appropriate team management team should feel that all information regarding and
strategies to convert resistance to change into an affecting the team is open for the team to discuss.
opportunity. Teamwork can provide a useful way to
involve team members in any change program and to • Reward and Recognize Teamwork: take advantage of
increase collaborative and supportive behavior. the power of positive feedback, recognition, and reward.
Be alert to opportunities to reward the new team
The effective management of the most valuable asset behavior, that sends a good signal to the team as to what
and resource in a project can be achieved if the project is recognized as team work.
manager has the ability to use communication,
teamwork, and leadership, to build an effective team and Team Development
the ability to integrate the efforts of a diverse group of
individuals with different needs, backgrounds and The four stages describe the changes a team goes as it
expertise. develops more maturity, ability and stronger
relationships, the project manager can then change its
The performance of the project manager is dependent on leadership style; starting from a directing style, moving
the results the project team is able to achieve. As the mix through coaching, then participating, and finishing with
of skills, cultural diversity, and background increases the delegating.
challenges to manage a project team increase as well.
The project manager needs to give special attention to • Forming: is the first stage of team development and
the quality of the interpersonal skills and team dynamics one filled with a mix of anxiety, high expectations and
within the project team to understand and influence its ambiguity as the new members don’t have yet a clear
productivity in a project environment. definition of exactly what work the team will be involved.
The team individual roles and responsibilities are unclear
Some simple and practical steps to start building a and the level of trust is still low, building awareness and
project team: providing orientation are dominant themes in this stage
as members focus their efforts on defining goals and
• Build Enthusiasm: one way to build enthusiasm is to developing procedures to perform their tasks.
create a set of simple tasks that provide a challenge, but
have achievable goals that the team can use to work The project manager must be prepared to answer
together. Make sure that responsibility is delegated to the questions about the team's purpose, objectives and
team and not the individuals. The aspects of increased internal and external relationships. This stage may last
efficiency, productivity, and collaboration need to be until the team has had a chance to learn more about the
highlighted since this will establish the criteria for project and have a clear understanding of their roles. At
success. Achieving this simple goal can provide the team this stage there may be discussions about how the team
with enthusiasm and better understanding of what is will work, and how the working relationships will be
expected of them as a team. established, this can be frustrating for some members
who simply want to get on with the tasks and activities.
• Establish Clear Conduct Rules: teams need rules of
conduct to help them achieve their purpose and • Storming: the approach by which the project will do its
performance goals. These rules should be established as work begins to be defined, and some team members may
earlier as possible to let the team get used to them and feel overwhelmed by the amount of work they need to do,
allow some time to clarify the rules. Some rules include or in disagreement with the approach being used. Some

(C) Prof. Udith K. Jayasinghe-Mudalige, Dept. of Agribusiness Management, Faculty of Agriculture & Plantation Management, Wayamba University of Sri Lanka 2012 Page 4
 Supplementary Reading on Project Management for the Course M.AETM 72013 – Results-based Project Management & Evaluation

team members may star reacting to their roles and may manager must possess and it is one that must be earned.
be express frustration resistance in taking on the tasks. A project manager is not a team supervisor, but a team
leader.
This is a critical stage where many teams fail, if the
tensions or disagreements are not resolved, the project Every team needs a leader and the leader’s ability is
runs the risk of taking a team that is not cohesive and reflected in how he/she is able to convert a group of
may create bitterness and resentment. The project people working together into a team committed to each
manager should not assume the tensions will go away, in other and to the project goals. A high performance team
this stage, conflict is inevitable and should be embraced is characterized by their deep commitment to each
in a productive manner and should be handled other's success, and that can be reflected in their ability
appropriately. to share many of the management functions such as
planning, organizing, setting performance goals,
• Norming: is the third stage and the team members assessing the team's performance, developing their own
know each other better, they may be socializing together, strategies to manage change and coordinating their own
and they are able to ask each other for help and provide work.
constructive criticism. The team is developing a strong
commitment to the team goal, and they start to see their There are various leadership styles that can be employed
contribution towards it. In this stage the project hierarchy dependent on the culture of the organization, the nature
is clearer and team members start assuming their roles of the project, the nature of the team and the personality
and responsibilities and most critical conflicts have been and skills of the leaders. The management style is
resolved. dependent upon the prevailing circumstance; project
managers should exercise a range of management styles
The team begins to see the project manager with to and should deploy them as appropriate.
respect and authority as their leader, while others start to
show leadership in their specific areas. The team starts • Directing: at the very start of the project the team
to show a new behavior based on empathy, concern and needs a leadership style that helps manage the initial
team cohesion. There is a strong sense of shared anxieties, tension or confusion between the goals of the
responsibility and mutual cooperation among the project project and the role of the team and its responsibilities.
team. During this stage, the team begins to get organized During this time the project manager’s style is directive to
and follows the established procedures; project issues provide a course of action and in some instances make
are confronted and resolved, and team skills are us of its authority to assign tasks and activities. The level
developed. of interpersonal relationship and trust on each other is
low. Objectives and tasks are set and the team is
• Performing: the last stage of team development is expected to do exactly as required. The communication
characterized by a shared vision of the project goal and a involved with this style is mainly downward, from the
common understanding of the roles and responsibilities project manager to the team member.
of all team members. The team has a high level of mutual
trust and provides care and support for each other which • Coaching: as the project team makes progress and its
increase the overall performance of the team. level of understanding progresses, the team feels more
confident about its role and the objectives of the project.
The project manager is able to start delegating much of In this phase the leadership style is one of coaching, the
the work and can concentrate on developing team project manager and the team start building stronger
members. The team assumes accountability for their relationships based on mutual trust.
duties, provide ideas to improve their work support each
other and achieve a higher level of performance. • Participating: the leader now can use the relationship
and trust with the team and start delegating authority and
Team Leadership responsibility; there is an increased participation of the
team in management decisions. The team doesn’t need
Leadership can defined as the ability to influence the directions and know enough and feels confident and
project team so as to help achieve the goals of the motivated enough to do the work.
project. Leadership is one the critical skills a project
(C) Prof. Udith K. Jayasinghe-Mudalige, Dept. of Agribusiness Management, Faculty of Agriculture & Plantation Management, Wayamba University of Sri Lanka 2012 Page 5
 Supplementary Reading on Project Management for the Course M.AETM 72013 – Results-based Project Management & Evaluation

• Delegating: in this stage the team is confident about its This refers to the refusal to deal with the conflict, or
ability and is trusted to carry the work with minimal ignoring conflict as much as possible; can be useful
supervision, most work has been delegated and the team sometimes when there is a need for additional time to
performs and self adapts. The project manager monitors gain better understanding of the conflict, or is used as a
the performance of the team and assumes a full way to avoid making a difficult decision in the hope that
leadership role. the cause of the conflict will just go away or take care of
itself; should not be used if the conflict deals with an
Team Performance issue that is of immediate concern or is important to the
successful completion of the project.
There are 4 steps for creating a Team Performance
Evaluation Plan: Accommodating

1. Identify performance expectations This involves avoiding points of disagreement while

emphasizing areas of agreement; appropriate to initiate a
2. Develop a standard evaluation form. positive start and avoid any increase in the conflict; tends
to keep peace only in the short term but it fails to provide
3. Develop feedback guidelines a permanent long-term solution to the underlying conflict;
used as a method to slow down the situation and keep it
4. Set an evaluation schedule from getting worse and build on the areas of agreement;
just like avoiding, if the conflict is not handled and
Managing Conflict resolved in a timely manner it will likely lead to more
severe and intense conflict in the future.
Types of conflicts:
Collaborating
1. Structural conflicts - deal with power, priorities,
objectives, resources and politics. A technique that involves incorporating multiple ideas
and viewpoints from people with different perspectives, it
2. Technical Conflicts - are differences in technical is used when a project situation is too important to be
approaches, opinions, methodologies and procedures. compromised, or delayed; the parties involved work to
find alternative solutions and the best solution is found in
3. Personality Conflicts - arise mostly from behavioral, a way that would not have been generated by a single
social and cultural differences. individual; active collaboration by both parties in
contributing to the resolution makes it easier to get their
Conflict Resolution Models: consensus and commitment; is not very effective when
more than a few players are involved and their viewpoints
are mutually exclusive; requires time and effort.
Forcing
Compromising
This involves imposing a decision and makes use of the
formal authority vested in the project manager; mostly
A method to find a balance by offering something in
used when time is of the essence, and resolving the
return; involves using negotiations and searching for
issue is vital to the well-being of the project; may use it if
solutions that bring some degree of satisfaction to both
they need to take the decision in order to move things
parties involved in the conflict; neither party wins, but
forward; is appropriate when quick decisions are required
both get some degree of satisfaction out of the situation;
or when non-negotiable issues such as budget cuts or
temporarily, both parties may feel hurt because they had
staff changes are essential in a project; usually resolves
to give up something that was important to them, but
the conflict quickly, but it leaves hard feelings among the
compromising usually provides acceptable solutions;
people involved to accept the decision; this approach
sometimes, important aspects of the project might be
should be used only as a last resort.
compromised in order to achieve personal objectives;
can also be used as a temporary solution when there are
Avoiding
time constraints.

(C) Prof. Udith K. Jayasinghe-Mudalige, Dept. of Agribusiness Management, Faculty of Agriculture & Plantation Management, Wayamba University of Sri Lanka 2012 Page 6