Principle of Communication

QUESTION BANK SOLUTIONS

NOTE : 1)FIRST 16 QUESTIONS ARE COMPULSORY 5 MARK’S QUESTIONS.
2) REFER GOOGLE CLASSROOM NOTES FOR NUMERICALS.

Q1. Types of Communication channels

→Types of Communication Channels

Communication channel is the medium used to transmit signals, messages, or data from one place
to another. It is essential in all communication systems to connect the sender and receiver effectively.
Communication channels can be broadly classified into two categories: Wired Channels and Wireless
Channels.

1. Wired Channels

Wired channels involve the transmission of signals through physical connections. These are reliable,
secure, and less susceptible to interference compared to wireless channels. Common types of wired
channels are:

a) Twisted Pair

• Description: A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around each other
to minimize electromagnetic interference.

• Applications: Commonly used in telephone lines, DSL, and local area networks (LANs).

• Advantages: Inexpensive and easy to install.

• Disadvantages: Limited bandwidth and shorter transmission distances.

b) Coaxial Cables

• Description: A cable with a core conductor surrounded by an insulating layer, a metallic

shield, and an outer insulating sheath.

• Applications: Widely used in cable television, internet connections, and telecommunication

networks.

• Advantages: High bandwidth and better resistance to interference compared to twisted

pairs.

• Disadvantages: More expensive and bulkier than twisted pair cables.

c) Optical Fibre

• Description: A cable made of thin strands of glass or plastic that transmit data as light pulses.
 • Applications: Used in high-speed internet, long-distance telecommunication, and data
transmission in networks.

• Advantages: Extremely high bandwidth, minimal signal loss, and immunity to

electromagnetic interference.

• Disadvantages: Expensive to install and maintain, fragile.

2. Wireless Channels

Wireless channels transmit signals through electromagnetic waves, eliminating the need for physical
connections. Examples include:

• Radio waves (e.g., AM/FM radio, Bluetooth)

• Microwaves (e.g., satellite communication, radar)

• Infrared waves (e.g., TV remotes, short-range devices)

Wireless channels are widely used in mobile communication, Wi-Fi, and IoT applications. They offer
flexibility and mobility but are susceptible to interference and security risks.

Conclusion

Communication channels are vital for effective data transfer. Wired channels like twisted pair, coaxial
cables, and optical fibers offer high reliability and performance in fixed setups, whereas wireless
channels provide the flexibility and convenience needed in mobile and remote communication.

By understanding the characteristics and applications of each channel, appropriate choices can be
made based on requirements like cost, speed, distance, and reliability.

Q2. The signal power & noise power measured at the input of an amplifier are 150 μW &
1.5 μW respectively. If the signal power at the output is 1.5 W & Noise Power is 40 μW.
Calculate the amplifier Noise factor and Noise figure.
Given Parameters:

Input Signal Power: 150 μW = 150 × 10^(-6) W

Input Noise Power: 1.5 μW = 1.5 × 10^(-6) W

Output Signal Power: 1.5 W = 1.5 × 10^0 W

Output Noise Power: 40 μW = 40 × 10^(-6) W

Calculations:
1. Amplifier Gain (G):

First, calculate the amplifier gain using the signal powers:

2. Noise Factor (F):

The Noise Factor is calculated using the formula:

However, to accurately calculate (F), we should consider the total output noise is the sum of the
amplified input noise and the noise added by the amplifier. But since we directly calculate (F) from
given PNo, (G), and PNi , we proceed as follows, keeping in mind this simplification:

3. Noise Figure (NF):

Noise Figure is the logarithmic scale representation of Noise Factor:

Results:

• Amplifier Gain (G): (10^4) or 40 dB

• Noise Factor (F): approximately 0.00267

• Noise Figure (NF): approximately -25.74 dB

Q3. Calculate the percentage power saving for DSB -SC S/q for percentage modulation
Index of a) 100% & b) 50%
Assumptions:
• DSB (Double Sideband) Modulation: Both sidebands are transmitted, and the carrier
is present.
• DSB-SC (Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier) Modulation: Both sidebands are
transmitted, but the carrier is suppressed.
Power Distribution in DSB and DSB-SC:
• DSB:
• Carrier Power: (PC)
• Sidebands Power (Total): (PSB = m2 / PC) (where (m) is the modulation index)
• Total Transmitted Power ((PDSB): PC (1 + (m2 / 2))
• DSB-SC:
• Carrier Power: 0 (since the carrier is suppressed)
• Sidebands Power (Total): (PSB = (m2 / 2) × PC)
• Total Transmitted Power (PDSB): ((m2 / 2) × PC)
Percentage Power Saving:

Calculations for a) 100% Modulation Index ((m = 1))

• DSB:
• (PDSB = PC (1 +(1 / 2) ) = PC × 1.5)
• DSB-SC:
• (PDSB-SC = 0.5 PC)
 • Percentage Power Saving:

Results:
• For 100% Modulation Index ((m = 1)): Approximately 66.67% power saving with DSB-
SC compared to DSB.
• For 50% Modulation Index ((m = 0.5)): Approximately 88.89% power saving with
DSB-SC compared to DSB.

Q4. compare PAM PWM & PPM

PAM (Pulse Amplitude PWM (Pulse Width PPM (Pulse Position

Feature
Modulation) Modulation) Modulation)

Amplitude of the pulse Width (duration) of the Position of the pulse varies
Definition varies with the pulse varies with the with the modulating
modulating signal. modulating signal. signal.

Parameter that
Amplitude Pulse width Pulse position
varies

Pulse Shape Constant width and Constant amplitude and Constant amplitude and
position position width

Most complex among the

Complexity Simple to implement Moderate complexity
three

Noise Immunity Low (sensitive to noise) Better than PAM Best among the three

Bandwidth
Low Moderate High
Requirement

Power Efficiency Low Better than PAM Higher power efficiency

Motor speed control, audio Radar, secure

Application Audio signal transmission
amplifiers communication systems

Q5. Advantages of Digital transmission

→Advantages of Digital Transmission
Digital transmission refers to the process of sending data in the form of discrete signals (binary 0s
and 1s). It has several advantages over analog transmission:

1. Noise Immunity

• Digital signals are more resistant to noise and interference compared to analog signals.

• Even if noise distorts the signal, the binary nature (0s and 1s) allows for easier recovery.

• Example: Digital communication in Wi-Fi ensures data clarity even in noisy environments.

2. Error Detection and Correction

• Errors in digital transmission can be detected and corrected using advanced techniques like
parity checks and Hamming codes.

• Analog signals lack this capability, leading to greater accuracy in digital communication.

3. High Reliability

• Digital signals maintain quality over long distances by using repeaters to regenerate the
signal, eliminating degradation.

• Example: Optical fiber communication ensures reliable high-speed data transfer.

4. Efficient Storage and Retrieval

• Digital data can be stored without degradation over time, making it ideal for long-term use.

• Technologies like cloud storage, hard drives, and flash memory efficiently store digital
information.

5. Security

• Digital transmission supports encryption, providing a higher level of security.

• Example: Online banking and secure communications rely on encrypted digital signals.

6. Compatibility with Modern Systems

• Digital data can be processed, compressed, and transmitted efficiently by modern devices.

• Example: Smartphones and computers handle digital signals for audio, video, and text
seamlessly.

7. Bandwidth Efficiency
 • Digital systems use techniques like multiplexing to transmit multiple signals over the same
channel, optimizing bandwidth.

8. Scalability and Flexibility

• A single digital system can handle diverse types of data (e.g., text, audio, video) without
needing separate channels.

Q6. Explain the principles of reflection & refraction.

1. Reflection
Definition: Reflection occurs when a wave bounces back from a barrier or a surface,
returning to the medium it originated from.
Key Principles of Reflection:
• Law of Reflection:
1. Incident Wave: The wave approaching the reflecting surface.
2. Reflected Wave: The wave bouncing back.
3. Normal: An imaginary line perpendicular to the reflecting surface at the point
of incidence.
• Angle of Incidence (θi) = Angle of Reflection (θr)
• Both angles are measured relative to the Normal.
• Types of Reflection:
• Specular Reflection (Mirror-like): Occurs on smooth surfaces. The reflected
wave is coherent.
• Diffuse Reflection: Occurs on rough surfaces. The reflected wave is scattered
in various directions.
• Implications in Communication Systems:
• Multipath Propagation: Reflected signals can cause interference, leading to
fading in wireless communication systems.
• Antenna Placement: Understanding reflection helps in strategic placement of
antennas to minimize interference.

2. Refraction
Definition: Refraction is the bending of a wave as it passes from one medium into another
where the wave speed is different.
Key Principles of Refraction:
• Snell's Law:
• n1 sin(θ1) = n2 sin(θ2)
• n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the first and second medium,
respectively.
• Θ1 is the Angle of Incidence, and θ2 is the Angle of Refraction.
• Refractive Index (n) = Speed of Light in Vacuum / Speed of Light in Medium
• Types of Refraction:
• Convergence: Bending towards the Normal (e.g., from air into glass).
• Divergence: Bending away from the Normal (e.g., from glass into air).
• Implications in Communication Systems:
• Optical Fibers: Refraction is crucial for total internal reflection, which confines
light within the fiber, enabling high-speed data transmission.
• Wireless Propagation: Understanding how signals refract as they move
through different atmospheric conditions or mediums is vital for predicting
signal strength and quality.

Feature Reflection Refraction

Bouncing of waves off a Bending of waves as they pass

Phenomenon
surface through media

Angle Angle of incidence = Angle of

Snell's Law: n₁sin(θ₁) = n₂sin(θ₂)
Relation reflection

Impedance mismatch Change in propagation velocity

Dependence
between media (refractive index)

Specular vs. Diffuse

Special Cases Total Internal Reflection
Reflection

Radar, multipath Optical fibers, atmospheric wave

Applications
propagation in wireless bending
Q7. Block diagram of Analog Communication Systems. Explain
→

An analog communication system transmits information by representing it as a continuously

varying electrical signal. This signal is then processed, transmitted over a medium, received,
and converted back into a usable form. The basic elements of such a system are:
1. Information (Input) Signal:
o Definition: This is the raw data or message that needs to be communicated. It
can be in various forms, such as sound waves (speech, music), light intensity
(images, video), temperature variations, pressure changes, or other physical
parameters.
o Characteristics: The input signal is characterized by its:
▪ Amplitude: The strength or intensity of the signal.
▪ Frequency: The rate at which the signal varies over time.
▪ Bandwidth: The range of frequencies contained in the signal. Kennedy
emphasizes bandwidth as a crucial resource in communication
systems.
o Examples: A human voice speaking, the temperature readings from a sensor,
a video signal from a camera.
o Mathematical Representation: The information signal is usually represented
as a function of time, m(t).
2. Input Transducer:
o Definition: This block converts the non-electrical information signal into an
electrical signal that can be processed by the rest of the system. It acts as a
bridge between the physical world and the electrical domain.
o Functionality: Transducers convert one form of energy into another. In
communication systems, they convert the physical parameter representing
the information into a corresponding electrical voltage or current.
o Examples:
▪ Microphone: Converts sound pressure waves (acoustic energy) into an
electrical voltage.
▪ Camera: Converts light intensity (optical energy) into an electrical
signal.
▪ Thermistor: Converts temperature variations into changes in electrical
resistance, which can then be converted to a voltage or current.
▪ Strain Gauge: Converts mechanical strain into a change in electrical
resistance.
o Practical Considerations: Transducers should be sensitive to the desired
information signal, linear in their response, and robust to environmental
conditions.
3. Transmitter:
o Definition: The transmitter processes the electrical signal from the transducer
and prepares it for transmission over the communication channel.
o Functionality: The primary functions of the transmitter are:
▪ Amplification: Increasing the signal strength to overcome losses in the
channel.
▪ Modulation: Imposing the information signal onto a higher-frequency
carrier signal. This is essential for efficient radiation and long-distance
transmission.
▪ Filtering: Shaping the signal's frequency spectrum to remove
unwanted components and interference.
▪ Impedance Matching: Ensuring efficient power transfer between the
transmitter and the channel.
o Key Sub-Blocks (Often Present within the Transmitter):
▪ Oscillator: Generates the high-frequency carrier signal.
▪ Modulator: Performs the modulation process (AM, FM, PM, etc.).
 ▪ Power Amplifier: Amplifies the modulated signal to the required
power level.
▪ Filters: Remove unwanted frequency components and ensure the
signal meets regulatory requirements.
o Goal: To produce a strong, modulated signal that is suitable for propagation
through the channel and contains the information in a recoverable form.
4. Communication Channel (Medium):
o Definition: The channel is the physical medium that carries the transmitted
signal from the transmitter to the receiver.
o Types:
▪ Free Space (Wireless): Electromagnetic waves propagate through the
atmosphere. Garg's book becomes most relevant here, discussing the
complexities of the wireless channel, including path loss, fading
(multipath, shadowing), interference, and atmospheric effects.
▪ Transmission Lines (Wired): Coaxial cables, twisted pairs, optical
fibers. Signals are guided along a physical medium. Kennedy would
cover the characteristics of transmission lines, including impedance,
attenuation, and dispersion.
▪ Underwater Acoustic Channels: Sound waves propagate through
water.
o Impairments: The channel introduces various impairments that degrade the
signal:
▪ Noise: Random fluctuations that add to the signal.
▪ Attenuation: Signal power loss as it propagates through the channel.
▪ Distortion: Alteration of the signal waveform due to the channel's
frequency response characteristics.
▪ Interference: Unwanted signals from other sources.
o Impact: The channel is often the limiting factor in communication system
performance. Understanding and mitigating channel impairments is crucial.
5. Receiver:
o Definition: The receiver detects, amplifies, and demodulates the signal
received from the channel, attempting to recover the original information
signal.
o Functionality: The receiver performs the inverse operations of the
transmitter:
 ▪ Signal Reception: Capturing the signal from the channel using an
antenna or other appropriate interface.
▪ Amplification: Increasing the strength of the weak received signal.
▪ Filtering: Selecting the desired signal band and rejecting noise and
interference.
▪ Demodulation: Extracting the information signal from the modulated
carrier. This must be compatible with the modulation scheme used at
the transmitter.
▪ Signal Processing: Further processing to enhance signal quality and
remove any remaining distortions.
o Key Sub-Blocks (Often Present within the Receiver):
▪ Antenna: Captures the electromagnetic waves.
▪ RF Amplifier: Amplifies the weak received signal.
▪ Demodulator: Performs the demodulation process (corresponding to
AM, FM, PM, etc.).
▪ Filters: Remove noise and unwanted components.
▪ De-emphasis Network (for FM systems): Compensates for the pre-
emphasis used at the transmitter, further improving SNR.
o Goal: To reconstruct the original information signal as accurately as possible,
despite the impairments introduced by the channel.
6. Output Transducer:
o Definition: The output transducer converts the electrical signal back into the
original form of the information signal, making it usable by the destination.
o Functionality: It performs the inverse operation of the input transducer.
o Examples:
▪ Loudspeaker: Converts the electrical audio signal back into sound
waves.
▪ Display Screen: Converts electrical video signals into a visual image.
▪ Actuator: Converts electrical signals into mechanical motion (e.g., in a
control system).
o Practical Considerations: The output transducer should accurately reproduce
the information signal and be matched to the characteristics of the human
senses or the intended application.
Q8. Explain Pre-emphasis and De-Emphasis in FM.
→ In Frequency Modulation (FM) communication, noise poses a greater challenge to higher
modulating frequencies than to lower ones. This is because the noise power spectral density
often increases with frequency, resulting in a triangular noise power distribution at the
output of an FM demodulator (the "noise triangle" effect). To combat this, pre-
emphasis and de-emphasis techniques are employed to improve the Signal-to-Noise Ratio
(SNR) at the receiver.

Pre-emphasis: This process involves boosting the amplitude of the higher modulating
frequencies at the transmitter before modulation occurs. It's done according to a pre-
arranged frequency response curve. The idea is to artificially increase the signal power at
frequencies most susceptible to noise, making them more robust during transmission.

De-emphasis: At the receiver, after demodulation, a complementary process called de-

emphasis is applied. This attenuates the higher modulating frequencies that were boosted
during pre-emphasis, restoring the original frequency balance of the message signal.
Crucially, any noise that accompanied the signal during transmission is also de-emphasized,
effectively reducing its impact.

Principle of Operation:
Consider two modulating signals with the same initial amplitude. One is pre-emphasized,
say, to twice its original amplitude (representing a higher modulating frequency), while the
other remains unaffected (a lower modulating frequency). During transmission, both signals
are susceptible to noise. The pre-emphasized signal, having a larger deviation, experiences a
relatively smaller impact from the noise. At the receiver, the pre-emphasized signal is de-
emphasized by the same factor (in this case, 2). This reduces its amplitude back to the
original level, and crucially, also reduces the amplitude of any noise that had been added in
the channel. The low-frequency signal, unaffected by pre/de-emphasis, retains its original
SNR. The net effect is an improvement in the overall SNR, particularly for the higher
modulating frequencies.
Circuit Implementation:
A simple pre-emphasis circuit can be implemented using a high-pass filter, often a simple RC
network, as shown in Figure 1(a). Conversely, a de-emphasis circuit is a low-pass filter,
typically another RC network, illustrated in Figure 1(b). The time constant RC of these circuits
determines the frequency at which the response is 3dB down, and thus defines the pre-
emphasis/de-emphasis characteristic.
Standardization and Frequency Response:
The amount of pre-emphasis is standardized in different regions. In the US, for FM
broadcasting and TV sound transmission, a 75 μs time constant is used, corresponding to a 3
dB down frequency of 2120 Hz (f = 1/(2πRC)). In Europe and Australia, 50 μs (3180 Hz) is
common. Figure 2 shows the pre-emphasis and de-emphasis curves for a 75 μs time
constant. Notice that a 15 kHz signal is boosted by approximately 17 dB with a 75 μs pre-
emphasis.
Figure 2: Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis Curves (75 μs)

Limitations:
While pre-emphasis and de-emphasis improve SNR, over-emphasizing higher frequencies
can lead to over-modulation. This occurs when the boosted signal causes the carrier
frequency deviation to exceed the maximum allowed value (typically 75 kHz for FM
broadcasting). Over-modulation introduces distortion and degrades signal quality. Therefore,
the amount of pre-emphasis is a compromise between maximizing SNR for higher
frequencies and avoiding over-modulation.

Q9. Explain importance of Fourier Transforms in Communication.

What is the Fourier Transform?
The Fourier Transform (FT) is a mathematical tool that decomposes a function or a signal
into its constituent frequencies. In the context of communication, it transforms a signal from
the time domain (amplitude vs. time) to the frequency domain (amplitude vs. frequency).
Importance of Fourier Transforms in Communication:
1. Spectral Analysis:
• Understanding Signal Composition: Fourier Transform helps identify the
frequency components of a signal, which is crucial for understanding signal
behaviour and composition.
• Filter Design: By analyzing the frequency spectrum, engineers can design
filters to remove noise, interference, or unwanted frequency components.
2. Modulation and Demodulation:
• Modulation Analysis: Fourier Transform facilitates the analysis of modulation
schemes (e.g., AM, FM, PM) by visualizing the frequency-domain
representation of the modulated signal.
• Demodulation Techniques: Understanding the frequency-domain
characteristics of a signal aids in the development of efficient demodulation
techniques.
3. Channel Characterization and Equalization:
• Channel Frequency Response: Fourier Transform helps characterize the
frequency response of communication channels, revealing how different
frequencies are attenuated or distorted.
• Equalization Techniques: By understanding the channel's frequency response,
equalization techniques can be applied to compensate for distortions and
improve signal quality.
4. Noise Analysis and Reduction:
• Noise Spectral Density: Fourier Transform enables the analysis of noise in the
frequency domain, helping identify noise patterns and types.
• Noise Reduction Techniques: Frequency-domain analysis informs the design
of noise reduction filters and techniques.
 5. Compression and Coding:
• Efficient Representation: Fourier Transform can lead to more efficient signal
representations, as the frequency domain may reveal redundancies or less
important components that can be compressed or discarded.
• Coding Strategies: Understanding the signal's frequency composition guides
the selection of appropriate coding strategies for transmission.
6. Wireless Communication and Resource Allocation:
• Spectrum Management: Fourier Transform is fundamental in managing and
allocating spectral resources in wireless communication systems.
• Interference Mitigation: Frequency-domain analysis helps in identifying and
mitigating interference between different wireless services.

Q.10: Explain the Need for Modulation with example.

Modulation is essential for several reasons:
1. Practical Antenna Size for Transmission: Efficient transmission of electromagnetic
waves requires antennas whose dimensions are comparable to the wavelength of the
signal being transmitted. Audio signals, for example, have frequencies in the range of
20 Hz to 20 kHz. The wavelengths corresponding to these frequencies are extremely
long (15 km to 15,000 km). Building antennas of such sizes is practically impossible.
o Example: Imagine trying to transmit a 1 kHz audio signal directly. The
wavelength is approximately 300 km. You would need an antenna roughly 150
km tall for efficient radiation.
o Solution: Modulation allows us to impress the low-frequency audio signal
onto a high-frequency carrier signal (e.g., in the MHz or GHz range). The
carrier signal has a much shorter wavelength, enabling the use of antennas of
reasonable size.
2. Frequency Multiplexing: Modulation allows multiple signals to share the same
transmission medium simultaneously. This is accomplished by assigning different
carrier frequencies to each signal. At the receiver, these signals can be separated by
bandpass filters tuned to the respective carrier frequencies.
o Example: Radio broadcasting stations use different carrier frequencies (e.g.,
98.5 MHz, 101.1 MHz) to transmit different programs. Listeners can tune their
radios to the desired frequency to select a specific station. This wouldn't be
possible without modulation.
 3. Channel Matching and Improved Transmission Efficiency: Different communication
channels have different frequency characteristics. Some channels efficiently
propagate signals at higher frequencies, while others are better suited for lower
frequencies. Modulation allows us to match the signal frequency to the channel
characteristics for optimal transmission efficiency.
o Example: Free space propagation is more efficient at higher frequencies.
Therefore, we modulate radio and TV signals to high frequencies for wireless
transmission. However, long-distance communication over optical fibers is
best done at specific infrared or visible light frequencies, which are also
achieved by modulating a Lightwave carrier.
4. Reducing Noise and Interference: Modulation techniques, particularly those like FM
and PM, can improve the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) compared to directly
transmitting the baseband signal. These methods achieve noise reduction by trading
bandwidth for SNR.
o Example: FM radio is less susceptible to noise than AM radio because FM
uses frequency variations to encode the message, while AM relies on
amplitude variations. Noise primarily affects signal amplitude, so FM is
inherently more robust.
5. Changing the Characteristics of the Signal: Sometimes, it's necessary to change the
properties of a signal to make it suitable for a specific transmission medium or
application.
o Example: In satellite communication, signals need to travel through the
ionosphere. The ionosphere affects different frequency bands differently.
Modulating the signal to an appropriate frequency band can minimize the
adverse effects of the ionosphere.
6. Shifting the Signal to a Different Frequency Band: Sometimes it's desirable to shift a
signal to a different frequency band for regulatory reasons or to avoid interference
with other systems operating in the same frequency band. Modulation allows this
frequency translation.
In Conclusion:
Modulation is an essential process in virtually all communication systems. It enables the use
of practical antennas, allows frequency multiplexing, improves transmission efficiency, and
can enhance the robustness of the transmitted signal to noise and interference. Without
modulation, many of the communication systems we rely on every day would not be
feasible.
Q11. Define: a)Noise Figure, b) Noise Temperature, c) Noise Bandwidth, d) Noise Voltage,
e) Noise Factor, f) Noise Modulation, g) Modulation index in AM, h) Baseband signal.
Here are the definitions for each of the requested terms:
a) Noise Figure (NF)
• Definition: A measure of the degradation of the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) caused by
a component or system, expressed in decibels (dB).
SNRin
• Formula: NF (dB) = 𝟏𝟎 × 𝐥𝐨𝐠𝟏𝟎 ( )
SNRout

• Importance: Helps in understanding the noise contribution of each component in a

communication system.
b) Noise Temperature (T)
• Definition: The temperature of a matched load that would generate the same
amount of noise power as the actual noise power produced by a two-port network.
• Unit: Kelvin (K)
• Relation to Noise Power: Noise Power (N) = 𝐤𝐓𝐁, where k = Boltzmann's constant,
T = noise temperature in Kelvin, B = bandwidth in Hz.
c) Noise Bandwidth (NBW)
• Definition: The range of frequencies over which the noise is measured or considered,
typically specified in Hertz (Hz).
• Importance: Essential for calculating noise power and understanding system noise
performance.
d) Noise Voltage (VN)
• Definition: The root mean square (RMS) voltage of the noise signal, measured across
a known resistance, usually in volts (V) or microvolts (μV).

• Formula: VN = √(𝟒 × 𝒌𝑻𝑹𝑩), where k = Boltzmann's constant, T = temperature in

Kelvin, R = resistance, B = bandwidth.
e) Noise Factor (F)
• Definition: The ratio of the actual output noise power to the theoretical minimum
noise power (if the system were noiseless), often expressed as a linear ratio or in
decibels (dB).
𝑵𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝑭𝒊𝒈𝒖𝒓𝒆
• Relation to Noise Figure: Noise Factor (F) = 10^( )
𝟏𝟎

f) Noise Modulation
• Definition: The process by which random noise affects the modulation of a signal,
potentially causing distortion or errors in data transmission.
 • Types:
• Thermal Noise Modulation
• Shot Noise Modulation
• Flicker Noise Modulation
g) Modulation Index in AM (m)
• Definition (AM): A measure of the extent to which the modulating signal varies the
amplitude of the carrier wave, m = ΔA / A, where ΔA is the variation in amplitude,
and A is the original amplitude.
• Formula: m = (Amax – Amin) / (Amax+ Amin)
o Amax is the maximum amplitude of the AM signal.
o Amin is the minimum amplitude of the AM signal.
• Importance: Essential for designing and analyzing AM systems.
h) Baseband Signal
• Definition: The original information-carrying signal before modulation, typically at a
relatively low frequency compared to the carrier wave.
• Characteristics:
• Usually analog or digital
• Contains the original information before transmission

Q12. Compare AM & FM

Comparison of Amplitude Modulation (AM) and Frequency Modulation (FM)

Feature Amplitude Modulation (AM) Frequency Modulation (FM)

Amplitude of the carrier

Frequency of the carrier signal
signal is varied in proportion
is varied in proportion to the
Definition to the instantaneous
instantaneous amplitude of the
amplitude of the message
message signal.
signal.

s(t) = AC × [1+m cos(ωmt)] s(t) = ACcos[ωct + kf ∫m(t)dt]

Mathematical cos(ωct) where m = (Am/Ac) is where kf is the frequency
Representation (for a the modulation index sensitivity
single-tone message
m(t) = Am cos(ωmt)

Approximately 2(Δf + B) where

2B where B is the bandwidth Δf is the peak frequency
Bandwidth of the message signal (for deviation and B is bandwidth of
Requirement DSB-SC it’s B). For standard the message signal (Carson's
AM (DSB-WC) it is 2B. Rule). In practice, it’s a bit
higher than this.

Lower. A significant portion

of the power is in the carrier,
which doesn't carry Higher. The carrier amplitude is
Power Efficiency information. (DSB-WC up to constant, so all the power is
66% efficiency at m=1, for used for transmission (100%).
DSB-SC 100% and for SSB
100%)

Better. FM has inherent noise

Poorer, especially in the
immunity due to the constant
Signal-to-Noise Ratio presence of additive noise.
amplitude. The receiver can use
(SNR) Performance Susceptible to amplitude
limiters to remove amplitude
variations caused by noise.
noise.

More complex transmitter and

receiver circuits (especially for
wideband FM). Requires a
Simpler transmitter and
voltage-controlled oscillator
Complexity receiver circuits. Easier to
(VCO) for modulation and a
implement.
more sophisticated
demodulator (e.g., phase-
locked loop).

Smaller coverage area,

Larger coverage area due to
primarily limited to line-of-sight
the ability of AM signals to
propagation. Not suitable for
Coverage Area propagate via skywaves
long-distance skywave
(reflection from the
propagation at higher
ionosphere).
frequencies.
 Broadcast radio (medium
Broadcast radio (VHF band),
wave and shortwave), two-
two-way radio communication
way radio communication
Applications (e.g., police, fire, ambulance),
(e.g., aircraft
satellite communication, sound
communication), some
in analog TV.
analog TV systems.

Stronger FM signal "captures"

No capture effect. Multiple the receiver, suppressing
AM signals interfering with weaker signals on the same
Capture Effect each other result in a frequency. Beneficial in cellular
heterodyne or beat systems to mitigate co-channel
frequency. interference. (Mentioned in
Garg’s wireless context)

For high carrier frequency

Zero crossings are irregular
compared to modulating
Zero Crossing and vary with modulating
frequency, zero crossings are
signal.
more regular.

Q13. Explain in short Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis

Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
• Purpose: Pre-emphasis and de-emphasis are techniques used primarily in Frequency
Modulation (FM) systems to improve the overall Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) at the
receiver. They work by strategically altering the frequency spectrum of the signal
before and after transmission to combat the effects of noise, which is often more
prominent at higher frequencies.
• Pre-emphasis (at the Transmitter):
o Definition: Pre-emphasis is the process of boosting the amplitude of the
higher-frequency components of the message signal before modulation at the
transmitter. This is done because high-frequency noise is more prevalent in
FM.
o Implementation: A simple high-pass filter circuit is used. The filter's
frequency response is designed to emphasize higher frequencies according to
a defined pre-emphasis curve.
 o Effect: The pre-emphasized signal has a non-uniform frequency spectrum,
with higher frequencies having larger amplitudes. This makes the signal more
susceptible to high-frequency noise.
o Transfer Function (Example): Hpe(f) = 1 + j(f/f0) where f0 is typically set around
2.1 kHz for audio applications. This provides a boost of about 6dB/octave.
• De-emphasis (at the Receiver):
o Definition: De-emphasis is the process of attenuating the higher-frequency
components of the received signal after demodulation at the receiver. This is
done to compensate for the pre-emphasis applied at the transmitter and to
reduce the impact of high-frequency noise that may have been picked up
during transmission.
o Implementation: A low-pass filter circuit is used, with a frequency response
that is the inverse of the pre-emphasis filter.
o Effect: The de-emphasis filter restores the original frequency balance of the
message signal while simultaneously reducing the amplitude of the high-
frequency noise components.
o Transfer Function (Example): Hde(f) = 1 / [1 + j(f/f0)] The corner frequency f0 is
the same as that of the pre-emphasis filter.
• Overall Effect: The combined effect of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis is an
improvement in the overall SNR. The high-frequency components of the message
signal are transmitted at a higher power level, making them less susceptible to noise.
At the receiver, the de-emphasis filter restores the original signal while reducing the
noise. This technique is particularly effective against noise sources that have a higher
power spectral density at higher frequencies, like the noise from the receiver front
end.
• Standards: Pre-emphasis and de-emphasis are standardized for commercial FM
broadcasting. In many regions, a time constant of 75 microseconds (corresponding to
a frequency of about 2.1 kHz) is used.

Q14. What is a PSK Signal? Draw a PSK Signal for Binary Signal of 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1.
A PSK signal, or Phase-Shift Keying signal, is a form of digital modulation where information
is transmitted by varying the phase of a constant-amplitude carrier signal. Instead of
changing the amplitude or frequency, as in AM or FM respectively, PSK uses discrete phase
shifts to represent different data symbols.
Here's a breakdown of the key aspects:
1. Basic Principle:
• A continuous carrier wave (usually a sinusoid) is used as the basis for transmission.
 • The digital data stream is divided into symbols, where each symbol can represent
one or more bits (depending on the type of PSK).
• Each symbol is assigned a specific phase shift of the carrier wave.
• The modulator shifts the phase of the carrier according to the incoming data
symbols.
• The demodulator at the receiver detects the phase shifts to recover the original data.
2. Mathematical Representation:
A general PSK signal can be represented as:
s(t) = AC × cos(2πfCt + θ(t))
Where:
• AC is the carrier amplitude (constant).
• fC is the carrier frequency (constant).
• θ(t) is the phase shift, which varies according to the digital data being transmitted.
θ(t) takes on discrete values.
Diagram of PSK Signal for Binary Sequence 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1:

Q15. Differentiate between Analog and Digital Communication Systems.

Analog vs. Digital Communication Systems

Digital Communication
Feature Analog Communication Systems
Systems

Signal Continuous-time, continuous- Discrete-time, discrete-

Representation amplitude signals. Signals vary amplitude signals. Signals are
smoothly over time and can take sampled and quantized,
 on any value within a given represented by a finite set of
range. values.

Amplitude Modulation (AM),

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK),
Frequency Modulation (FM),
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK),
Phase Modulation (PM) for
Phase Shift Keying (PSK),
Modulation continuous-wave signals; Pulse
Quadrature Amplitude
Techniques Amplitude Modulation (PAM),
Modulation (QAM). More
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM),
complex schemes like OFDM
Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)
are also used.
for pulsed signals.

More robust against noise.

More susceptible to noise. Noise Digital signals can be
directly adds to the signal, regenerated if distorted by
Noise Immunity making it difficult to separate at noise, as long as the noise
the receiver. SNR is a critical doesn't cause a bit error. Bit
performance metric. Error Rate (BER) is a key
performance metric.

Can be less efficient, especially Generally more bandwidth

AM. FM has better bandwidth efficient due to data
Bandwidth efficiency. Single Sideband (SSB) compression techniques and
Efficiency AM offers improved bandwidth the ability to transmit more
efficiency compared to standard bits per symbol using higher-
AM. order modulation.

Power efficiency varies

Can be very power-efficient,
depending on the modulation
especially with the use of
scheme. AM is less power-
Power coding and efficient power
efficient because a significant
Efficiency amplifiers. Power control
portion of power is wasted in
techniques are easier to
the carrier. FM can be more
implement.
power-efficient.

Robust error control

Limited error control mechanisms can be
Error Control capabilities. Errors due to noise implemented using channel
are difficult to correct. coding techniques (e.g., block
codes, convolutional codes,
turbo codes). This allows for
 error detection and
correction.

More secure. Encryption

Less secure. Analog signals are
techniques can be readily
Security easily intercepted and
applied to digital data to
eavesdropped upon.
ensure confidentiality.

Time Division Multiplexing

(TDM), Code Division
Multiplexing (CDM),
Frequency Division Multiplexing
Orthogonal Frequency
Multiplexing (FDM), Time Division
Division Multiplexing (OFDM),
Multiplexing (TDM).
Space Division Multiplexing
(SDM). More flexible
multiplexing is possible.

More complex hardware,

especially for advanced digital
Generally simpler hardware for systems (e.g., mobile phones,
Hardware
basic analog systems (e.g., digital TV). Requires Analog-
Complexity
AM/FM radio). to-Digital Converters (ADCs)
and Digital-to-Analog
Converters (DACs).

Extensive signal processing

capabilities. Digital signals are
Signal Limited signal processing
easily manipulated and
Processing capabilities.
processed using digital signal
processing (DSP) techniques.

AM/FM radio broadcasting, Cellular phones, Wi-Fi, digital

Examples analog television, traditional television, computer
telephone systems. networks, the internet.

Can be more expensive for

Less expensive for basic systems complex systems, but the cost
but can be expensive for high- of digital components has
Cost
fidelity systems. High power decreased significantly. Low
systems can be more expensive. power systems are less
expensive.
 Digital communication can be
AM has very large distance of
used for short or long
Distance operation and FM has relatively
distance depending on the
less.
application.

Q16. Answer in detail about: 1) pre - emphasis 2) balance modulator 3) image frequency
4) quantization process 5) multiplexing 6) sampling tree.
→ 1. Pre-emphasis
Pre-emphasis is a technique used in frequency modulation (FM) and other communication
systems to improve the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) for higher frequency components of the
modulating signal. This is achieved by artificially boosting the amplitude of higher frequency
components before transmission1. The pre-emphasis circuit typically consists of a high-pass
filter that increases the amplitude of higher frequencies. At the receiver end, a
corresponding de-emphasis circuit is used to restore the original signal levels1.
2. Balanced Modulator
A balanced modulator is a device used in amplitude modulation (AM) to suppress the carrier
signal, leaving only the sidebands. It consists of two identical AM modulators arranged in a
balanced configuration3. The carrier signal is applied to both modulators, but the
modulating signal is applied with opposite polarity to each modulator. The outputs of the
two modulators are then subtracted, resulting in a double-sideband suppressed-carrier
(DSB-SC) signal3.
3. Image Frequency
Image frequency is an undesired frequency in a superheterodyne receiver that can produce
the same intermediate frequency (IF) as the desired signal. This occurs because the receiver
is responsive to any signal at its designed IF frequency4. To avoid interference, the receiver
must have adequate RF filtering to reject the image frequency. The image frequency is
typically the desired signal frequency plus or minus twice the intermediate frequency5.
4. Quantization Process
Quantization is the process of converting a continuous range of values into a finite set of
discrete values. This is a key step in digital signal processing and is used in analog-to-digital
conversion (ADC)3. During quantization, the continuous amplitude of the signal is
approximated by the nearest value from a predefined set of levels. This introduces
quantization error, which is the difference between the actual signal value and the quantized
value3.
5. Multiplexing
Multiplexing is a technique used to combine multiple signals into one transmission channel,
thereby increasing the efficiency of the communication system. There are several types of
multiplexing, including:
• Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM): Different signals are transmitted at different
frequencies within the same channel.
• Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): Different signals are transmitted in different time
slots within the same channel.
• Code Division Multiplexing (CDM): Different signals are transmitted using different
codes within the same channel.
6. Sampling Tree
A sampling tree is a hierarchical structure used in digital signal processing to manage the
sampling of multiple signals. It organizes the sampling process in a way that allows efficient
and systematic data collection from various sources3. The tree structure ensures that each
signal is sampled at the appropriate rate and time, facilitating the subsequent processing
and analysis of the sampled data.

Q17. Define noise and explain about various sources of noise.

→ Noise in Communication
Noise refers to any unwanted signal that interferes with the transmission and reception of
the desired signal in a communication system. Noise can degrade the quality and reliability
of the communication and can originate from various sources. Understanding these sources
of noise is crucial for designing effective communication systems.
Various Sources of Noise
1. Thermal Noise
o Definition: Also known as Johnson-Nyquist noise, thermal noise is generated
by the random motion of electrons in a conductor due to thermal agitation.
o Characteristics: It is present in all electronic devices and is proportional to the
temperature and bandwidth of the system.
o Formula: The power spectral density of thermal noise is given by N=kTBN =
kTB, where kk is Boltzmann's constant, TT is the absolute temperature in
Kelvin, and BB is the bandwidth.
2. Shot Noise
o Definition: Shot noise occurs due to the discrete nature of electric charge in
electronic devices such as diodes and transistors.
 o Characteristics: It is caused by the random variation in the arrival of electrons
or holes at the output terminal of the device.
o Formula: The mean-square shot noise current is given by Is=2qIBI_s = 2qIB,
where qq is the charge of an electron, II is the average current, and BB is the
bandwidth.
3. Intermodulation Noise
o Definition: Intermodulation noise occurs when multiple signals at different
frequencies mix together in a non-linear device, creating new frequencies
that interfere with the desired signal.
o Characteristics: It is a common problem in amplifiers and mixers where non-
linearities can generate unwanted harmonics.
4. Cross - talk
o Definition: Cross - talk refers to unwanted coupling between signal paths,
causing interference from one channel to another.
o Characteristics: It can occur in both wired and wireless communication
systems and is usually minimized by proper shielding and grounding.
5. Impulse Noise
o Definition: Impulse noise consists of sudden, short-duration bursts of energy
that can significantly disrupt communication.
o Sources: Common sources include switching transients, lightning, and other
electromagnetic disturbances.
o Impact: It can cause errors in digital communication systems, particularly if
the noise coincides with data transmission.
6. Environmental Noise
o Definition: Environmental noise encompasses all external noise sources that
can interfere with communication.
o Sources: These include natural sources like lightning, cosmic noise, and man-
made sources such as industrial machinery, automotive ignition systems, and
fluorescent lights.
7. Phase Noise
o Definition: Phase noise refers to the random fluctuations in the phase of a
signal, often caused by imperfections in oscillators and amplifiers.
o Impact: It can lead to frequency instability and jitter in communication
systems, affecting the quality of signal transmission.
8. Flicker Noise (1/f Noise)
 o Definition: Flicker noise, or 1/f noise, is a type of noise that has a power
spectral density inversely proportional to the frequency.
o Characteristics: It is dominant at low frequencies and is often observed in
semiconductor devices, resistors, and other electronic components.

Q18. Define signal to noise Ratio. Explain efficiency of cascade connection on signal to
noise ratio. Derive Friss formula for 2 stage cascade amplifiers.
→ Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)
Definition: Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) is a measure of the strength of the desired signal
compared to the background noise. It is typically expressed in decibels (dB).
Mathematically, SNR is defined as the ratio of the power of the signal (Psignal) to the power
of the noise (Pnoise).

Effect of Cascade Connection on SNR

When multiple amplifiers or stages are connected in cascade, the overall SNR of the system
can be affected. The noise figure (F) of each stage and the gain (G) of each stage play crucial
roles in determining the overall noise figure and hence the SNR.
Friis' Formula for Two-Stage Cascade
Friis' formula provides a method to calculate the overall noise figure (Ftotal) of a cascade of
amplifiers. For a two-stage cascade, the formula is given by:

where:
• F1 is the noise figure of the first stage
• F2 is the noise figure of the second stage
• G1 is the gain of the first stage
Q19. Derive expression for total power in AM.
→ Amplitude Modulation Basics
In AM, the carrier signal is modulated by a baseband signal (message signal) such that the
amplitude of the carrier varies in proportion to the instantaneous value of the message
signal. The general expression for an AM signal is:
s(t) = Ac [1+m(t)]. cos(ωct)
where:
• s(t) is the AM signal
• Ac is the carrier amplitude
• m(t) is the modulating signal (normalized to have a peak value of 1)
• ωc is the angular frequency of the carrier
Assume m(t) = km cos(ωmt) where km is the modulation index and ωm is the angular
frequency of the modulating signal. Then the AM signal becomes:
s(t) = Ac [1+km cos(ωmt)] cos(ωct).
Expression for Total Power
The total power of the AM signal can be found by calculating the average power over one
period. The AM signal consists of three components: the carrier, the upper sideband (USB),
and the lower sideband (LSB). The total power Pt is the sum of the powers of these
components.
The AM signal can be expanded using trigonometric identities:
s(t) = Ac cos(ωct) + Ac km × 2 [cos((ωc + ωm) t) + cos((ωc – ωm) t)]
Here:
• Ac cos (ωct) is the carrier
• Ac km 2cos((ωc + ωm)t) is the upper sideband (USB)
• Ac km 2cos((ωc – ωm)t) is the lower sideband (LSB)
The power of a sinusoidal signal A cos(ωt) A. So, the power of each component is:
This formula shows how the total power of an AM signal depends on the carrier power and
the modulation index.
Q20. Explain FDM with neat, labelled diagram.
→
Q21. State and prove prop of fourier transferm with example. i) convolution 2)time
domain 3)time Scaling.
→1. Convolution Property
Statement: The Fourier Transform of the convolution of two signals in the time domain is
equal to the product of their individual Fourier Transforms in the frequency domain.
Mathematically: If x(t) and h(t)) are two signals, their convolution y(t)=x(t)∗h(t) has a Fourier
Transform Y(f)=X(f)⋅H(f)
Q22. Explain in detail the generation of DSB-FC.
→ Generation of DSB-FC
Double Sideband Full Carrier (DSB-FC) modulation is a type of amplitude modulation (AM)
where both the upper and lower sidebands are transmitted along with the carrier signal.
This means that the transmitted signal contains the carrier frequency and both sidebands,
which carry the information.
Steps to Generate DSB-FC:
1. Modulating Signal: Start with the modulating signal m(t), which is the message
signal you want to transmit. This signal typically contains the information you wish
to send.
2. Carrier Signal: Generate a carrier signal c(t), which is a high-frequency sinusoidal
wave. The carrier signal is usually much higher in frequency than the modulating
signal2.
3. Multiplication: Multiply the modulating signal m(t) with the carrier signal c(t). This
multiplication process results in the generation of the DSB-FC signal.
Mathematically, the DSB-FC signal s(t) can be represented as:
s(t) = AC [1 + ka m(t)] cos(2πfC t)
Using trigonometric identities, this can be expanded to:

This results in:

4. Fourier Transform: The Fourier Transform of the DSB-FC signal will show the carrier
frequency fC and two sidebands at frequencies fC + fm and fC – fm , where fm is the
frequency of the modulating signal.
Example
Let's consider a simple example:
• Modulating signal: m(t) = Am cos (2πfmt)
• Carrier signal: c(t) = AC cos (2πfCt)
The DSB-FC signal s(t) is:
s(t) = Am cos (2πfmt) × AC cos (2πfCt)
Using trigonometric identities, this can be expanded to:
s(t)=Am AC 2cos [2π(fC + fm)t] + Am AC 2cos [2π(fC − fm)t]
This shows that the DSB-FC signal consists of the carrier frequency fC and two sidebands at
fC + fm and fC – fm
Advantages and Disadvantages:
Advantages:
• Simple to implement and understand.
• Suitable for medium-wave AM radio broadcasting.
Disadvantages:
• Inefficient use of power, as the carrier signal does not carry any information but
consumes a significant portion of the transmitted power.
• Susceptible to noise and interference.

Q23. Explain quantization process in PCM with suitable diagram.

→ Quantization in Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) is a method used to digitally represent analog signals. It
involves sampling the analog signal at regular intervals, quantizing the sampled values, and
then encoding them into a digital format. Quantization is a crucial step in this process.
Quantization Process
Quantization in PCM refers to the process of converting the infinite range of amplitude
values of an analog signal into a finite range of discrete levels. This involves two main steps:
rounding (or approximating) and assigning binary codes to the quantized levels.
Steps in Quantization:
1. Sampling:
o The analog signal x(t) is sampled at regular intervals to obtain discrete-time
samples x(nT), where TT is the sampling period and nn is an integer
representing the sample number.
o According to the Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate fs should be at least
twice the maximum frequency of the analog signal to avoid aliasing.
2. Quantization:
 o Each sampled value x(nT) is mapped to the nearest value from a finite set of
quantization levels.
o The quantization process introduces an error called quantization noise, which
is the difference between the actual sampled value and the quantized value.
Types of Quantization:
1. Uniform Quantization:
o The quantization levels are uniformly spaced.
o It is simple to implement but may not be efficient for signals with a wide
dynamic range.
2. Non-Uniform Quantization:
o The quantization levels are non-uniformly spaced, with more levels
allocated to signal values that occur more frequently.
o It is more efficient for signals with a wide dynamic range, as it can better
approximate the original signal with fewer quantization levels.
Impact of Quantization
Quantization affects the quality of the reconstructed signal. Higher bit depth (more
quantization levels) results in lower quantization noise and better signal representation.
However, this also increases the data rate and storage requirements.
Practical Considerations
In practice, systems often use non-uniform quantization techniques like A-law and μ-law
companding in telecommunication to achieve better performance for speech signals, which
have a wide dynamic range. Quantization is a critical step in digitizing analog signals and
plays a significant role in the overall performance of PCM systems. Understanding and
mitigating the effects of quantization noise is essential for high-quality digital
communication.
Q24. What are the drawbacks of TRP receiver and how to overcome in Super heterodyne
receiver.
→ The Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) receiver has several drawbacks that the
Superheterodyne receiver was designed to overcome:
Drawbacks of TRF Receiver:
1. Poor Selectivity: TRF receivers have difficulty distinguishing between closely spaced
signals, leading to interference.
2. Low Sensitivity: The sensitivity of TRF receivers decreases as the number of tuned
stages increases.
3. Complex Tuning: All tuned circuits must be adjusted simultaneously, making tuning
cumbersome.
4. Variable Bandwidth: The bandwidth of the tuned circuits changes with frequency,
affecting performance.
5. Instability: Multiple RF stages can lead to instability and non-uniform gain over a
wide range of frequencies.
How Superheterodyne Receiver Overcomes These Issues:
1. Improved Selectivity: The Superheterodyne receiver uses a fixed Intermediate
Frequency (IF) stage, which allows for better selectivity with high-Q filters.
2. Higher Sensitivity: The fixed IF stage can be optimized for maximum gain, improving
sensitivity.
3. Simplified Tuning: Only the local oscillator needs to be tuned to change the received
frequency, simplifying the tuning process.
4. Consistent Bandwidth: The bandwidth remains constant because the IF stage
operates at a fixed frequency.
5. Stability: The Superheterodyne receiver is more stable due to fewer RF stages and
optimized IF amplification.

Q25. Explain PCM generation and Degeneration.

→ PCM Generation
The process of generating a PCM signal involves the following steps:
1. Sampling:
o The continuous-time analog signal x(t) is sampled at regular intervals to
create a discrete-time signal.
 o According to the Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem, the sampling rate fs
should be at least twice the maximum frequency of the analog signal to avoid
aliasing.

where n is an integer and T is the sampling period.

Quantization:
• The sampled values are quantized to the nearest level from a finite set of discrete
values. This step converts the continuous amplitude values into discrete levels.
• Quantization introduces an error called quantization noise, which is the difference
between the actual sampled value and the quantized value.

where Q represents the quantization function.

Encoding:
• Each quantized sample is then encoded into a binary form, creating a sequence of
bits for each sample.
• The number of bits used per sample determines the resolution and accuracy of the
PCM system. For example, 8-bit encoding provides 256 discrete levels.

Pulse Modulation:
• The binary codes are then converted into a series of pulses, representing the digital
signal. Each pulse corresponds to a bit in the binary code.

PCM Regeneration (Decoding)

The process of decoding the PCM signal to recover the original analog signal involves the
following steps:
1. Reception:
o The PCM signal, which is now a series of pulses or digital data, is received by
the decoder.
 2. Decoding:
o The binary codes are extracted from the received pulses. Each code
corresponds to a quantized sample of the original signal.

Digital to Analog Conversion (DAC):

• The quantized digital samples are converted back to continuous-time analog values
using a DAC.

Filtering:
• A low-pass filter is used to smooth out the signal, removing the high-frequency
components and reconstructing the continuous-time analog signal.
• The resulting signal approximates the original analog signal x(t).

At the receiver:
1. Reception:
 o The series of pulses is received.
2. Decoding:
o The pulses are decoded back into the original 4-bit binary codes.
3. Digital to Analog Conversion:
o The binary codes are converted into their corresponding quantized amplitude
values.
4. Filtering:
o A low-pass filter reconstructs the analog signal from the quantized samples.
Drawbacks and Considerations
• Quantization Noise: Higher quantization levels reduce quantization noise but require
more bits per sample.
• Bandwidth: PCM requires more bandwidth compared to analog systems due to the
higher data rate of the encoded signal.

Q26. write with reference to sky wave propagation and explain 1) virtual height 2) critical
frequency 3) skip zone 4) skip distance 5) Maximum usable frequency(MVF)
1. Virtual Height
The virtual height is the apparent height at which a radio wave seems to be reflected by the
ionosphere. It is calculated based on the time it takes for a radio wave to travel to the
ionosphere and back, assuming it travels at the speed of light1. This height is higher than the
actual height because the wave is bent (refracted) as it travels through the ionosphere.
2. Critical Frequency
The critical frequency is the highest frequency at which a radio wave can be transmitted
vertically into the ionosphere and still be reflected back to Earth. Frequencies higher than
the critical frequency will penetrate the ionosphere and not be reflected3. It is determined
by the electron density in the ionosphere and is given by the formula:

where fc is the critical frequency and Nmax is the maximum electron density.
3. Skip Zone
The skip zone is an annular region between the farthest points at which the ground wave
can be received and the nearest point at which the refracted sky waves can be received.
Within this region, no signal can be received because the sky waves penetrate the
ionosphere instead of being reflected back to Earth4. The width of the skip zone depends on
factors like the ionospheric conditions and the frequency of the transmitted wave.
4. Skip Distance
The skip distance is the minimum distance on the Earth's surface between the transmitter
and the point where the sky wave is first received after being reflected by the ionosphere. It
is influenced by the frequency of the transmitted wave and the height of the ionosphere3.
The skip distance can be calculated using the formula:

5. Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF)

The maximum usable frequency (MUF) is the highest frequency at which a radio wave can
be transmitted at a given angle of incidence and still be reflected back to Earth by the
ionosphere. It is dependent on the ionospheric conditions and the angle at which the wave
is transmitted3. The MUF can be calculated using the formula:

Q27. Derive Mathematical expression for AM and FM with neat, labelled diagram.
→Ans:
1. Amplitude Modulation (AM):

In AM, the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied in proportion to the message signal
(modulating signal), while the frequency remains constant.
Mathematical Expression:
Diagram:

2. Frequency Modulation (FM):

In FM, the frequency of the carrier signal is varied in proportion to the message signal,
while the amplitude remains constant.
Mathematical Expression:
Diagram:
• Message Signal (m(t)): A low-frequency wave.
• Carrier Signal (c(t)): A high-frequency wave with constant amplitude.
• FM Signal (SFM(t)): The frequency changes based on the amplitude of the message
signal.
Q28.] Draw and explain detail FM demodulation, foster Seeley discrimination.
Ans: FM Demodulation - Foster-Seeley Discriminator
FM demodulation is the process of recovering the original message signal from a
frequency-modulated (FM) carrier. The Foster-Seeley discriminator is a widely used
method for FM demodulation. It converts frequency variations into amplitude variations,
which are then processed to retrieve the original message signal.

Working Principle of Foster-Seeley Discriminator

The discriminator uses a tuned circuit and a phase-shifting network to extract the
frequency variations of the FM signal and convert them into amplitude variations. These
variations are then rectified and filtered to obtain the original modulating signal.

Block Diagram of Foster-Seeley Discriminator

1. Input FM Signal: The frequency-modulated signal is fed into the discriminator
circuit.
2. Tank Circuit (Resonant Circuit): A tuned circuit, consisting of an inductor and
capacitor, resonates at the carrier frequency fC. It splits the FM signal into two
components with phase shifts.
3. Diodes: Two diodes rectify the signals to detect amplitude variations caused by
frequency changes.
4. Load Resistors & Capacitors: These smooth and combine the signals to produce the
demodulated signal.
5. Output Signal: The original message signal is extracted.

Step-by-Step Explanation:
1. Frequency to Amplitude Conversion:
o The FM signal enters a double-tuned transformer, which creates two
outputs with equal amplitudes but opposite phases when the input
frequency equals the carrier frequency.
o When the input frequency deviates, one output increases in amplitude
while the other decreases.
2. Rectification:
o The diodes rectify the signals, converting the AC variations into DC signals
proportional to the frequency deviation.
 3. Signal Combination:
o The output from the diodes is combined using a capacitor and resistors to
recover the original modulating signal.
4. Filtering:
o A low-pass filter removes high-frequency noise, leaving only the recovered
message signal.

Mathematical Expression:

Neat Diagram:
I'll draw the diagram for the Foster-Seeley Discriminator.
Here is the Foster-Seeley Discriminator Circuit diagram:
• Input FM Signal: The modulated signal enters through the tuned transformer.
• Tank Circuit (LC): Resonates at the carrier frequency and splits the FM signal.
• Diodes (D1 and D2): Rectify the phase-shifted signals.
• Resistors and Capacitors (R & C): Combine and filter the signals to retrieve the
original message.
Q29. Explain in detail Armstrong method of generation of FM.
Ans: Armstrong Method of FM Generation
The Armstrong method is a widely used indirect method to generate a frequency-
modulated (FM) signal. It produces a stable FM signal with precise frequency deviation by
first creating narrowband FM (NBFM) and then converting it into wideband FM (WBFM).

Steps in Armstrong Method

1. Generate Narrowband FM (NBFM):
• Message Signal m(t): The original signal containing the information.
• Crystal Oscillator: Produces a stable, high-frequency carrier signal c(t).
• Phase Modulator: The message signal m(t) is applied to a phase modulator
to produce NBFM.
o In NBFM, the frequency deviation is small and proportional to the derivative of m(t).
o NBFM Signal: SNBFM(t) ≈ AC cos(2πfC t) – AC β sin(2πfC t) sin(2πfm t)
Where β = (modulation index) is very small.
2. Frequency Multiplication:
• The NBFM signal is passed through a frequency multiplier, which increases the
frequency and deviation to desired levels.
o If the frequency is multiplied by nnn, the deviation is also multiplied by nnn,
converting NBFM into WBFM.
3. Frequency Translation (Mixer):
• The carrier frequency is adjusted to the desired transmission frequency using a
mixer circuit.
• The signal is mixed with another stable oscillator signal, resulting in the required
WBFM at the desired frequency.
4. Amplification:
• The final FM signal is amplified to the required power level using a power amplifier,
making it suitable for transmission.

Block Diagram of Armstrong Method

1. Message Signal m(t)m(t)m(t): The input signal.
2. Crystal Oscillator: Produces a stable carrier signal.
 3. Balanced Modulator (Phase Modulator): Generates NBFM.
4. Frequency Multiplier: Increases the frequency deviation and carrier frequency
proportionally.
5. Mixer: Adjusts the carrier frequency to the desired transmission frequency.
6. Power Amplifier: Amplifies the FM signal for transmission.

Advantages:
1. High stability due to the use of a crystal oscillator.
2. Precise control over frequency deviation.
3. Produces high-quality FM signals suitable for broadcasting.
Disadvantages:
1. Complex circuitry.
2. Requires multiple stages, increasing cost and size.
Q30. Compare ground wave ,sky wave ,space wave and troposphere scatter propagation
Ans: Comparison of Ground Wave, Sky Wave, Space Wave, and Tropospheric Scatter
Propagation
Radio waves can propagate in different ways depending on their frequency, power, and
the medium. Here’s a clear and easy comparison of the four propagation methods:

1. Ground Wave Propagation

Definition:
Radio waves travel along the surface of the Earth, following its curvature.
Key Points:
• Frequency Range: Up to 2 MHz (e.g., AM radio).
• Distance Covered: Limited to short and medium ranges (up to 100-300 km).
• Best Conditions: Works well over conductive surfaces like water.
• Applications: AM broadcasting, maritime communication.
• Limitation: Signal weakens with distance due to surface absorption.

2. Sky Wave Propagation

Definition:
Radio waves are reflected back to Earth by the ionosphere, allowing them to cover long
distances.
Key Points:
• Frequency Range: 3 MHz to 30 MHz (e.g., shortwave radio).
• Distance Covered: Long-range communication, even thousands of kilometers.
• Best Conditions: Effective at night due to reduced ionospheric absorption.
• Applications: International broadcasting, amateur radio.
• Limitation: Depends on ionospheric conditions, which vary with time of day and
solar activity.

3. Space Wave Propagation

Definition:
Radio waves travel directly from the transmitter to the receiver through the atmosphere.
Key Points:
• Frequency Range: Above 30 MHz (e.g., FM radio, TV, satellite).
• Distance Covered: Limited to line-of-sight (LOS) range, typically up to 50 km for
terrestrial communication.
• Best Conditions: Works well in urban areas and for satellite communication.
• Applications: Mobile communication, FM radio, television, radar, satellites.
• Limitation: Blocked by obstacles like mountains and buildings.

4. Tropospheric Scatter Propagation

Definition:
Radio waves are scattered in the troposphere due to irregularities like temperature and
pressure variations, enabling communication beyond line-of-sight.
Key Points:
• Frequency Range: 300 MHz to 3 GHz (e.g., UHF and SHF bands).
• Distance Covered: Medium to long-range (500-1000 km).
• Best Conditions: Works even in bad weather or over rough terrain.
• Applications: Military communication, remote area connectivity.
• Limitation: Requires high power and sensitive receivers; signal strength is low.

Comparison Table

Tropospheric
Feature Ground Wave Sky Wave Space Wave
Scatter

Frequency 3 MHz to 30
Up to 2 MHz Above 30 MHz 300 MHz to 3 GHz
Range MHz

Short to medium Long (thousands Line-of-sight (up Medium to long

Distance
(100-300 km) of km) to 50 km) (500-1000 km)

Medium
Earth's surface Ionosphere Direct line of sight Troposphere scatter
Used

AM radio, Shortwave Military, remote

Applications FM, TV, satellite
maritime radio, amateur areas
 Tropospheric
Feature Ground Wave Sky Wave Space Wave
Scatter

Signal Ionospheric Obstructions Weak signals, high

Limitation
attenuation dependency (buildings, hills) power needed

Q31. In AM radio recevier the loaded Q of antena circuit at the up to the mixer is 100. It
the intermediate frequency is 455khz ,cal the image frequency and its rejection at 1MHZ
Ans: Image Frequency and Rejection in an AM Radio Receiver
In AM receivers, image frequency is an undesired frequency that can interfere with the
desired signal. To reject this frequency, the receiver's front-end circuits use selectivity
determined by the quality factor QQQ.

Steps to Calculate Image Frequency and its Rejection

Given Data:
1. Desired Signal Frequency (fS) = 1 MHz1
2. Intermediate Frequency (fIF) = 455 kHz
3. Loaded Q of antenna circuit = 100
1. Image Frequency Calculation:
2. Image Frequency Rejection:
Final Answer:
1. Image Frequency: 1.91 MHz
2. Image Frequency Rejection: 562 dB

Q.32 Binary Shift Keying (BSK) Generation and Detection

1. Introduction to BSK
• Binary Shift Keying (BSK) is a digital modulation technique that encodes binary data
(0s and 1s) into varying amplitudes of a carrier signal.
• It is a type of Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) where the amplitude represents the
binary information.
• Purpose: Transmit binary data over communication channels efficiently.

2. BSK Generation Process

Step 1: Input Binary Data
• A sequence of binary bits (e.g., 10101) serves as the input for modulation.
• Binary 1 and 0 determine the amplitude levels of the carrier signal.
Step 2: Carrier Signal
• A high-frequency sinusoidal waveform (sine wave) is generated.
• The amplitude of this carrier signal will be modulated based on the binary data.
Step 3: Modulation
• Binary 1: The carrier signal is transmitted with a high amplitude (A2).
• Binary 0: The carrier signal is transmitted with a low amplitude (A1).
• Modulation creates a BSK waveform that alternates between two amplitude levels.
Step 4: Output Signal
• The output is a continuous waveform where the amplitude corresponds to the
binary input.
• Example:
o Binary Input: 10101.
o Output Waveform: High amplitude (1) → Low amplitude (0) → High
amplitude (1) → Low amplitude (0) → High amplitude (1).
3. Waveform Characteristics
• Binary Input: Represents the digital data (0s and 1s).
• Amplitude Levels:
o Binary 1 → A2 (high amplitude).
o Binary 0 → A1 (low amplitude).
• Continuous Sine Wave: The carrier wave maintains a consistent frequency but
switches amplitude based on the input.
• Time Duration: Each bit is represented by one symbol duration.

4. BSK Detection Process

Step 1: Receiving the Signal
• The modulated signal (BSK waveform) is received at the receiver end.
• Noise and distortions might slightly alter the waveform but should not affect
detection due to amplitude distinctions.
Step 2: Demodulation
• The signal is passed through an amplitude detector (like an envelope detector).
• The detector measures the amplitude at regular intervals corresponding to the
symbol duration.
Step 3: Decision Logic
• Amplitude is compared to predefined thresholds:
o If amplitude matches A2A_2A2, output = binary 1.
o If amplitude matches A1A_1A1, output = binary 0.
Step 4: Reconstructed Data
• The binary data sequence is reconstructed and sent to the next stage of the system.

5. Example for Better Understanding

Binary Input:
• 10101 (example data).
Carrier Wave:
 • Sine wave with constant frequency.
Modulated Waveform:
• High amplitude for binary 1.
• Low amplitude for binary 0.
• Waveform alternates as per the binary input.
Demodulation Output:
• Amplitude is checked:
o High amplitude → 1.
o Low amplitude → 0.
• Output binary data = 10101.

6. Advantages of BSK
• Simplicity: Easy to implement using basic circuitry.
• Efficiency: Requires low bandwidth for transmission.
• Resistance to Noise: Amplitude differences make detection robust against minor
noise.

7. Applications
• Used in wireless communication systems, such as RF transmitters.
• Common in satellite communication where low power and simple hardware are
preferred.
• Deployed in data transmission systems for minimal interference.

8. Diagram and Waveform (To Be Added)

• Include a waveform showing high and low amplitude changes.
• A binary sequence like 1010 can be represented graphically.

Q.33 Two stage friss formula derivation

Friis Formula for Two-Stage System (Derivation in Points)
1. Definition of Noise Factor (F):
o The noise factor represents the degradation in the signal-to-noise ratio
(SNR) of a system.
o It is given by:

2. Noise Figure (NF):

o The noise figure is the logarithmic representation of the noise factor in
decibels:
3. System Parameters for Two Stages:

4. Noise Contributions:
o Stage 1 contributes its noise factor F1F_1F1 fully to the overall noise.
o Stage 2 contributes noise scaled down by G1 (the gain of Stage 1).
5. Formula Derivation:
o Total noise factor is the sum of:

o Hence:

6. Physical Interpretation:
o The noise contribution of the first stage dominates the total noise if
G1G_1G1 (gain of the first stage) is large.
7. Noise Figure Conversion:
o Convert the total noise factor to the noise figure (in dB):

8. Importance:
o The Friis formula emphasizes the importance of optimizing the first stage
(e.g., using a low-noise amplifier) in minimizing the total noise of the
system.
Example : Am amplifier operating over a fre rangle from 17 to 19 MHz has Ifp resist 5 k
ohm. What is sms them Operat noise vol at i/p of this amplifier. Assiome temp 27 degree
celcius?
->

Q 34. High-Level Amplitude Modulation (AM)

Amplitude Modulation (AM) is a technique in which the amplitude of a carrier wave is
varied in proportion to the amplitude of the modulating signal, while the frequency and
phase remain constant. High-level AM systems use non-linear devices, such as transistors
or vacuum tubes, to perform the modulation process. In these systems, the modulating
signal is applied after the carrier has been amplified.

High-Level AM Block Diagram

Here is the block diagram of a high-level AM transmitter:
rust
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Modulating Signal ---> Pre-Amplifier --->
|
v
Carrier Signal ---> Oscillator --->
|
v
RF Power Amplifier ---> Nonlinear Modulator ---> Transmitting Antenna

Block Diagram Explanation

1. Modulating Signal:
o This is the low-frequency information or baseband signal (e.g., audio signal)
that needs to be transmitted.
2. Pre-Amplifier:
o The modulating signal is weak and is amplified to a suitable level using a
pre-amplifier.
3. Carrier Signal:
o A high-frequency carrier signal is generated by an oscillator. This carrier will
carry the modulating signal to the receiver.
4. RF Power Amplifier:
o The carrier signal is further amplified by a radio frequency (RF) power
amplifier to ensure it has enough strength for effective modulation and
transmission.
5. Nonlinear Modulator:
o The modulating signal is combined with the amplified carrier signal in the
modulator circuit.
o This nonlinear device varies the amplitude of the carrier based on the
amplitude of the modulating signal.
6. Transmitting Antenna:
 o The modulated signal is sent to the transmitting antenna, which radiates it
as electromagnetic waves into the atmosphere for reception by the receiver.

Waveform of High-Level AM
• Carrier Wave: A sinusoidal waveform with a constant amplitude.
• Modulating Signal: A low-frequency waveform (e.g., audio signal).
• AM Signal: The resulting signal, where the amplitude of the carrier wave varies in
proportion to the modulating signal.

Advantages of High-Level AM
1. High efficiency for large power levels.
2. Suitable for long-distance transmission.
3. Capable of handling high power without significant distortion.

Disadvantages of High-Level AM
1. Requires more complex circuitry for modulation.
2. Inefficient use of bandwidth, as it requires double sidebands.
3. More susceptible to noise compared to other modulation techniques.

Q35. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) Transmitter and Receiver

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) is a technique used to transmit multiple signals
simultaneously over a single communication channel by assigning each signal a unique
frequency band within the available spectrum. Each signal is modulated onto a separate
carrier frequency, and the composite signal is transmitted. At the receiver, the signals are
demultiplexed by separating their frequency bands.

FDM Transmitter Block Diagram

Explanation of FDM Transmitter

1. Message Signals:
o Input signals (e.g., voice, data, or audio signals) from different sources.
2. Modulator:
o Each message signal is modulated onto a unique carrier frequency using
amplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM), or phase
modulation (PM).
3. Mixer:
o Combines the modulated signal with other frequency components to
position it in the desired frequency band.
 4. Bandpass Filter:
o Filters out unwanted frequencies, allowing only the desired frequency band
for each message signal.
5. Composite Signal:
o All modulated signals are combined into a single composite signal and
transmitted via the antenna.

FDM Receiver Block Diagram

Explanation of FDM Receiver

 1. Receiving Antenna:
o Captures the composite signal containing all the frequency bands.
2. Bandpass Filters:
o Separate each frequency band corresponding to the individual message
signals. Each filter isolates one carrier frequency.
3. Demodulator:
o Demodulates the filtered signal to extract the original baseband message
signal by removing the carrier frequency.
4. Output Signals:
o The individual message signals are recovered and sent to the respective
outputs.

Key Characteristics of FDM

• Efficiency: Multiple signals share the same transmission medium without
interference.
• Bandwidth Utilization: The total bandwidth is divided into non-overlapping
frequency bands, each assigned to a different message.
• Hardware Requirement: Requires precise filters and oscillators for modulation and
demodulation.

Advantages of FDM
1. Allows simultaneous transmission of multiple signals.
2. Easy to implement with analog systems.
3. Suitable for systems with a continuous stream of data.

Disadvantages of FDM
1. Requires large bandwidth for multiple signals.
2. Sensitive to intermodulation distortion between adjacent channels.
3. Complex filters are required for precise frequency separation.
Q36. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) Generation and Detection
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) is a type of modulation where the amplitude of a
series of pulses is varied in proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of the message
signal. It is commonly used in digital communication systems, especially for transmitting
data over channels with limited bandwidth.

PAM Generation
The process of PAM generation involves modulating the amplitude of the carrier pulse
train according to the information signal.
Block Diagram for PAM Generation
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Message Signal ----> Sampler ----> Pulse Shaper ----> PAM Signal
1. Message Signal:
o This is the continuous-time message signal (e.g., an audio signal) that you
want to transmit.
2. Sampler:
o The message signal is sampled at discrete intervals (usually at the Nyquist
rate or higher) to create a series of pulses. The sampling process creates a
signal that represents the message at specific time points.
3. Pulse Shaper:
o The sampled signal is then shaped into pulses with constant duration. The
amplitude of each pulse is proportional to the value of the message signal
at the time of sampling. This results in a series of pulses with varying
amplitudes, representing the original message signal.
4. PAM Signal:
o The output is the final PAM signal, a train of pulses where each pulse's
amplitude corresponds to the amplitude of the message signal at the
sampling time.

PAM Signal Waveform

The waveform of the PAM signal would look like this:

PAM Detection
PAM detection involves recovering the original message signal from the received pulse
train. The detector samples the received signal at the same intervals as the transmitter
and reconstructs the original message by extracting the amplitude of each pulse.
Block Diagram for PAM Detection
PAM Signal ----> Sampler ----> Demodulator ----> Message Signal

1. PAM Signal:
o The received PAM signal is the train of pulses with varying amplitudes that
were transmitted.
2. Sampler:
o The signal is sampled at the same intervals used in the generation process
to capture the amplitude of each pulse.
3. Demodulator:
o The demodulator extracts the amplitude information from the sampled
pulses and reconstructs the message signal.
4. Message Signal:
o The final output is the recovered message signal, which ideally matches the
original message that was modulated.

PAM Detection Waveform

After sampling and demodulation, the detected waveform would resemble the message
signal:
yaml
Copy code
PAM Signal: __ __ __ __ __ __ __
| | | | | | | |

Message Signal: _ _ _ _ _
/ \ / \ / \ / \ / \
/ \ / \ /
• The detected signal mirrors the original message signal but may have some
distortion due to noise or imperfect sampling.

Advantages of PAM
1. Simplicity: PAM is simple to implement and requires less complex hardware for
generation and detection.
2. Efficiency: In digital communication systems, PAM can be efficient in terms of
bandwidth when using higher-order PAM (such as 4-PAM, 8-PAM).
3. Cost-Effective: It is a cost-effective method for modulating and demodulating
signals in certain applications.

Disadvantages of PAM
1. Susceptibility to Noise: The amplitude of each pulse can be affected by noise,
leading to distortion in the message signal.
2. Bandwidth Requirement: PAM signals can require a significant bandwidth,
especially when transmitting high-order signals.
3. Power Consumption: Due to pulse amplitude modulation, the system may need
higher power to maintain clear transmission over long distances.

Q37. With the help of neat circuit diagram explain varactor diode method FM generation.
→

The varactor diode method is a direct method for generating Frequency Modulation (FM)
signals. Here's how it works:
Principle of Varactor Diode Method
A varactor diode is a semiconductor diode whose junction capacitance varies inversely with
the applied reverse bias voltage. When the reverse bias voltage is increased, the capacitance
decreases, and vice versa2.
Components of the Circuit
1. Oscillator Circuit: This circuit generates the carrier frequency. It typically consists of
an LC (inductor-capacitor) tank circuit3.
2. Varactor Diode: The varactor diode is connected in parallel with the capacitor in the
LC tank circuit.
3. Modulating Signal: The message signal (modulating signal) is applied to the varactor
diode to vary its capacitance.
Working
1. Carrier Generation: The oscillator circuit generates a carrier signal at a specific
frequency.
2. Modulation: The modulating signal is applied to the varactor diode, causing its
capacitance to vary in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating signal.
3. Frequency Variation: As the capacitance of the varactor diode changes, the resonant
frequency of the LC tank circuit changes, resulting in frequency modulation of the
carrier signal.
Mathematical Representation
Let:
Advantages
• Simplicity: The circuit is relatively simple and easy to implement.
• Direct Modulation: The carrier frequency is directly modulated by the modulating
signal, providing a straightforward method for FM generation.

Q38. Write a short note on (1) Delta Modulation

(2)Need of modulation

→Delta Modulation

Delta Modulation (DM) is a method of converting an analog signal into a digital signal by
encoding the difference between successive samples rather than the absolute values. It
simplifies the process compared to Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), making it suitable for
bandwidth-limited systems.

Working Principle

1. The analog signal is sampled at regular intervals.

2. The difference between the current and previous sample is calculated.
3. This difference is quantized into a single binary bit:
 o 1 represents an increase in amplitude.
o 0 represents a decrease in amplitude.
4. At the receiver, these binary bits are used to reconstruct the signal using an integrator.

Key Features

• It encodes only the changes in the signal, making it efficient.

• Single-bit encoding per sample simplifies implementation.

Advantages

• Lower complexity and cost due to simpler hardware.

• Reduced bandwidth requirements compared to PCM.
• Suitable for speech and audio transmission.

Disadvantages

• Slope overload distortion occurs when the signal changes rapidly, leading to
inaccuracies.
• Granular noise appears during slow signal variations, affecting quality.

Applications

• Used in speech transmission systems, such as telephony.

• Applied in low-bandwidth communication systems.

Diagram

Draw a block diagram showing:

• Modulator: Includes a comparator, quantizer, and output.

• Demodulator: Includes an integrator to reconstruct the signal.

Delta Modulation offers a simpler alternative to PCM, though it comes with limitations in
accuracy.

Need for Modulation

Modulation is essential for transmitting signals efficiently and reliably in communication
systems. It helps in overcoming several limitations of direct signal transmission. Below are
the main reasons for its need:

1. Efficient Long-Distance Transmission

• Low-frequency signals (like audio or speech) cannot travel far due to high attenuation.
• Modulation shifts these signals to higher frequencies, enabling efficient transmission over
long distances without significant loss.
2. Reduction of Noise and Interference

• Low-frequency signals are more susceptible to noise and external interference.

• Modulation improves signal strength and clarity by transmitting the signal at higher
frequencies where interference is minimal.

3. Reduction in Antenna Size

• The size of the antenna required is inversely proportional to the signal frequency.
• Modulating the signal to higher frequencies allows the use of smaller and more practical
antennas.

4. Enables Multiplexing

• Multiple signals can be transmitted simultaneously over the same medium using different
carrier frequencies.
• This technique (e.g., in radio and TV broadcasting) allows efficient use of available
bandwidth.

5. Better Utilization of Bandwidth

• Modulation allocates specific frequency ranges to different signals, ensuring optimal usage of
the limited frequency spectrum.

6. Hardware Compatibility

• Transmitters and receivers work more efficiently with higher-frequency signals.

• Modulation ensures that the signals are compatible with the technical requirements of
communication systems.

7. Minimizes Fading

• In long-distance transmission, signal strength decreases (fading).

• Modulation helps maintain signal quality over extended ranges.

8. Supports Global Communication

 • High-frequency modulated signals, such as radio waves, can travel through the atmosphere
or cables, enabling worldwide communication.

Examples:

• AM/FM for radio transmission.

• Modulated signals in 4G/5G mobile networks.
• Satellite communication for TV and internet.

In summary, modulation plays a critical role in ensuring reliable, efficient, and long-distance
communication.

Q39.Consider that bit sequence given below is to be transmitted bit seq=10110011

Draw resulting if sequence is transmitted using

(1) Unipolar (2) Polarization (3) AMI (4)Split Phase Manipulation (5) M-ary where M=4
(Polar Quaternary).

→ Representation of Bit Sequence Transmission

The given bit sequence is 10110011. Below are the representations for different encoding
techniques:

1. Unipolar Encoding

• Each bit is represented by a voltage level.

• 1: High level (e.g., +5V).
• 0: Zero level (e.g., 0V).

Waveform:
+5 +5 0 0 +5 +5 0 +5
|___| |_____| |_____| |

2. Polar Encoding

• Uses two voltage levels to represent the bits.

• 1: Positive level (e.g., +5V).
• 0: Negative level (e.g., -5V).

Waveform:
+5 +5 -5 -5 +5 +5 -5 +5
|___|_____|_____|_____|_|
3. AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion)

• 1: Alternates between positive and negative voltage (e.g., +5V, -5V).

• 0: Zero voltage (0V).

Waveform:
+5 0 -5 0 +5 0 -5 +5
|___| |___| |___| |__

4. Split Phase Manipulation (Manchester Encoding)

• Each bit has a transition in the middle.

• 1: Low-to-high transition.
• 0: High-to-low transition.

Waveform:
1: _|‾ 0: ‾|_ (10110011)
_|‾ ‾|_ ‾|_ _|‾ _|‾ ‾|_ _|‾

5. M-ary Encoding (M = 4, Polar Quaternary)

• Groups bits into 2-bit symbols (as M = 4 → log₂4 = 2 bits).

• Assigns unique voltage levels for each pair:
o 00: -3V
o 01: -1V
o 10: +1V
o 11: +3V
• Bit sequence: 10110011 → Symbols: 10, 11, 00, 11

Waveform:
+1 +3 -3 +3
|____|____|____|____|

These graphical representations explain the encoding of the bit sequence using various
methods, which is suitable for a 10-mark question.

Q40. Role of Balance Modulator

Role of Balance Modulator
A balanced modulator is an essential component in communication systems, particularly in
amplitude modulation (AM) techniques. Its primary function is to produce a double sideband
suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) signal. Below is a concise explanation of its role:
1. Suppression of Carrier Signal

• The balanced modulator eliminates the carrier signal, allowing only the sidebands to pass.
• This reduces power wastage and makes transmission more efficient.

2. Generation of DSB-SC Signal

• It combines the modulating signal (message) and the carrier signal to produce a DSB-SC
signal, which is an AM signal without the carrier component.

3. Minimization of Interference

• By suppressing the carrier, the modulator helps reduce potential interference from other
signals operating at similar frequencies.

4. Power Efficiency

• In standard AM, the carrier consumes most of the power, but it does not carry information.
• Balanced modulation saves power by transmitting only the sidebands, which contain the
actual information.

5. Improved Signal Quality

• The output of a balanced modulator is free from distortion caused by the carrier, resulting in
a cleaner and higher-quality signal.

6. Frequency Conversion

• The balanced modulator aids in shifting the frequency of the baseband signal to the desired
frequency range for transmission.

7. Applications

• Used in amplitude modulation techniques such as DSB-SC and SSB (Single Sideband).
• Plays a role in frequency mixing for upconversion or downconversion in receivers.
Diagram

• Include a block diagram of a balanced modulator showing inputs (carrier and message signal)
and the output (DSB-SC signal).

In summary, the balanced modulator is vital for efficient, high-quality signal transmission by
suppressing the carrier and focusing on the sidebands carrying information.

Q 41. Draw and Explain EM Spectrum and Specify Application of different bands.
→

The Electromagnetic (EM) Spectrum encompasses all types of electromagnetic radiation,

which are categorized by their wavelengths and frequencies. This range includes
everything from radio waves to gamma rays. Here’s a breakdown of the EM Spectrum and
the applications of its different bands:
1. Radio Waves
• Wavelength: 1 mm to 100 km
• Frequency: 3 Hz to 300 GHz
• Applications:
o Broadcasting: AM and FM radio, television signals.
o Communication: Mobile phones, satellite communications.
o Navigation: GPS, radar systems.
 o Medical: MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging).
2. Microwaves
• Wavelength: 1 mm to 1 m
• Frequency: 300 MHz to 300 GHz
• Applications:
o Communication: Satellite and space communication, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth.
o Cooking: Microwave ovens.
o Radar: Weather radar, air traffic control.
o Medical: Diathermy for deep tissue heating.
3. Infrared (IR)
• Wavelength: 700 nm to 1 mm
• Frequency: 300 GHz to 430 THz
• Applications:
o Remote Controls: TV remotes, other household devices.
o Thermal Imaging: Night-vision devices, thermography.
o Communication: Fiber optic communication.
o Medical: Physiotherapy treatments, infrared thermometers.
4. Visible Light
• Wavelength: 400 nm to 700 nm
• Frequency: 430 THz to 770 THz
• Applications:
o Vision: Human sight.
o Illumination: Lighting, laser pointers.
o Photography: Cameras and imaging.
o Medical: Endoscopy, laser surgery.
5. Ultraviolet (UV)
• Wavelength: 10 nm to 400 nm
• Frequency: 770 THz to 30 PHz
• Applications:
 o Sterilization: Disinfecting medical equipment, water purification.
o Fluorescence: Detecting counterfeit money, mineral detection.
o Medical: Treating skin conditions like psoriasis.
o Forensics: Detecting bodily fluids, fingerprints.
6. X-Rays
• Wavelength: 0.01 nm to 10 nm
• Frequency: 30 PHz to 30 EHz
• Applications:
o Medical Imaging: X-ray radiography, CT scans.
o Security: Airport security scanners.
o Scientific Research: Crystallography, studying atomic structures.
o Industrial: Inspecting welds, checking structural integrity.
7. Gamma Rays
• Wavelength: Less than 0.01 nm
• Frequency: Greater than 30 EHz
• Applications:
o Medical Treatment: Cancer radiotherapy.
o Astronomy: Studying cosmic phenomena, gamma-ray bursts.
o Industrial: Sterilizing medical equipment and food.
o Scientific Research: Nuclear physics experiments.

Q42. The Phase Shift Method for generating a Single Sideband (SSB) signal is a widely used
technique in communication systems to transmit only one of the sidebands (upper or
lower) of an amplitude-modulated (AM) signal. Here's an elaborated explanation:

Key Components of the Method

1. Message Signal (Modulating Signal):
o This is the low-frequency information signal that you want to transmit (e.g.,
voice, music).
2. Carrier Signal:
 o A high-frequency sinusoidal signal used to carry the message signal over
long distances.
3. Goal of SSB Generation:
o In a typical AM signal, both the upper sideband (USB) and lower sideband
(LSB) carry the same information, while the carrier contains no additional
information.
o Transmitting both sidebands wastes bandwidth and power, so SSB
eliminates one of them (USB or LSB).

Steps in the Phase Shift Method

1. Phase Shift the Message Signal:
o The message signal is split into two identical parts.
o One part is kept as it is (0° phase shift).
o The other part is shifted by 90° using a phase shifter.
2. Phase Shift the Carrier Signal:
o The carrier signal is also split into two identical parts.
o One part is kept as it is (0° phase shift).
o The other part is shifted by 90° using another phase shifter.
3. Mixing (Modulation):
o Multiply the original message signal (0° phase-shifted) with the 90° phase-
shifted carrier signal.
o Multiply the 90° phase-shifted message signal with the original carrier
signal.
4. Combining the Signals:
o Add or subtract the two mixed signals:
▪ Addition: Generates the upper sideband (USB).
▪ Subtraction: Generates the lower sideband (LSB).
o The addition or subtraction ensures that one sideband is constructively
combined, while the other is canceled out through destructive interference.

Advantages
 1. Bandwidth Efficiency: Only one sideband is transmitted, halving the bandwidth
usage compared to AM.
2. Power Efficiency: The carrier and one sideband are suppressed, reducing power
requirements.

Applications
1. Radio Communication: SSB is used in amateur radio, HF (high frequency)
communication, and aviation communication.
2. Telephony: Efficient use in long-distance telephone systems.
3. Satellite Communication: Bandwidth conservation is crucial in satellites.

Challenges
1. Accuracy: Precise 90° phase shifts are critical to avoid signal distortion.
2. Complexity: The circuit design for phase shifters and mixers can be intricate.
In summary, the Phase Shift Method systematically uses phase differences to eliminate
one sideband, making SSB generation effective for efficient communication.

Q43. The time-shifting property in signal processing plays a significant role in SSB (Single
Sideband) generation, especially when analyzing and modifying signals in the time and
frequency domains. Here's an explanation in simple terms:

The time-shifting property is linked to how signals behave in the frequency domain. When
a signal is shifted in time, its frequency spectrum is affected by a phase factor.
3. Role in SSB Generation
In SSB generation, time shifting helps in understanding and manipulating the signal's
sidebands (upper and lower). Here's how:
1. AM Signal and Sidebands:
o An amplitude-modulated (AM) signal consists of a carrier frequency and
two sidebands (upper and lower) containing the same information.
o To generate an SSB signal, one sideband is eliminated.
2. Eliminating One Sideband:
o Using the time-shifting property, you can represent the signal in terms of its
frequency components.
o By carefully combining or manipulating signals, the destructive interference
caused by phase differences (linked to time shifts) cancels out one
sideband.
3. Relation to Phase Shifts:
o Time shifting in the time domain corresponds to phase shifting in the
frequency domain. Phase shifting is key in the phase shift method for SSB
generation, where 90° shifts are used to achieve sideband cancellation.

4. Example
5. Significance in SSB
• Bandwidth Conservation: Time-shifting properties help in mathematically analyzing
the frequency components, ensuring that only one sideband is transmitted.
• Phase Control: Precise phase adjustments derived from time-shifting principles are
critical for achieving SSB.

Conclusion
The time-shifting property is essential in SSB generation as it explains how time-domain
manipulations translate to frequency-domain phase changes. These phase changes are
fundamental to the cancellation of one sideband, enabling efficient and bandwidth-saving
communication.

Q44. Sensitivity and Selectivity in AM Receivers

In AM receivers, sensitivity and selectivity are critical parameters that define the quality
and performance of signal reception. Here's a detailed explanation:

1. Sensitivity
Definition: Sensitivity is the ability of an AM receiver to detect and amplify weak signals. It
determines how well the receiver can pick up faint radio signals.
• Purpose: Ensures that even low-strength signals, such as those from distant
stations, can be received and heard clearly.
• Measurement: Sensitivity is measured as the minimum signal strength (in
microvolts) required at the antenna input to produce a standard output (e.g., a
specific audio power level) with an acceptable signal-to-noise ratio.
Factors Affecting Sensitivity:
1. RF Amplifiers: Increase the strength of weak signals.
 2. Noise Level: Lower noise enhances sensitivity.
3. Antenna Design: A better antenna improves signal capture.
Example: A receiver with high sensitivity can pick up a weak AM station located far away,
making it ideal for long-distance communication.

2. Selectivity
Definition: Selectivity is the ability of an AM receiver to distinguish between the desired
signal and unwanted signals (e.g., from adjacent frequencies or stations).
• Purpose: Ensures that the receiver tunes into one specific station without
interference from nearby stations broadcasting on close frequencies.
• Measurement: Selectivity is measured as the ratio of the output of the desired
signal to the output of unwanted signals.
Factors Affecting Selectivity:
1. Bandpass Filters: Filters allow only the desired frequency to pass through, rejecting
others.
2. IF (Intermediate Frequency) Stage: Proper design improves frequency separation.
Example: A selective receiver can tune to 1010 kHz without interference from signals at
1000 kHz or 1020 kHz.

Comparison and Importance

Parameter Sensitivity Selectivity

Focus Amplifying weak signals Distinguishing between signals

Improved by RF amplifiers, low noise Bandpass filters, IF stage

Purpose Detecting distant or weak stations Avoiding interference from nearby signals

Both sensitivity and selectivity are essential for a high-quality AM receiver. A balance is
needed: a highly sensitive receiver may pick up noise if selectivity is poor, and a highly
selective receiver might miss weak signals if sensitivity is low.

Conclusion
Sensitivity ensures the receiver can pick up faint signals, while selectivity ensures it can
distinguish the desired signal from others. A well-designed AM receiver combines both to
provide clear and reliable reception.
Q45. Slope Overload Error and Hunting Error in Delta Modulation
Delta Modulation (DM) is a simple method of analog-to-digital conversion where the input
signal is approximated by a series of steps. Two common errors in Delta Modulation are
Slope Overload Error and Hunting Error.

1. Slope Overload Error

Definition:
• Occurs when the input signal changes too quickly (steep slope) for the system's
step size to keep up.
• The approximation fails, leading to significant distortion in the output.

2. Hunting Error (Granular Noise)

Definition:
• Happens when the input signal changes very slowly or remains constant, but the
system continues to produce unnecessary step changes (oscillations around the
actual value).
Cause:
• Step size (Δ\Delta) is too large for small variations in the input signal.
Solution:
• Use adaptive delta modulation, where the step size dynamically adjusts based on
the rate of change of the input signal.
Summary of Errors

Error Cause Effect Solution

Slope Step size too Increase Δ\Delta or sampling

Cannot follow steep signals
Overload small rate

Step size too Oscillations around slow Reduce Δ\Delta or use

Hunting Error
large signals adaptive DM

By ensuring the step size and sampling rate match the input signal characteristics, both
errors can be minimized, improving the performance of Delta Modulation.

46. Space Wave Propagation

Definition:
Space wave propagation refers to the mode of radio wave transmission where the waves
travel directly from the transmitter to the receiver through the line-of-sight (LOS) path or
slightly beyond the horizon due to atmospheric refraction.

Key Features:
1. Line-of-Sight (LOS):
o Waves travel in straight lines between antennas if there is no obstruction.
o Common for frequencies above 30 MHz (VHF, UHF, microwave).
2. Direct Wave and Ground Reflected Wave:
o The signal consists of a direct wave and a reflected wave from the Earth's
surface.
3. Frequencies Used:
 o Suitable for VHF (Very High Frequency), UHF (Ultra High Frequency), and
microwave bands due to minimal diffraction.
4. Range:

Applications:
1. Television Broadcasting:
o Uses VHF and UHF for line-of-sight communication.
2. Mobile Communication:
o Cellular networks use space wave propagation for tower-to-device
communication.
3. Satellite Communication:
o Signals between ground stations and satellites rely on direct space waves.

Advantages:
1. Supports high-frequency transmission.
2. High data capacity and better quality.
3. Suitable for point-to-point and mobile communication.

Disadvantages:
1. Limited range due to Earth's curvature.
2. Requires high antennas for long distances.
3. Susceptible to interference and attenuation by obstacles.
Here's a simplified explanation of the time and frequency shifting, unit step function, delta
function, and gate function in the context of the Fourier Transform suitable for a 10-mark
answer in Mumbai University exams:
Q47.Discuss time and frequency shifting ,unit step ,delta and gate function of fourier
transform
Conclusion
The properties of Fourier Transform like shifting and its application to standard functions
like unit step, delta, and gate provide the foundation for analyzing signals in both time and
frequency domains. These concepts are widely used in communication systems, signal
processing, and engineering applications.

Q48. Compare digital band pass modulation technique ASK FSK PSK