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Vitamins and Minerals

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 Food and Nutrients
VITAMINS AND MINERALS

Aims of the section:

1) To understand the definition of vitamins, minerals and trace elements.
2) To understand the function of vitamins, minerals and trace elements.
3) To examine the definition of fat soluble vitamins such as A, D, E and K.
4) To understand what water soluble vitamins are including C, B vitamins and folic acids.
5) To understand the minerals that each individual should consume.
6) To understand trace elements.
7) To explore tips on how to increase vitamin and mineral intake and reduce salt intake.
8) To examine the use of vitamin and mineral supplements.

Vitamins - definition and function

Vitamins are only required in very small quantities, that is just
a few micrograms or milligrams per day. They are a diverse
range of chemicals, however they are not chemically related
but they are essential for key processes that are carried out by
the body.

The classification of vitamins was originally with a letter, and

once a chemical structure was identified a specific chemical
name could be identified. However it should be noted that some
vitamins consist of a family of related compounds such as
vitamin A and D whilst others are single chemicals such as
vitamin C also referred to as ascorbic acid.

Classification according to principal functions and actions in the

body can be a useful way of describing roles and predicting the effects of inadequate intake.
Some vitamins, e.g. many of the B group, act as cofactors for
enzymes (a substance whose presence is essential for the activity of
an enzyme), required in energy production pathways. Other vitamins
have actions that are specific to the development or maintenance of
body tissues, e.g. blood (folate and vitamin B12) or bone (vitamin
D). In addition to such functional roles, vitamins have been described
through possible effects on general systems such as the description
of antioxidant functions (molecules that inhibit the oxidation of
other molecules) for ascorbic acid and vitamin E.

Another way to classify vitamins is based on how well they dissolve,

i.e. their solubility in water or in lipids such as fat. Those classed as
water soluble include the B group vitamins and vitamin C (ascorbic
acid) and those classified as lipid soluble (fat-soluble) vitamins are
vitamin A (retinol), vitamin D (cholecalciferol), vitamin K and
vitamin E (tocopherols). Some of the benefits of this type of
classification include a better understanding of their function,
distribution in the body, potential toxicity and their food sources.

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Characteristics of fat-soluble and water-soluble
Some of the differences in the characteristics of each type of vitamin include:

Fat-soluble vitamins Water-soluble vitamins

Risk of deficiency Deficiency may occur where a There may be risk of deficiency
diet is low in fat as well as when where when a diet lacks in
the absorption of fat has been variety.
impaired.
Stability in foods Fat-soluble vitamins are robust Generally speaking these types
in foods and do not get affected of vitamins are quite labile
by heat and light. (susceptible to change) to heat
and light or lost in water used
for cooking. Therefore best to
steam or grill.
Storage in body These vitamins can be large and The body does not store these
long term with regards to types of vitamins well and
storage which is why they do not hence regular intake is
need to be eaten every day. required.
Risk of toxicity Risk here is high. The body can Risk here is low. The body gets
store them up ready for when rid of high intake of these
required. If more is consumed vitamins, through urination and
than needed, it can be harmful therefore the risk of toxicity
and thus caution is needed with through excess consumption is
supplementation. low.

There are two types of vitamins discussed below

with their functions, sources and requirements.

The fat soluble vitamins

These include:
 Vitamin A
 Vitamin D
 Vitamin E
 Vitamin K

Name of vitamin Function of vitamin Where food found

Vitamin A Eye health, bone development, Liver, egg yolk, dairy products,
(Retinol or Beta- protection of the respiratory, margarine. Beta carotene (pro-
carotene) digestive and urinary tract linings, vitamin A) is found in dark green and
and maintains healthy skin and hair. deep yellow fruits and vegetables.
Beta carotene fights free radicals
(chemicals that damage cells).
Vitamin D Builds strong bones and teeth and For most people, sun exposure is the
(Cholecalciferol) maintains the nervous system. primary source of vitamin D. Food
sources include vitamin D-fortified
milk fat spreads and breakfast
cereals, eggs, fish-liver oils and fatty
fish such as herring, mackerel and
salmon.

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 Vitamin E Protects the lungs, nervous system, Vegetable oils, nuts, wheat germ and
(Tocopherol) skeletal muscle and the eye's retina whole-wheat products, egg yolks and
from damage by free radicals; may green leafy vegetables.
reduce risk of heart disease by
protecting against atherosclerosis.
Vitamin K Promotes normal blood-clotting.  Dark green leafy vegetables,
vegetable oils, cereal grains, meat
and dairy

Water soluble vitamins

These include:
 Vitamin C
 Vitamin B
 Folic acid

Name of vitamin Function of vitamin Where food found

Vitamin C An antioxidant to fight and resist Almost exclusively fruits and
(Ascorbic Acid) infection, heal wounds, promote vegetables (especially citrus fruits,
growth and maintenance of bones, tomatoes, peppers, strawberries,
teeth, gums, ligaments and blood blackcurrants, broccoli and Brussels
vessels. sprouts) and potatoes.
Vitamin B1 Promotes healthy functioning of the Whole grains, cereals and enriched
(Thiamine) nerves, muscles and heart and grain products; also legumes (dried
metabolises carbohydrates. beans, peas, and nuts), organ meats,
lean pork and eggs.
Vitamin B2 Metabolises carbohydrates, fats and Organ meats, enriched breads and
(Riboflavin) proteins, produces hormones, and cereals, legumes, almonds, cheese,
promotes eye and skin health. eggs, meat, fish and dark green
vegetables.
Vitamin B3 Metabolises carbohydrates and fats, Meat, organ meats, whole grains and
(Niacin) helps functioning of digestive system cereals, and legumes, eggs, milk,
and maintains healthy skin. green leafy vegetables and fish.
Vitamin B5 Produces hormones and maintains Chicken, beef, organ meats,
(Pantothenic the body's immune system. porridge, tomatoes, broccoli,
Acid) potatoes, brown rice, wholemeal
bread, fortified breakfast cereals,
eggs and dairy products.
Vitamin B6 Metabolises protein, helps produce Whole-grain products such as
(Pyridoxine) haemoglobin, and promotes oatmeal, wheat germ and brown
functioning of digestive and nervous rice, bread, poultry, fish, nuts,
systems, and healthy skin. meat, soya beans, peanuts, most
fruits and vegetables, potatoes,
some fortified breakfast cereals,
eggs and dairy products.
Vitamin B12 Builds genetic material of cells and Primarily organ meats as well as fish
(Cyanocobalami produces blood cells. (in particular salmon and cod), lean
n) meats, poultry, cheese, some
fortified breakfast cereals, and eggs.
Folic acid Folate works with B12 to form Broccoli, brussels sprouts, liver (but
(folate) healthy red blood cells, thus avoid this during pregnancy),

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 prevents central nervous system spinach, asparagus, peas, chick
defects such as Spina bifida in peas, brown rice and fortified
unborn babies, caused by the breakfast cereals
incomplete closing of the embryonic
neural tube. Therefore it is
recommended as a supplement
during conception up until the first
trimester.
Vitamin B7 Biotin works with several enzyme Found in a variety of foods in very
Biotin systems involved in the synthesis of low levels: Egg yolk, liver, kidney,
fatty acids and in gluconeogenesis. nuts, pulses, wholegrain cereals and
The bacteria living naturally in the yeast
bowel are able to make biotin, so it's
not clear if you need an additional
amount from the diet.

Minerals
Like vitamins, these are essential for the normal function of
the body, however they are only required in small or even trace
quantities. Those required in milligram quantities (sometimes
several hundred milligrams) tend to be referred to as minerals.
Those required in even smaller amounts (microgram quantities)
are usually called trace elements.

Functions of mineral and trace quantities

They have a variety of roles and may be necessary for:
1. Structure of tissues: iron is essential for the production of
haemoglobin in the blood and phosphorus and calcium are
required as structural components of bones.
2. Enzyme systems: Minerals are the catalysts that enable
enzyme systems to operate, either by being part of the
enzyme itself or function as a cofactor (a non-protein
chemical compound that is required for the protein's biological activity) which enables the
enzyme to work properly.
3. Fluid balance: for there to be fluid balance within the body, the regulatory mechanism
needed to achieve this is driven by the concentration of elements such as sodium and
potassium in body fluids and their movement between extracellular and intracellular
compartments.
4. Function of the cells: some minerals are required for inter and extracellular transport
mechanism and the stability of membranes.
5. Neurotransmission: Some have an essential role in nerve function and influence electrical
activity.

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Difficulties in estimating the amount absorbed
The absorption of minerals by the body is
influenced by a number of factors. Not only are
there differences between minerals and trace
elements in terms of the extent to which a
nutrient can be used by the body, known as
bioavailability, but they are also influenced by the
following factors:
• Their dietary source: calcium in
vegetables and cereals is absorbed less
effectively than calcium in milk.
• Chemical form: Haem iron is found in
meat and non-haem is found in foods of
vegetable origin. Haem iron is aborbed
more effectively than non-haem iron.
• Inhibition of absroption when other components are present: minerals and trace
elements can form un-absorbable complexes when they combine with phytates, oxalates
or some types or fibre.
• Enhancement of absroption when other components are present: an example of this
is the presence of vitamin C which improves the absorption of non-haem iron.
• Other minerals consumed: some minerals compete for the same absorption site, hence
if one is consumed, this may affect the absorption of the other. An example of this is
iron and zinc.
• Level of intake: absorption increases when the level of dietary intake is low and
conversely it decreases when the level or intake is high.
• Physiological factors: absorption may increase with a physiological need such as
pregnancy, lactation (the secretion or formation of milk) or conditions of depletion.
• Age: as the age of the individual increases, the level of absorption decreases.

Essential minerals
These are named essential as they are essential components of the human diet. They include:
• Calcium
• Phosphorus
• Magnesium
• Sodium
• Potassium
• Iron
• Zinc

Name of mineral Function of mineral Where food found

Calcium (Ca) Builds bones and teeth, promotes blood Primarily in milk and dairy products
clotting, contraction of muscles and but also found in dark-green
nerve impulses. vegetables such as broccoli cabbage
and okra (but not spinach due to poor
absorption), soya beans, legumes,
shellfish, fish with edible bones, tofu
and calcium-fortified orange juice,
cow’s milk alternatives, nuts and
bread

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Phosphorus (P) Present in all cells of the body with a Milk and milk products, cereal
close link to calcium and protein products, meat and meat products,
metabolism. poultry, fish, brown rice, oats,
vegetables and potatoes.
Also releases oxygen and energy into the
cells and mediation of intercellular
hormones.
Magnesium (Mg) Builds bones and teeth, involved in the Legumes, whole-grain cereals and
function of muscular and nervous bread, nuts, dark-green vegetables
systems, as well as hearing and such as spinach, brown rice, meat,
circulatory system. seafood and dairy products.
Sodium (Na) Found in fluid external to the cells and Bread and other cereals, meat and
plays an important role in blood meat products in particular ham, and
pressure, fluid balance and bacon, products in brine, milk and
transmembrane gradients (relative milk products including cheese and
concentration across membranes). butter, pickles, sauces, smoked fish
Many foods contain small amounts of salted foods and yeast extracts.
sodium but none contain large amounts.
NHS Choices outlines that high salt
Can increase radically when food is intake can lead to high blood
preserved because of salt addition pressure and could lead to the
(which is sodium chloride) or other development of a stroke or heart
sodium containing additives such as disease. Therefore it is
sodium bicarbonate, sodium nitrate or recommended not to consume more
mono-sodium glutamate. than 6g of salt per day and that 1.5g
per 100g is considered to be high in
salt. See end the end of the module
for tips on how to reduce salt intake.
Potassium (K) Helps nerves and muscles function, Potatoes, dried fruits, bananas,
regulates heart's rhythm and regulates pulses, vegetables including
bodily fluids. broccoli, parsnips and Brussels
sprouts, nuts and seeds, lean meat,
poultry, fish and milk.
Iron (Fe) Helps produce haemoglobin and red Iron is poorly absorbed from food.
blood cells, delivers oxygen to muscles The richest sources are red meat and
and other body tissues and protects organ meats. Other sources include
against effects of stress. whole-wheat products, shellfish,
beans, brown rice, soya bean flour,
nuts, most dark green leafy
vegetables such as watercress and
curly kale, and dried fruit. Many
breads and cereals are enriched with
iron. Vitamin C aids absorption of
iron and is often added to iron
supplements.
Zinc (Zn) Involved in growth, skin health and Shellfish (particularly oysters), organ
wound healing, development of the meats and lean red meat, whole-
reproductive organs, protein metabolism grain cereals such as wheat germ,
and energy production. and bread.

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Trace Elements
Only trace elements are required of these minerals,
which include:
• Copper
• Chromium
• Manganese
• Molybdenum
• Selenium
• Iodine

Name of mineral Function of mineral Where food found

Copper (Cu) Builds bones, red blood cells and Shellfish, nuts and offal.
haemoglobin, metabolises iron,
maintains connective tissue and blood
vessels.
Chromium (Cr) An essential nutrient required for normal Wholegrains such as wholemeal
sugar and fat metabolism, which bread and whole oats, meat, oats,
influences how hormone insulin behaves lentils, broccoli, potatoes and
in the body. May also help prevent high spices.
cholesterol and atherosclerosis.
Manganese (Mn) Helps produce and activate some of the Tea, bread, nuts, cereals, green
enzymes in the body as well as a vegetables peas and runner beans.
component of bone and cartilage
Molybdenum Makes and activates some enzymes used Nuts, tinned vegetables, cereals,
(Mo) in repairing and making genetic material peas, broccoli, spinach and
cauliflower.
Selenium (Se) An antioxidant, which helps protect cells Fish, brazil nuts, meat and eggs.
and tissues from damage by free radicals
(highly reactive molecule which can
damage cells when produced in excess);
may also protect against some cancers.
Iodine (I) Thyroid gland functioning and thyroxin Sea fish and shellfish. Can also be
functioning of thyroid hormone. found in plant foods such as cereals
Maintenance of metabolic function, and grains but levels vary depending
thermal regulation, protein synthesis on amount of iodine in the soil.
and integrity of protective tissue.

Tips on how to increase vitamins and minerals intake in diet.

 Aim to have 5 different portions of fruits and vegetables per day. A portion of fruit,
(approximately 80g or a handful) equates to one apple, orange, pear, nectarine, kiwi or
small banana. A portion of vegetables (approximately 3 heaped tablespoons) equates to a
small bowl of salad, 150g carrots, turnip, swede, cabbage, spring greens, cauliflower or
broccoli, or 2 tablespoons tinned/stewed fruit in natural or fruit juice. With regards to
dried fruit it is 3-4 dried apricots, prunes, figs or apple rings, and 150ml (small glass) of
unsweetened juice.
 Keep healthy snacks easily to hand (e.g. fresh fruit in a bowl, fruit salad).
 When hungry snack on raw vegetables such as cucumber, celery or carrots.
 Try to load up on freshly squeezed juices instead of a usual coffee, tea or cola but be aware
of the natural sugars in fresh juices.

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 Use plenty of vegetables, and pulses while making soups, and try to put some extra
vegetables beans or lentils in your casseroles and stews reducing the volume of meat.
 Try to have salad, vegetables and/or fruit with every meal.
 Stock up on frozen vegetables for easy cooking in the microwave or oven.
 Keep cupboard stores of canned and frozen fruit choosing fruit canned in natural fruit juice
instead of syrup.
 Add chopped, fresh or dried fruit onto your breakfast cereal.
 Limit intake of dried fruits; they are good source of vitamins and minerals but very high in
sugar and calories. A portion of dried fruit is 1 heaped tablespoon or 30g.
 Try some fruit desserts like unsweetened fruit crumbles or sugar free jelly with added
chopped fruit.
 Aim for 1/3 of your lunch and 1/3 of your dinner plate to consist of vegetables or salad. If
you are aiming for weight loss increase this to 1/2 your dinner plate as vegetables or salad.

Reducing salt intake

NHS choices recommend some of the following tips on how to reduce salt intake:
1. Check labels carefully when purchasing and choose tinned vegetables without added salt.
2. Be aware of the salt content of sauces including pasta sauces and reduce table sauces
such as mayonnaise, soy sauce and mustard.
3. Opt for healthy snacks such as fruits and vegetables as opposed to high salt crisps or
crackers.
4. When cooking, use black pepper for seasoning instead of salt as well as fresh herbs such
as garlic, ginger and lime.
5. When eating out in particular, be aware of what contains high quantities of salt such as
bacon, pepperoni and cheese.
6. If you take a dissolvable (effervescent) vitamin supplement, be aware that they can be
high in salt as well.

Vitamin and mineral supplements

Most healthy individuals should be able to meet their vitamin and mineral requirements from a
varied and balanced diet. However there are certain groups of the population who may require
supplementation under medical supervision including those who are ill, pregnant or under the
age of 5. If you feel you are not getting a nutritionally balanced diet, speak to a doctor or
dietitian prior to taking any vitamin or mineral supplement and always ensure you are not
exceeding your upper limit.

It may appear harmless to recommend foods high in a particular vitamin or a vitamin supplement,
however if an individual is taking a type of drug, the consequences could be serious. For example
an individual taking the drug Warfarin, used as an anticoagulant (a blood thinner) should not
take foods containing Vitamin K and those on Isotretinoin, used for the treatment of acne, should
not take Vitamin A supplements. Therefore an individual must first check with their doctor,
particularly when taking vitamin supplements.

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