AOS Lect 1

Chapter 1: Introduction
Operating System Concepts – 10h Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Chapter 1: Introduction
What Operating Systems Do
Computer-System Organization
Computer-System Architecture
Operating-System Structure
Operating-System Operations
Process Management
Memory Management
Storage Management
Protection and Security
Kernel Data Structures
Computing Environments
Open-Source Operating Systems
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Objectives
To describe the basic organization of computer systems

To provide a grand tour of the major components of
operating systems
To give an overview of the many types of computing
environments
To explore several open-source operating systems
What is an Operating System?
A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a

computer and the computer hardware
Operating system goals:
Execute user programs and make solving user problems
easier
Make the computer system convenient to use
Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner
Computer System Structure
Computer system can be divided into four components:

Hardware – provides basic computing resources
 CPU, memory, I/O devices
Operating system
 Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various
applications and users
Application programs – define the ways in which the system
resources are used to solve the computing problems of the
users
 Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database
systems, video games
Users
 People, machines, other computers
Four Components of a Computer System
What Operating Systems Do
Depends on the point of view

Users want convenience, ease of use and good performance
Don’t care about resource utilization
But shared computer such as mainframe or minicomputer must
keep all users happy
Users of dedicate systems such as workstations have dedicated
resources but frequently use shared resources from servers
Handheld computers are resource poor, optimized for usability
and battery life
Some computers have little or no user interface, such as
embedded computers in devices and automobiles
Operating System Definition
OS is a resource allocator
Manages all resources
Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and
fair resource use
OS is a control program
Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and
improper use of the computer
Operating System Definition (Cont.)
No universally accepted definition

“Everything a vendor ships when you order an operating
system” is a good approximation
But varies wildly
“The one program running at all times on the computer” is
the kernel.
Everything else is either
a system program (ships with the operating system) , or
an application program.
A more detailed (layer) structure of OS
User programs
Shells, compilers, interpreters, libraries

System-call interface to kernel
Signals File system CPU scheduling
terminal handling Swapping Page replacement
kernel
character I/O block I/O system Virtual memory

system
terminal drivers
Disk drivers
Kernel interface to the hardware
Terminal Device Memory

controllers controllers controllers
terminals disks Physical memory
Kernel Services
I/O Management
Process Management
Memory Management
File Systems Management
Device Drivers Management
System Calls (Application Program Interface)
Interprocess Communication
Protection System
Networking
Computer Startup
bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot

Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known
as firmware
Initializes all aspects of system
Loads operating system kernel (core parts of OS)
into memory and starts execution
Computer System Organization
Computer-system operation
One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common
bus providing access to shared memory
Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for
memory cycles
Computer-System Operation
I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently

Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type
Each device controller has a local buffer
CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers
I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller
Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its
operation by causing an interrupt
Common Functions of Interrupts
Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine

generally, through the interrupt vector, which contains the
addresses of all the service routines
Interrupt architecture must save the address of the
interrupted instruction
A trap or exception is a software-generated interrupt
caused either by an error or a user request
An operating system is interrupt driven
Interrupt Handling
The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by

storing registers and the program counter
Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:
polling
vectored interrupt system
Separate segments of code determine what action should
be taken for each type of interrupt
Flow of Control Without Interrupts
User I/O User I/O
Program Program Program Program
1 4 1 4
I/O I/O
Command Command
WRITE WRITE
5
2a
END
2
Interrupt
2b Handler
WRITE WRITE 5
END
3a
3b
WRITE WRITE
(a) No interrupts (b) Interrupts; short I/O wait
Flow of Control With Interrupts
User I/O User I/O User I/O
ogram Program Program Program Program Program
1 4 1 4 1 4
I/O I/O I/O

Command Command Command
WRITE WRITE WRITE
5
2a
END
2 2
Interrupt Interrupt
2b Handler Handler
WRITE WRITE 5 WRITE 5
END END
3a
3 3
3b
WRITE WRITE WRITE
(a) No interrupts (b) Interrupts; short I/O wait (c) Interrupts; long I/O wait
Interrupt Timeline
Storage Definitions and Notation Review
The basic unit of computer storage is the bit. A bit can contain one of two
values, 0 and 1. All other storage in a computer is based on collections of bits.
Given enough bits, it is amazing how many things a computer can represent:
numbers, letters, images, movies, sounds, documents, and programs, to name
a few. A byte is 8 bits, and on most computers it is the smallest convenient
chunk of storage. For example, most computers don’t have an instruction to
move a bit but do have one to move a byte. A less common term is word,
which is a given computer architecture’s native unit of data. A word is made up
of one or more bytes. For example, a computer that has 64-bit registers and 64-
bit memory addressing typically has 64-bit (8-byte) words. A computer executes
many operations in its native word size rather than a byte at a time.
Computer storage, along with most computer throughput, is generally measured
and manipulated in bytes and collections of bytes.
A kilobyte, or KB, is 1,024 bytes
a megabyte, or MB, is 1,0242 bytes
a gigabyte, or GB, is 1,0243 bytes
a terabyte, or TB, is 1,0244 bytes
a petabyte, or PB, is 1,0245 bytes
Computer manufacturers often round off these numbers and say that a
megabyte is 1 million bytes and a gigabyte is 1 billion bytes. Networking
measurements are an exception to this general rule; they are given in bits
(because networks move data a bit at a time).
Storage Structure
Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access
directly
Random access
Typically volatile
Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large
nonvolatile storage capacity
Hard disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic
recording material
Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into
sectors
The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the device
and the computer
Solid-state disks – faster than hard disks, nonvolatile
Various technologies
Becoming more popular
Storage Hierarchy
Storage systems organized in hierarchy

Speed
Cost
Volatility
Caching – copying information into faster storage system;
main memory can be viewed as a cache for secondary
storage
Device Driver for each device controller to manage I/O
Provides uniform interface between controller and
kernel
Storage-Device Hierarchy
Caching
Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer

(in hardware, operating system, software)
Information in use copied from slower to faster storage
temporarily
Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if
information is there
If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
If not, data copied to cache and used there
Cache smaller than storage being cached
Cache management important design problem
Cache size and replacement policy
Direct Memory Access Structure
Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit

information at close to memory speeds
Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer
storage directly to main memory without CPU
intervention
Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather than
the one interrupt per byte
How a Modern Computer Works
Fetch Stage Execute Stage Interrupt Stage
Interrupts
Disabled
Check for
Fetch next Execute interrupt;
START instruction instruction initiate interrupt
Interrupts
handler
Enabled
HALT
Figure 1.7 Instruction Cycle with Interrupts

A von Neumann architecture
Computer-System Architecture
Most systems use a single general-purpose processor

Most systems have special-purpose processors as well
Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance
Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
Advantages include:
1. Increased throughput
2. Economy of scale
3. Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance
Two types:
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing – each processor is assigned a
specie task.
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing – each processor performs all tasks
Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture
A Dual-Core Design
Multi-chip and multicore
Systems containing all chips
Chassis containing multiple separate systems
Non-Uniform Memory Access System
Clustered Systems
Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working together

Usually sharing storage via a storage-area network (SAN)
Provides a high-availability service which survives failures
 Asymmetric clustering has one machine in hot-standby mode
 Symmetric clustering has multiple nodes running applications,
monitoring each other
Some clusters are for high-performance computing (HPC)
 Applications must be written to use parallelization
Some have distributed lock manager (DLM) to avoid conflicting
operations
Clustered Systems

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Chapter 1: Introduction

To describe the basic organization of computer systems

A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a

Computer system can be divided into four components:

Depends on the point of view

No universally accepted definition

Shells, compilers, interpreters, libraries

character I/O block I/O system Virtual memory

Terminal Device Memory

bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot

I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently

Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine

The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by

(a) No interrupts (b) Interrupts; short I/O wait

I/O I/O I/O

WRITE WRITE 5 WRITE 5

WRITE WRITE WRITE

Storage systems organized in hierarchy

Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer

Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit

Fetch Stage Execute Stage Interrupt Stage

Figure 1.7 Instruction Cycle with Interrupts

Most systems use a single general-purpose processor

Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working together

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