Chapter 1 – Characteristics and classification of living organisms:

Characteristics of living organisms:

1 – Growth: permanent increase in size and dry mass.
(To measure the growth, an organism is killed and dried, then the mass of the
body without water is found (dry mass). After a particular period, the dry mass of
another organism is found. This is repeated with several organisms.)
2 – Movement: an action that causes a change in position of place.
3 – Sensitivity: Ability to detect changes in the internal and external environment
and react to them.
4 – Excretion: Organisms produce toxic waste products that must be removed
from the body.
5 – Reproduction: Making new organisms of the same species as themselves.
6 – Nutrition: taking substances from their environment and using them to
provide every or materials to make new cells.
7 – Respiration: The break down of glucose and other substances to release
energy.

The biological classification system:

Common ancestor: A species that lives in the past and is thought to have given
rise to several different species alive today.
Species: A group of organisms that can reproduce to produce fertile offspring.
Genus: A group of species that share similar features and a common ancestor.
Binomial system: A system on naming species that is internationally agreed,
made up of two parts showing the genus (capital letter) and the species.

Dichotomous key: A way of identifying an organism, by working through pairs of

statements that lead you to its name.

Kingdoms:
One of the major groups into which all organisms are classified.
The animal Kingdom:
- Their cells have a nucleus but no cell walls or chloroplasts.
- They feed on organic substances (substances whose molecules contain
carbon) made by other living organisms.
The plant kingdom:
 - Their cells have a nucleus and cell walls made of cellulose (a carbohydrate
that forms long fibres) and they often contain chloroplasts (Common green
colour)
- They feed by photosynthesis.
- May have roots, stems, and leaves.
The fungus kingdom:
-

- The main body of most fungi Is made up of microscopic threads called

hyphae, made of cells linked in a long line.
- They feed saprophytically or parasitically on organic materials.
- Most fungi are decomposers (organisms that break down organic
substances outside their bodies, releasing nutrients from them that other
organisms can use.)
- The reproduce by forming spores (very small groups of cells surrounded by
a protective wall)
- Usually multicellular but sometimes unicellular.
- They have nuclei and cell walls, but the walls are not made of cellulose.
The protoctist kingdom:
- They can be multicellular (like seaweed) or unicellular.
- Their cells have a nucleus and may or may not have a cell wall and
chloroplasts.
- Some feed by photosynthesis, and others feed on organic substances.
The prokaryote kingdom:
- Bacterial cell:

- Usually, unicellular.
- No nucleus.
- They have cell walls, not made of cellulose.
- No mitochondria.
- They have a circular loop of DNA, free in the cytoplasm.
 - Often have plasmids.

Groups within the animal kingdom:

Vertebrates and arthropods:
Vertebrates: animals that have backbones. These include fish, amphibians,
reptiles, birds, and mammals.
Fish:
- Vertebrates with scaly skin.
- Have gills throughout their lives.
- Have fins to help them swim.
- Their eggs have no shells and are laid in water.
- They have streamlined bodies.
- They all live in water, apart from a few species that can come onto land for
short periods of time.
Amphibians:
- Vertebrates with smooth skin (no scales).
- Their eggs have no shells and are laid in water.
- Tadpoles live in water, but adults often live on land.
- Tadpoles have gills for gas exchange, but adults have lungs.
- Tadpoles spend the first part of their lives living in water, before they
undergo metamorphosis (changing from larvae with one body form to
adults with a different body form).
Reptiles:
- Vertebrates with scaly skin
- Lay eggs with soft shells, on land.
Birds:
- Have feathers (and sometimes a few scales)
- Have a beak.
- Their front two limbs are wings, though not all can fly.
- Lay eggs with hard shells.
Mammals:
- Some features are shared with birds, like controlling body temperature and
having four chambered hearts.
- They have hair on their skin.
- Their young develop in a uterus, attached to the mother by a placenta
(and organ that connects the growing fetus to its mother.)
 - Females have mammary glands, producing milk to feed their young.
- Different kinds of teeth.
- They have a pinna (ear flap) outside of their body.
- Sweat glands in the skin.
- They have a diaphragm.

Arthropods: animals with jointed legs, but no backbone.

Arthropods are a successful group because they have a waterproof exoskeleton
that supports their bodies and prevents them from drying out.
They all have several pairs of jointed legs, and an exoskeleton.
The groups of arthropods are insects, crustaceans, arachnids, and myriapods.
Insects:
- Terrestrial
- Arthropods with three pairs of jointed legs.
- They have two pairs of wings (one or tow may be vestigial, as in evolved
to become so small they are no longer useful)
- They breathe through tubes called tracheae.
- Their body is divided into a head, thorax, and abdomen.
- They have one pair of antennae.
Crustaceans:
- Many are aquatic.
- Breathe through gills.
- More than four pairs of jointed legs.
- Two pairs of antennae.
Arachnids:
- Generally land-dwelling organisms.
- Four pairs of jointed legs.
- No antennae.
- Body is divided into two parts – a cephalothorax and abdomen.
Myriapods:
- Body consists of many similar segments.
- Each body segment has jointed legs.
- One pair of antennae.

Groups within the plant kingdom:

Ferns and flowering plants.
Ferns:
 - Most are very small, but some species are quite large.
- Plants with roots, stems, and leaves (fronds)
- Do not produce flowers.
- Reproduce by spores produced on the undersides of their fonds.
Flowering plants:
- Plats with roots, stems, and leaves.
- Reproduce using flowers and seeds.
- Seeds produced inside an ovary.
- Monocots or dicots.
Features of dicots:
- Seeds with two cotyledons.
- Usually have a main root with side roots.
- Leaves have a network of veins.
- Flower parts are in multiples of four or five.
- Vascular bundles in the stem, arranged in a ring.
Features on monocots:
- Seeds with one cotyledon.
- Roots grow out directly from the stem.
- Leaves have parallel veins.
- Flower parts in multiples of three.
- Vascular bundles in the stem are arranged randomly.

Viruses:
Viruses are not considered to be living organisms because they cannot do
anything other than just exist until they get inside a living cell. They then take
over the cell’s machinery to make multiple copies of themselves. New viruses
burst out of the cell and invade others, where the process is repeated, and the
host cell is usually killed in this process.
On their own, viruses cannot move, feed, excrete, show sensitivity, grow, or
reproduce.
Chapter 2 – cells:
Cells: the smallest unit from which all organisms are made of.
Microscopes:

A photograph taken using a light microscope is called a

To see smaller cell organelles, we use an electron microscope. Picture taken is
called an electron micrograph.

Organelles:
Cell membrane: A thin layer of protein and fat and is partially permeable. It
controls what enters and leaves the cell.
Cell wall: a tough layer outside the cell membrane made mainly of Cellulose. It is
found in the cells of plants, bacteria, and fungi. Cellulose belongs to a group of
substances called polysaccharides. Cellulose forms fibres which criss-cross over
one another to form a very strong covering to the cell. If the cell absorbs a lot of
water and swells, the cell wall stops it bursting. It is fully permeable.
Cytoplasm: Clear jelly, nearly all water. Contains dissolved substances and is the
site for metabolic reactions.
Vacuole: Plants have very large, permanent vacuoles, which contain a solution of
sugars and other substances called cell sap. When the vacuole is full, it presses
outwards on the rest of the cell, and helps it keep its shape. Plants have much
smaller vacuoles called vesicles.
Nucleus: Controls cell activity and contains genetic material.
Chloroplasts: They contain the green colouring or pigment called chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll absorbs energy from sunlight. Chloroplasts often contain starch
grains made by photosynthesis.
Mitochondria: Can only be seen using an electron microscope. Where aerobic
respiration takes place to produce energy for the cell.
Ribosomes: Can only be seen using an electron microscope. Where the cell
makes protein.

Bacterial cells:
- Unicellular organisms.
- Have call wall (not made of cellulose), cell membrane, cytoplasm, and
ribosomes.
- Do not have mitochondria or chloroplasts.
- Known as prokaryotic cells, due to appearing on earth before nucleic cells
existed.
- Instead of chromosomes, they have a circle of DNA. They often also have
one or more smaller circles of DNA, called plasmids.

Size of specimen:
Size of image = magnification x size of actual object

Chapter 3 – Movement into and out of cells:

Osmosis and animal cells:
If an animal cell is placed in pure water, water enters the cell by osmosis. The
cell swells and bursts.
If an animal cell is placed in a concentrated solution, water leaves the cell by
osmosis. The cell shrinks.

Osmosis and plant cells:

If a plant cell is places in pure water, water enters the cell by osmosis. The cell
swells but does not burst because of the cell wall. This is called a turgid cell, and
the pressure of the water pushing outwards is called the turgor pressure. Boiling
a plant cell will break down the cell wall, causing it to burst.
If a plant cell is placed in a concentrated solution, water moves out of it by
osmosis. The cytoplasm and vacuole shrink, and the cell membrane pulls away
from the cell wall. This is called flaccid. When the cell membrane tears away
from the cell wall, the cell is said to be plasmolysed. Plasmolysis can kill a plant
cell, because the cell membrane is damaged as it tears away from the cell wall.

Chapter 4 – Biological molecules:

Carbohydrates:
- Made up of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen.
- Sugars are carbohydrates that have relatively small molecules; they are
soluble in water, and they taste sweet.
- Glucose is a type of sugar, used in respiration to release energy. Glucose
molecules can be linked together in chains, to form much larger
molecules. In animals, the large molecules that are formed are glycogen.
In plants, glucose molecules are linked together in s different way, to make
starch. Plants also make cellulose.
Tests:
Starch: Idoine solution ----- Brown to Blue black
Reducing sugar: Benedict’s solution ----- heat the test tubes in a water bath ----
Blue to brick red.

Lipids:
- Made of one glycerol and three fatty acids.
- Contain Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Test:
Shake the substance with ethanol, to dissolve any fats. Pour the solution into
some water. If an emulsion forms, lipids are present.

Proteins:
 - Protein molecules contain four elements – carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and
nitrogen. Some contain a small amount of sulphur.
- Made of a long chain of acids.
- Examples: Enzymes, antibodies, haemoglobin, and keratin.
Test:
Biuret reagent ---- blue to purple.

Chapter 5 – Enzymes:
Alimentary canal: the part of the digestive system through which food passes as
it moved from the mouth to the anus.
Types of enzymes:
Amylase = starch to maltose.
Protease = Protein to amino acids.
Catalase = hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen.
Carbohydrase = breaks down carbohydrates.
Lipase = breaks down Lipids.
Maltose = maltose to glucose.
Sucrase = breaks down sucrose.

Chapter 6 – Plant nutrition:

Plant nutrition:
- Photosynthesis is the process by which plants synthesise carbohydrates
from raw materials using energy from light.
Chlorophyll:
 - It can capture energy from sunlight. When it has done this, it immediately
passes the energy on to water molecules and carbon dioxide molecules.
Energy makes those substances react, producing a kind of carbohydrate
called glucose.
Photosynthesis reaction:
- Carbon dioxide + water –sunlight glucose + oxygen.
- 6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2
How a plant uses carbohydrates:
1 – Releasing useful energy: Glucose is used by the plant to provide energy for
various activities that its cells need to undertake. Energy is released from
glucose by respiration.
2 – Storing, to use later: Plants make much more glucose than they need to use
for energy immediately. They store it by turning it into starch. Starch is insoluble
in water, so it doesn’t get involved in the chemical reactions taking place inside
the plant cells, and it does not affect the concentration of the solutions inside the
cell, so it doesn’t cause water to enter or leave by osmosis.
3 - Making sucrose, for transport: Plants can only make glucose in the parts that
contain chlorophyll, which usually means the leaves. All the other parts of the
plant have glucose delivered to them. Plants first change it into a sugar with
larger molecules, called sucrose. The sucrose is carried from one part of the plant
to another inside phloem tubes.
4 – Making cellulose, to build new cell walls: As plants grow, they make new cells.
Cellulose is made by linking glucose molecules in long chains, in a different way
from starch, sot he chains stay straight rather than coiling up into spirals.
5 – Making nectar, to attract pollinators: Many plants reproduce sexually,
producing male and female gametes in flowers. They rely on insects, bats, or
birds to carry them, inside pollen grains, from one flower to another. Animals are
attracted to the flower by its nectar, that they feed on. The nectar contains
different kinds of sugar, all made from the glucose that the plant has made by
photosynthesis.
6 – Making amino acids for proteins: Proteins contains Carbon, Oxygen,
Hydrogen, and Nitrogen. Glucose has the first three elements, so it only needs to
be combined with nitrogen to make amino acids. Nitrogen is taken from the soil
in the form of nitrate ions.
7 – Making chlorophyll and other substances: Glucose cis also used to make
chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is NOT a protein but it contains nitrogen and magnesium.
If a plant doesn’t have nitrogen or magnesium, the leaves turn yellow, and the
plant will become weak. It also will not be able to photosynthesise well, therefore
it will not grow properly.

Leaves:
Structure of a leaf:
 - Inside the leaf stalk are collections of parallel tubes called vascular
bundles, which also form the veins in the leaf. Vascular bundles carry
substances to and from the leaf.
- Chlorophyll is spread out on membranes, so that a lot of sunlight can
reach it.
- Most – but not all – leaves have a very large surface area to allow large
amounts of sunlight to fall onto the leaf, and to increase the rate at which
carbon dioxide can diffuse into the leaf from the air.
- Being thin means that sunlight can pass through the leaf, allowing many
cells inside it to photosynthesise, also helping carbon dioxide to reach all
the cells quickly by diffusion.
- Water is brought to the leaf from the soil in xylem vessels, that run in the
vascular bundles.

Tissues in a leaf:

On the top of the leaf is the upper epidermis. Cells are packed tightly together, to
reduce the quantity of water vapour escaping from the leaf. They do not contain
chloroplasts, and secrete a waxy substance which forms a thin, transparent,
waterproof covering called the cuticle.
The next layer is the palisade mesophyll. Made up of tall, narrow cells, containing
large numbers of chloroplasts. Their main function is photosynthesis. They are
close to the top of the leaf, so they get plenty sunlight. The transparent
epidermis cells above them let light through easily.
Beneath the palisade mesophyll is the spongy mesophyll. The cells in this tissue
also contain chloroplasts, but not as many. There are air spaces between them to
allow carbon dioxide and oxygen to diffuse between the air and the cells in the
leaf. The spaces also allow vapour to move from the surface of the cells to the
outside of the leaf.
The bottom of the leaf is covered by a tissue like the upper epidermis, called the
lower epidermis, called the lower epidermis. On some leaves, this tissue makes a
cuticle, but usually it does not. This is because the underside of the leaf does not
often have sunlight falling onto it, so it does not get as hot and therefore does
not as much water vapour. Openings in the lower epidermis called stomata. Each
stoma is surrounded by a pair of guard cells. The guard cells contain chloroplasts
and can change their shape to open and close the stoma, allowing diffusion.

Factors affecting photosynthesis:

1- Supply of raw materials
2- Quantity of sunlight
3- Temperature (enzyme activity)
Limiting factors:
A factor that is short in supply which stops an activity happening at a faster rate.

Chapter 7 – Human nutrition:

Diet:
1 – Carbohydrates
2 – Proteins
3 – Fats
4 – Vitamins
5 – Minerals
6 – Water

Vitamins:
Organic substances needed in small amounts:
C – needed to make the stretchy protein collagen – deficiency causes scurvy.
D – helps calcium get absorbed – deficiency causes rickets.

The human digestive system:

1 – Ingestion: taking food into the mouth.
2 – Digestion: Breaking down large pieces and molecules into smaller ones.
3 – Absorption: Movement of nutrients and mineral ions through the walls of the
small intestines and into the blood.
4 – Assimilation: Absorption by individual cells, to use for energy or to make new
substances.
5 – Egestion: Passes out as faeces.
Teeth:

Enzymes in the human digestive system:

Amylase: breaks down starch to maltose.
Maltase: Breaks down maltose to glucose (secreted by epithelium cells lining the
small intestine)
Protease:
- Pepsin (pH 2, secreted from stomach walls, in a liquid called gastric juice)
 - Trypsin (Produced in the pancreas and works in the duodenum. Optimum
pH is a little above 7, the acidic substances from the stomach are
neutralised by bile and pancreatic juices.)
Bile also emulsifies fats. Emulsification is physical digestion.

Villi:
Blood capillaries from villi link up to join the hepatic portal vein, leading to the
liver.

Chapter 8 – Transport in plants:

The xylem and Phloem:
Xylem: transports water and minerals from the roots to the stem and leaves.
Phloem: Transports food materials made by the plant from photosynthesising
regions to non-photosynthesising regions.
Arranged throughout the root, stem, and leaves in vascular bundles.

(Xylem is always on the inside, and phloem on the outside.)

Xylem cells lose their top and bottom walls to form a continuous tube through
which water moves through. The walls are thickened with lignin to help support
the plant. Cells are dead, with no content for the free passage of water.

Transpiration:
Loss of water vapour from plant leaves by evaporation of water at the surfaces of
the mesophyll cells followed by diffusion of water vapour through the stomata.
Movement in xylem only takes place in one direction – from roots to leaves –
unlike phloem where movement takes place in different directions.
Functions of transpiration:
1 – transporting mineral ions.
2 – Providing water to keep the cells turgid, for photosynthesis, and to keep the
leaves cool.

Effect of temperature and wind speed on transpiration rate:

Temperature: As temperature increases, the rate of transpiration also increases.
Wind speed: As wind increases, the rate of transpiration also increases.

Water vapour loss:

Takes place from the surface of spongy mesophyll cells. The many
interconnecting air spaces between the cells and the stomata create a large
surface area, so evaporation can happen rapidly when stomata are open.

Transpiration stream:
- Water molecules are attracted to each other by cohesion, creating a
continuous column of water up the plant.
- Water moves through the xylem vessels in a continuous transpiration
stream from roots to leaves via the stem.
- Transpiration produces a tension on the water in the xylem vessels by the
leaves.
- If the rate of transpiration from the leaves increases, water is pulled up the
xylem vessels faster.

Effects of temperature, wind speed, and humidity:

High wind speeds  more water loss.
High Humidity  Less water loss.
High temperature  More water loss.

Wilting:
If more water leaves the leaves of a plant, then is available in the soil to move
into the root by osmosis, then wilting will occur. Cells are not full of water, so the
strength of the cell walls cannot support the plant and it collapses.

Translocation:
Phloem tubes are made of living cells, joined end to end and contain holes in the
end cell walls (called sieve plates) to allow easy flow of substances from one cell
to the next.
The transport of sucrose and amino acids in the phloem, from regions of
production to regions of storage or use, is called translocation.
Transport in phloem foes in many different directions, but always from the source
(where it is made) to the sink (where it is stored or used).
During winter, Phloem tubes transport dissolved sucrose and amino acids from
the storage organs to other parts of the plant so respiration can continue.
During growth periods, storage organs would be the source and the growing
areas would be the sinks.
After the plant is grown, the leaves are photosynthesizing and producing large
quantities of sugars, they become the source and the roots become the sink.
Chapter 9 – Transport in animals:
Circulatory systems:
Double: system in which the blood passes through the heart twice on one
complete circuit of the body.
Single: system in which blood passes through the heart once on one complete
circuit of the body.
Double circulatory system has some advantages over the single like low pressure
blood being delivered back to the heart to raise its pressure again before sending
it to the rest of the body.

Coronary heart disease:

Caused by the blockage of coronary arteries.

Heartbeat:
Pulse rate is the number of times an artery expands and recoils in one minute.
ECG is a graph showing the electrical activity of the heart plotted against time.

Naming blood vessels:

Chapter 10 – Diseases and immunity:
Transmissible diseases:
Direst: Some pathogens pass from one person to another when direct contact
between an infected person and an uninfected one.
Indirect: Breathing in droplets containing pathogens, touching a surface someone
with the pathogen has touched, eating or drinking substances that contain the
pathogen, contact with animals carrying the pathogen.

Cholera:
1 – Cholera bacteria are ingested and multiply
2 – The bacteria attach to the wall of the alimentary canal.
3 – The bacteria release toxin.
4 – The toxin causes Cl ions to be released.
5 – The release of ions causes water to move into the lumen by osmosis.
6 – There is now a lot of water in the canal. The blood contains too little Cl and
water.

Antibodies:
1 – A lymphocyte encounters antigens that fit the shape of the antibodies it can
make.
2 – Lymphocyte divides to form many identical cells.
3 – Lymphocytes secrete antibodies.
4 – Antibodies bind to the antigens.

Memory cells:
Memory cells are cloned lymphocytes that stay in the blood and other parts of
the body for a long time after the disease.
Immune response is the reaction of the body to the presence of an antigen,
involving the production of antibodies.
Chapter 11 – Respiration and gas exchange:
Diaphragm: muscle that separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity in
mammals and helps with breathing.

Chapter 12 – Coordination and response:

Changes in an organism’s environment are called stimuli and are sense
by specialised cells called receptors. The organism responds using
effectors.
Nerve: a group of neurone axons lying together.

Peripheral nervous system:

The nerves outside the brain and spinal cord. It is made up of nerves
that spread out from the CNS, each containing hundreds of neurones.

Central nervous system:

CNS is made up of neurones. It’s role is to coordinate the electrical
impulses travelling through the nervous system. It is the brain and the
spinal cord.

Reflex arc:
If your hand touches a hot plate, a sensory receptor in your finger
detects this. The receptor starts off an electrical impulse, which travels
to the spinal cord along the axon from the receptor cell. This cell is
called a sensory neurone because it is carrying an impulse from a
sensory receptor.
In the spinal cord, the neurone is passed onto relay neurones because
they relay the impulse onto other neurones. The relay neurones pass
the impulse on to the brain. They also pass is on to a motor neurone to
pass to an effector.
The electrical impulse travels to the muscle along the axon of a motor
neurone. The muscle then contracts so that your hand is pulled away.
Synapse:
There is a small gap between each pair of neurones, called the synaptic
gap.
The ends of the two neurones on either side of the gap, and the gap are
called the synapse.
Synapses ensure impulses only move in one direction.
When an electrical impulse arrives along the axon of the sensory
neurone, it causes the vesicles to move to the cell membrane of the
sensory neurone. They fuse with the membrane and empty their
connects, the neurotransmitter molecules, into the synaptic gap.
The neurotransmitters quickly diffuse across the tiny gap and attach to
receptor proteins in the cell membrane of the relay neurone. They have
a shape complementary to the molecules.
The binding with the receptors triggers an electrical impulse in the
relay neurone. This impulse sweeps along the relay neurone, until it
reaches the next synapse. Here, a similar process occurs to transmit
the impulse to the motor neurone.
Sense organs:
Sense organs contain groups of receptors that respond to specific
stimuli. Receptors are a group of specialised cells that detect a change
in the environment and stimulate electrical impulses in response.

The eye:
The eye is a sense organ containing receptor cells that are sensitive to
light (rod cells) and colour (cone cells).
The cornea is a transparent lens that refracts (bends) light as it enters
the eye.
The iris controls how much light enters the pupil.
The lend is a transparent disc that can change shape to focus light onto
the retina.
The retina contains light receptor cells – Rods (detect light intensity)
and cones (detect colour)
The optic nerve is a sensory neurone that carries impulses between the
eye and the brain.
The pupil is the hole that allows light to enter the eye.

Blind spot:
The point where the optic nerve joins the retina, there are no rod or
cone cells on that part of the retina.
The brain fills in from surrounding light, so we don’t see a black hole
where no light has fallen.

The pupil reflex:

A reflex action to protect the retina from damage in bright light an
dprotect us from not seeing objects in dim light.
In dim light:
1 – Photoreceptors detect change in the environment
2 – Radial muscles contract
3 – Circular muscles contract
4 – Pupil dilates
5 – more light enters the eye
(Opposite for bright light)

Accommodation:
The function of the eye in focusing on near and distant objects.
When an object is close:
1 – Ciliary muscles contract
2 – Suspensory ligaments slacken
3 – Lens becomes fatter
4 – Light refracts more

When an object is far:

1 – Ciliary muscles relax
2 – Suspensory ligaments tighten
3 – Lens becomes thinner
4 – Light refracts less

Rod and cone cells:

Rods are sensitive to dim light, and cones can distinguish between
different colours in bright light.
There are three types of cone cells sensitive to red, blue, and green.
They are almost all found in the fovea, on the retina.

The endocrine system:

Hormones are chemical substances produced by a gland and carried by
the blood. They alter the activity of one or more specific organs.
Comparison of nervous and hormonal control:

Nervous Endocrine
Made up of Made up of
nerves, brain, glands.
and spinal cord.
Sends electrical Sends chemical
impulses hormones
Very fast Slower
Short – Until Longer – until
nerve impulses hormones are
stop broken down

Adrenaline:
Causes:
- Increasing blood glucose concentration for increased respiration
in muscle cells.
- Increasing pulse and breathing rate so glucose and Oxygen can be
delivered to muscle cells, and carbon dioxide taken away faster.
- Diverting blood flow towards muscles and away from non-
essential parts of the body.
- Dilating pupils so more information can be sent to the brain.
Chapter 13 – Reproduction:
Asexual reproduction:
Does not involve sex cells or fertilisation.
The process resulting in genetically identical offspring from one parent.

Sexual reproduction:
Involving the fusion of the nuclei of two gametes to form a zygote and the
production of genetically variant offspring.
Flowers are the reproductive organs of the plant. They usually contain both male
and female reproductive parts. Plants produce pollen which contains a nucleus
that has the male gamete. Pollen is not able of locomotion, meaning there must
be other ways to move the pollen from the anther to the stigma. Two
mechanisms: Transferred by insects, or wind.

Structure: Description:
Sepal Protects unopened flower
Petals Brightly coloured in insect
pollinated flowers to attract
insects
Anther Produces and releases the male
sex cells
Stigma Top of the female part of the
flower, which collects the pollen
grains
Ovary Produces the female sex cell
Ovule Contains the female sex cell
(found in the ovary)
Features of insect pollinated flowers:
1 – Large and bright coloured petals to attract insects.
2 – Scented and has nectar to entice insects to visit the flower and push past
stamen to get to nectar.
3 – Moderate number of pollen grains, because insect transfer has a high chance
of successful pollination.
4 – Pollen grains are large, sticky and/or spiky to attach to insects.
5 – Anthers are inside the flower, and they are stiff and firmly attached to brush
against insects.
6 – Stigma is inside the flower, and it is sticky, so pollen grains stick to it when an
insect brushes past.

Features of wind pollinated flowers:

1 – Petals are small and dull, often green or brown.
2 – No scent or nectar, as they do not need to attract insects.
3 – Large number of pollen grains because most pollen grains are not transferred
to another flower so the more produced, the more successful.
3 – Pollen grains are smooth and light to be blow away easily.
4 – Anthers are outside the flower, swinging loose to release pollen easily.
5 – Stigma is outside the flower and is feathery to catch drifting pollen grains.

Cross pollination:
When the pollen from one plant is transferred to the stigma of another plant of
the same species. (Relies entirely on pollinators)
Self-pollination:
The pollen from a flower land on its own stigma or on the stigma of another
flower on the same plant. (Reduces genetic variation)

Pollination:
Pollen grains being transferred from an anther to a stigma.

Fertilisation:
Pollen nucleus fusing with an ovum nucleus to form a zygote.
The nucleus inside the pollen grain slips down the tube towards the ovary. The
ovary contains one or more ovules, which each contain an ovum with a female
nucleus that fuses with the pollen nucleus. Once the nuclei have joined, the
ovule is fertilised, and a zygote has been formed.
The zygote will start to divide and eventually a seed will form. Different plants
have different numbers of ovules, explaining why different fruit have different
numbers of seeds.
Factors affecting germination of seeds:
1 – Water (activated enzymes)
2 – Oxygen (for energy)
3 – Warmth (improves as temperature rises)
Sexual reproduction in humans:

Structure: Function:
Prostate gland Produces fluid called semen that
proves sperm cells with nutrients
Sperm duct Sperm passes through the sperm duct
to be mixed with fluids produced by
the glands before being passed into
the urethra for ejaculation
Urethra Tube running down the centre of the
penis that can carry out urine or
semen, a rind of muscles in the
urethra prevents the urine and semen
from mixing
Testis Contained in a bag of skin (scrotum)
and produces sperm (male gamete)
and testosterone (hormone)
Scrotum Sac supporting the testes outside the
body to ensure sperm are kept at
temperature slightly lower than body
temperature.
Penis Passes urine out of the body from the
bladder and allows semen to pass into
the vagina of a women during sexual
intercourse.
Structure: Functions:
Oviduct Connects the ovary to the uterus and
is lined with ciliated cells to push the
released ovum down it. Fertilisation
occurs here.
Ovary Contains ova (female gametes) which
will mature and develop when
hormones are released.
Uterus Muscular bag with a soft lining where
the fertilised egg (zygote) will be
implanted to develop into a foetus.
Cervix Ring of muscle at the lower end of the
uterus to keep the developing foetus
in place during pregnancy.
Vagina Muscular tube that leads to the inside
of the woman’s body, where the
male’s penis will enter during sexual
intercourse and sperm are deposited.
Adaptive features of sperm and egg cells:

Has a flagellum, to help it swim around.

Contains enzymes in the acrosome, to digest through the jelly coat and cell
membrane of an egg cell when it meets one.
Contains many mitochondria to provide energy so the flagellum can move
around.
It’s very small and is produced every say in large numbers.

Cytoplasm containing a store of energy, to provide energy for the dividing zygote
after fertilisation.
Jelly-like coating that changes after fertilisation, forming an impenetrable barrier
after fertilisation to prevent other sperm nuclei entering the egg cell.
Large, round, and not capable of locomotion.
There are thousands of immature eggs in each ovary but only one is released
each month.

Pregnancy:
After fertilisation in the oviduct, the zygote travels towards the uterus. This takes
about 3 days, during which time the zygote will divide several times to form a
ball of cells known as an embryo. In the uterus, the embryo embeds itself in the
thick lining (implantation) and continues to grow and develop. The gestation for
humans is 9 months.
Major development of organs takes place withing the first 12 weeks, during
which time the embryo gets nutrients from the mother by diffusion through the
uterus lining.
After this point the organs are all in place, the placenta has formed, and the
embryo is now a fetus.
Placenta:
The foetus’s blood connects to and from the placenta by the umbilical cord. The
mother’s blood also absorbs the waste from the foetus’s blood in the placenta, so
that they do not build up to dangerous levels. Movement of all molecules across
the placenta occurs by diffusion.
The placenta is adapted by having a large surface area and a thin wall for
efficient diffusion. The placenta acts as a barrier to prevent toxins and pathogens
from getting into the foetus’s blood (this usually depends on the size of the
molecule).

Amniotic sac and fluid:

Protects the embryo from damage and prevents unequal pressure acting on it.
Amniotic fluid does:
- Cushions the baby from bumps.
- Provides a medium for movement.
- Provides a sterile medium.
- Provides warm temperature.

Sexual hormones:
Oestrogen:
- Breasts develop.
- Body hair grows.
- Menstrual cycle begins.
- Hips get wider.
Testosterone:
- Growth of penis and testes, testes start producing sperm.
- Growth of facial and body hair
- Muscles develop.
- Voice breaks.
The menstrual cycle:
Ovulation (release of an egg) occurs halfway through the cycle (day 14), and
travels down the oviduct to the uterus.
Failure to fertilise the egg causes menstruation, caused by the breakdown of the
thickened lining of the uterus. (Lasts around 5-7 days, and signals the beginning
of the next cycle)
After menstruation, the lining of the uterus starts to thicken again.

Hormones of the menstrual cycle:

The menstrual cycle is controlled by hormones released from the ovary and the
pituitary gland in the brain. Oestrogen levels rise from day 1 to peak just before
day 14. This causes the uterine wall to start thickening and the egg to mature.
The peak in oestrogen occurs just before the egg is released.
Progesterone stays low from day 1 – 14 and starts rising once ovulation has
occurred. The increasing levels cause the uterine lining to thicken further. A fall
in progesterone levels causes the uterine lining to break down.

FSH: Causes an egg to start maturing in the ovary. Stimulated the ovaries to start
releasing oestrogen.
When Oestrogen levels have reached their peak, the pituitary gland is stimulated
to release LH.
LH: causes ovulation to occur and stimulates the ovary to produce progesterone.

The pituitary gland produces FSH which stimulated the development of a follicle
in the ovary. An egg develops inside the follicle and the follicle produces
oestrogen. Oestrogen causes growth and repair of the lining of the uterus wall
and inhibits production of FSH. When oestrogen rises to a high enough level it
stimulates the release of LH from the pituitary gland, which causes ovulation.
The follicle becomes the corpus luteum and starts producing progesterone.
Progesterone maintains the uterus lining.
If the ovum is not fertilised, the corpus luteum breaks down progesterone levels
drop. This causes menstruation, where the uterus lining breaks down and is
removed through the vagina.
If pregnancy does occur, the corpus luteum continues to produce progesterone,
preventing the uterus lining from breaking down and aborting the pregnancy. It
does this until the placenta has developed, at which point it starts secreting
progesterone and continues to do so throughout the pregnancy.

Sexually transmitted diseases:

HIV leads to the development of AIDS.
Immediately after infection, people often suffer mild flu-like symptoms. These
symptoms pass, so infected people might not know they are infected. The virus
infects a certain type of lymphocyte of the body’s immune system. HIV avoids
being recognised and destroyed by lymphocytes by repeatedly changing its
protein coat. It then infects a certain type of lymphocyte and uses the cells’
machinery to multiply. This reduces the number of lymphocytes in the immune
system and the number of antibodies that can be made. This reduces the body’s
ability to fight off infection, leading to Aids.