Article

Porous Metal Backing for High-Temperature

Ultrasonic Transducers
Guy Feuillard 1,*, Dang Chi Nguyen 1,2, Marc Lethiecq 1, Mathieu Jean 2 and Frédéric Navacchia 2

1 INSA Centre Val de Loire, GREMAN Laboratory, UMR CNRS 7347, Université de Tours,
3 rue de la Chocolaterie, CEDEX 41034 Blois, France; [email protected] (M.L.)
2 CEA-DES\IRESNE\DTN\STCP\LISM, 13108 St-Paul-Lez-Durance, France; [email protected] (M.J.);

[email protected] (F.N.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Improving the performance of high-temperature ultrasonic transducers is a goal of major

importance in many industrial applications. To this aim, we propose to use porous metals that
support high temperatures as backings. Thus, the acoustic properties of stainless steel and porous
stainless steel with porosity of 25% and 35% are determined at ambient temperature and up to 400
°C. Over the temperature range, the longitudinal wave velocity variation is comprised between 5%
and 6% in the porous metals. We find that temperature does not significantly affect the attenuation
in the material. The pulse-echo response and frequency response of a LiNbO3-based transducer
with a porous backing are simulated using a one dimensional electroacoustic model. These
simulations, compared to those of a reference transducer, show that the axial resolution with such
a design allows these transducers to be used for imaging and/or Non-Destructive Testing and
evaluation at high temperature.

Keywords: transducer; high temperature; porous metal; ultrasonic characterization

1. Introduction
In recent years, in parallel with the development of advanced industries where
Citation: Feuillard, G.; Nguyen, D.C.; operating environments can be very hostile, there has been a significant evolution in the
Lethiecq, M.; Jean, M.; Navacchia, F.
requirements of new high-performance instrumentation to characterize aging and
Porous Metal Backing for High-
damage or to monitor and control the operation of systems.
Temperature Ultrasonic Transducers.
Among the existing non-destructive testing methods, ultrasonic techniques based on
Acoustics 2024, 6, 1074–1087. https://
the development of piezoelectric materials are widely used in many applications within
doi.org/10.3390/acoustics6040058
the nuclear industry. They require ultrasonic transducers whose concept has been well-
Academic Editor: Philippe Roux and known for many years. The transducer is generally based on a piezoelectric element
Fengshou Gu electrically solicited around its resonant frequency, radiating an ultrasonic wave in the
Received: 18 September 2024 investigated medium [1]. This active element is mounted on a backing whose role is to
Revised: 9 October 2024 damp the vibration, leading to an improvement of the axial resolution and increase in the
Accepted: 21 November 2024 transducer’s bandwidth. It must also attenuate the ultrasonic wave emitted on the rear
Published: 25 November 2024 face of the active element to avoid parasitic echoes on its rear face. On the front face of the
piezoelectric element, one or more matching layers are often added to allow better energy
transfer toward the propagation medium. Through these elements, the transducer
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors. sensitivity and bandwidth can be adapted to the needs of various applications [2–4]. In a
Submitted for possible open access context of high-temperature nondestructive testing and evaluation, conventional ceramic-
publication under the terms and based ultrasonic transducers cannot be used at high temperatures (>150 °C) and for long
conditions of the Creative Commons periods (>24 h) because of the Curie temperature of the piezoelectric element. Even if the
Attribution (CC BY) license transducer can operate for short periods at high temperatures, these temperatures
(https://creativecommons.org/license significantly affect its electroacoustic performances by degrading the physical and
s/by/4.0/). piezoelectric properties of its components [5–7].

Acoustics 2024, 6, 1074–1087. https://doi.org/10.3390/acoustics6040058 www.mdpi.com/journal/acoustics

Acoustics 2024, 6 1075

Therefore, industrial applications of ultrasonic temperature control are still limited.

Applications at high temperatures (>400 °C) typically require long operating
durations, from several hours to several days, or even continuous operation. Therefore, to
ensure continuous operation, the transducer must be made from materials capable of
withstanding the working temperatures. Most commercially available ultrasonic
transducers are currently based on a lead zirconate titanate (PZT) piezoelectric element,
which has a maximum Curie temperature of around 400 °C [8]. Indeed, the piezoelectric
material loses its piezoelectric properties due to changes in its crystalline structure to a
cubic structure. As a result, it becomes unusable if it must operate at temperatures above
its Curie temperature.
Piezoelectric single crystals such as lithium niobate, lithium tantalate or langasite can
be used because of their high Curie temperature [9–11]. Indeed, lithium niobate exhibits
a Curie temperature greater than 1200 °C, lithium tantalate has a lower Curie temperature
of 610 °C and langasite single crystal can operate at temperatures up to 1400 °C close to
its melting point. Lithium niobate and lithium tantalate single crystals belong to the (3 m)
crystallographic symmetry class and can operate in the length extensional mode,
however, langasite crystals belong to the (32) crystallographic symmetry class, as do
quartz single crystals, and cannot directly operate in the length extensional mode. The
choice of piezoelectric materials if of major importance but not the only one. Indeed, other
passive elements of the transducer, traditionally made from polymers, cannot be used due
to chemical degradation at temperatures above 200 °C [12].
For these reasons, the research and development of ultrasonic transducers that can
not only withstand high temperatures but also maintain high electroacoustic performance
remains a technical challenge to meet the increasingly stringent demands of the nuclear
industry [7,10,13–15]. Critical applications of these transducers include the continuous
monitoring of corrosion, cracks, leaks, object displacement, the presence of bubbles,
pressure, and flow rates in high-temperature piping systems in nuclear power plants, as
well as the inspection and monitoring of nuclear structures, and the inspection of
materials and structures during nuclear decommissioning [12].
To overcome these limitations, various approaches have been explored to
manufacture high-temperature ultrasonic transducers. These include the development of
active and passive materials that resist thermal degradation [16–20]. Differences in
thermal expansion among the transducer’s components lead to internal stresses that may
create cracks or fractures, causing the transducer to malfunction [19,20]. The integration
of delay lines was also explored [18] as well as the use of surface acoustic waves (SAW)
[21,22], guided waves [23], or the implementation of electromagnetic acoustic transducers
(EMATs) [24] which effectively insulate the transducer from harsh environments.
Nevertheless, in the context of fast neutron-cooled nuclear reactors [25] where the device
is required to remain immersed at 500 °C for several tens of years, simple and robust
designs based on well-known materials and technologies need to be investigated.
In this context, Lhuillier et al. [26] have proposed the design of a longitudinal wave
High Temperature Ultrasonic Transducer (HTUST) to be used in fast neutron-cooled
nuclear reactors [25] whose characteristics are given in Table 1. It consists of a Z-cut
lithium niobate single crystal disc whose Curie temperature is above 1100 °C, with a
thickness mode resonance around 4.5 MHz, mounted on a 2 mm thick metal pad
encapsulated in a metallic housing that has a 1.2 mm thick steel front face (Figure 1). Such
a structure possesses multiple resonation modes, leading to a very narrow bandwidth and
an extremely long time response. Both experimental measurements and simulations
illustrate this as shown in Figure 2 which presents the experimental and theoretical pulse-
echo response and spectrum of such a transducer radiating in water. The experimental
pulse-echo response was obtained using a broadband pulser-receiver (JSR Ultrasonics
model DPR300, BYK-Gardner,Pittsford NY, USA) using a large planar reflector located at
4.5 cm from the transducer. A description of the electroacoustic model used for simulation
can be found in [27]. Here, the pulse duration in water determined from the −6 dB pulse
Acoustics 2024, 6 1076

duration of such a transducer is found to be 47 mm, which confines these devices

essentially to telemetry.

Table 1. Simulation parameters of a conventional HTUST. The propagation medium is water.

Active Element
Single crystal LiNbO3 Z-cut *
Diameter (mm) 40
Thickness (mm) 0.78
Density (kg m−3) 4700
Wave velocity (m s−1) 7220
Acoustic impedance (MRayl) 33.9
Relative dielectric constant 29
Thickness coupling coefficient 0.17
Front layer/rear layer
Thickness (mm) 1.2/2
Wave velocity (m.s−1) 5740
Loss tangent 0.001
Acoustic impedance (MRayl) 46.2
Propagation medium (water)
Acoustic impedance (MRayl) 1.5
* Lithium Niobate properties were deduced from [28].

Figure 1. Conventional structure of a high temperature ultrasonic transducer.

(a) (b)
Figure 2. Experimental (blue) and theoretical (red) pulse-echo response (a), and transfer function
(b) of a high temperature ultrasonic transducer.
Acoustics 2024, 6 1077

To fulfill the need for high-temperature imaging systems in industry, improvement

of the axial resolution is required since it would bring a real benefit in terms of image
quality. Using backing materials that can withstand high temperatures is a way to
improve the transducer axial resolution. Such a backing material for high-temperature
ultrasonic transducers must satisfy several physical and acoustic criteria [7,9,29]. The
attenuation coefficient should be high enough to avoid round-trip echoes in the backing
and the acoustic impedance should be a tradeoff between sensitivity and resolution. The
physical and mechanical properties should be thermally stable in the operation
temperature range and the thermal expansion coefficient should be close to that of the
piezoelectric material to avoid thermomechanical stresses.
Among the possible candidates, porous steels are good candidates. Indeed, the
presence of pores at different ratios allows control of the acoustic properties of the
material, in particular the acoustic impedance and attenuation, which are critical
parameters. Being used in filtering systems in various industrial environments, they have
been shown to be able to operate at high temperatures.
In this paper, we examine the acoustic properties of porous stainless steels with 25%
and 35% porosity from room temperature up to 400 °C. In the first part, we present the
materials and their physical properties, then the experimental setup for the measurements
at high temperatures. Then, we present the results of wave velocity, attenuation, and
acoustic impedance measurements for these two samples. Finally, based on these
properties, we report the results of the simulation of an ultrasonic transducer based on
lithium niobate mounted on such a backing.

2. Materials and Methods

In this section, the characteristics of the porous metals for high temperature
application are presented as well as the experimental methods including experimental set-
up and measurement techniques.

2.1. Metallic Porous Materials for High-Temperature Applications

In this study, the selected materials were SS316L stainless steel-based porous
materials. They were manufactured by AMESPORE® (Sant Feliu de Llobregat, Spain) by
uniaxial compaction of powder, followed by sintering. The pore size was adjusted by
modifying the compaction pressure and/or the size of the powder particles. These
materials have an open porosity. The average porosity was determined from mass and
volume measurements, and the nominal pore size given by the manufacturer is reported
in Table 2. The characteristics of the reference material, dense SS 316L stainless steel with
the same chemical composition, are also reported.

Table 2. Material density, porosity and pore size [29].

Measured Measured Measured Nominal Pore

Material
Thickness (mm) Density (kg m−3) Porosity (%) Size (µm)
SSU00 10.00 7918 - -
SSU02 9.98 6059 25.20 1.7
SSU10 10.13 5268 34.2297 10.9

Figure 3 shows the Scanning Electron Microscopy of sample SSU02 where the pore
size heterogeneity can be observed. In this image, the pore size appears much larger than
that given by the manufacturer. Indeed, the pore size indicated by the supplier is the
minimum pore size that a solid particle can cross through the material.
Acoustics 2024, 6 1078

Figure 3. SEM of sample SSU02, whose porosity volume ratio is 25.2%.

2.2. Experimental Measurements

Properties are deduced from ultrasonic contact measurements (time of flight and
amplitude measurements) on the sample as a function of temperature. The experimental
setup for the characterization of the sample acoustic properties versus temperature is
shown in Figure 4. The sample is placed in a furnace (Nabatherm GmbH model
LT20/11/B410, Lilienthal, Germany). It is maintained in contact with the ultrasonic
transducer using a high temperature coupling material by the mean of a metallic sample
holder (Figure 4b). The samples were characterized using a conventional pulse-echo
method with a 2 MHz transducer (Kande International,AlsagerStoke on Trent United
Kingdom), allowing to compensate the apparatus response. The transducer was excited
by a broadband pulser-receiver (JSR Ultrasonics model DPR300, BYK-Gardner,Pittsford
NY, USA) whose output voltage varies between 100 V and 475 V under 50 Ohms. The
received signals were then amplified with a gain varying between 40 dB and 70 dB before
being digitized at a sampling frequency of 200 MHz by an oscilloscope (Lecroy
HDO4024A, Chestnut Ridge, NY, USA). The acquired signals were averaged to increase
the signal-to-noise ratio before being transferred to the computer for processing using
Matlab®R2023b. In addition, three type K thermocouples were placed on the sample and
connected to a dedicated computer assigned to the furnace to monitor the temperature of
the sample in real time.

(a) (b)
Figure 4. (a) Experimental set-up; (b) sample holder and transducer.

In this configuration, the received signal results from multiple reflections at the delay
line—sample interface and within the sample. Denoting 𝑈 the first received signal
corresponding to first reflection at the delay line sample interface, its amplitude and phase
Acoustics 2024, 6 1079

depends on 𝑈 𝜔 the frequency response of the electric pulse, as well as 𝐴 𝜔 et

𝐴 𝜔 the transmit and receive transfer functions of the transducer:
U U ω A ω e A ω , (1),
where diffraction effects are considered negligible as we are in near field. Here, 𝑘 is the
wave number in the delay line and L is the length of the delay line. After one reflection in
the sample the received signal becomes
𝑈 𝑈 𝜔 𝐴 𝜔 𝑒 𝐴 𝜔 𝑇 𝑇 𝑒 𝑒 , (2),
where 𝑇 et 𝑇 are the energy transmission coefficients at the delay line—coupling
layer interface and the coupling layer—sample interface. 𝑘 and 𝑘 are the wave
numbers in the interface coupling layer and the sample. ε and 𝑒 are the thicknesses of the
interface coupling layer and the sample.
By taking the ratio of these two signals,
𝑈
𝑇 𝑇 𝑒 𝑒 , (3),
𝑈
we can compensate for the apparatus function.
In this case, the sample is 1 cm thick, while the thickness of the coupling layer is
typically less than 10 µm. This layer introduces a bias in the absolute velocity
measurement, which is why, in the discussion, we will focus on velocity variations rather
than absolute velocity as a function of temperature.
Figure 5 shows a typical signal received by the transducer and illustrates the way the
material is characterized. The first echo corresponds to the round-trip in the transducer
delay line. The second echo corresponds to an added round-trip in the sample. The
following echoes correspond, respectively, to a second round-trip in the delay line and
the sample. The ultrasonic wave velocity in the sample was determined from the time-of-
flight measurement between the first and second echoes using an intercorrelation.

Figure 5. RF signal received at 300 °C.

In the experiments, the transducer coupling to the delay line was not controlled.
Thus, it is not possible to determine the absolute attenuation coefficient as the energy
transmission coefficients between the delay line and the coupling layer and between the
coupling layer and the sample are not known. Consequently, it was not possible to obtain
the absolute attenuation in the sample. However, all things remaining the same in the
Acoustics 2024, 6 1080

experiments, it is possible to examine the variations of attenuation through the variations

of the ratio of the amplitudes of the spectra of the second echo to that of the first one.

3. Results
First, we report the acoustic properties of porous steels with 25 and 35% porosity as
well as those of the reference steel at 0% porosity, at room temperature by transmission
measurements using the conventional insertion substitution method in water [29]. An
electric pulse was sent to the emitting transducer using a wideband generator (Olympus-
Panametrics 1035 PR, Westborough, MA, USA), and the signal was received after
transmission, either with or without the sample. The signal was digitized by an
oscilloscope (Lecroy WaveRunner 104Xi, Chestnut Ridge, NY, USA) and transferred to a
computer for processing. The time difference, ∆t, between the transmitted signal in the
reference medium without the sample, and the transmitted signal when the sample is
inserted, is related to the speed of the ultrasonic wave in the material and that of the
reference medium.
1 1
∆𝑡 = 𝑒 − , (4),
𝑐 𝑐
where 𝑐 = 1500 𝑚. 𝑠 is the sound velocity in water, c is the propagation speed of
ultrasound in the sample and 𝑒 is its thickness.
Knowing the wave velocity and the density of the material, the
transmission/reflection coefficient in normal incidence between the sample and water can
be obtained, then the attenuation in dB m−1 in the sample is given by the following:
𝑃 𝑓 1
𝛼 = −20𝑙𝑜𝑔 × , (5),
𝑇𝑃 𝑓 2𝑒
where 𝑃 𝑓 is the modulus of the transfer function of the signal transmitted through the
sample, and 𝑃 𝑓 is the modulus of the transfer function of the reference signal
transmitted through water. 𝑇 represents the energy transmission coefficient at the water-
sample interface. In our case, this attenuation is measured at the center frequency of the
transducer.
These properties are given in Table 3. Measurements were performed using 1 MHz
transducers and for each nominal porosity, 20 samples were characterized which allows
a standard deviation for the acoustic properties to be determined.

Table 3. Acoustic properties of porous stainless steel measured at 1 MHz in water (SS 316L).

Average
Average Wave Average
Average Standard Acoustic Standard Standard
Material Velocity Attenuation
Porosity (%) Deviation (%) Impedance Deviation (%) Deviation (%)
(m s−1) (dB mm−1)
(MRayls)
SSU00 0 5780 1.10 45.11 1.07 0.12 7.13
SSU02 25.20 4402 1.90 26.73 2.46 0.46 12.75
SSU10 34.97 3751 1.57 19.75 2.80 0.46 26.05

Despite different porosities, the two samples SSU02 and SSU10 have the same
attenuation coefficient. In porous materials, the attenuation coefficient depends on many
parameters including the porosity ratio and pore size. Here, SSU10 sample has a pore size
of 10.7 μm compared to 1.7 μm for SSU02 which probably explains these results.
In Table 4, the absolute velocity measurement and the variation of attenuation
relative to the room temperature value in the 3 samples are reported as a function of
temperature. Measurements for varying temperatures were performed on three samples
(one for each porosity ratio).
Acoustics 2024, 6 1081

Table 4. Acoustic properties of porous samples at different temperatures.

SSU00 SSU02 SSU10

Attenuation Attenuation Attenuation
Temperature Wave Velocity Wave Velocity Wave Velocity
Variation (dB Variation (dB Variation (dB
(°C) (m s−1) (m s−1) (m.s−1)
mm )−1 mm )−1 mm )−1

25 5807.50 0.00 4417.50 0.00 3511.70 0.00

50 5796.90 0.04 4398.00 0.03 3495.30 0.00
75 5782.90 0.05 4376.30 0.04 3478.60 0.00
100 5767.00 0.07 4359.10 0.04 3462.20 0.01
125 5750.00 0.09 4342.90 0.04 3446.70 0.01
150 5734.00 0.11 4325.30 0.04 3430.20 0.01
175 5720.00 0.10 4311.60 0.05 3413.50 0.01
200 5702.00 0.11 4293.60 0.06 3396.60 0.02
225 5682.90 0.12 4274.10 0.06 3380.10 0.03
250 5661.40 0.16 4258.20 0.06 3362.90 0.06
275 5640.00 0.18 4243.80 0.06 3344.80 0.06
300 5617.00 0.20 4221.20 0.06 3328.60 0.06
325 5594.20 0.22 4202.80 0.05 3310.50 0.08
350 5572.00 0.23 4178.00 0.06 3293.70 0.09
375 5547.50 0.25 4150.70 0.04 3276.90 0.11
400 5522.40 0.27 4131.90 0.04 3259.50 0.13

4. Discussion
This section discusses the measurements as a function of temperature in the three
samples. In addition, the electroacoustic response of a Lithium Niobate Z cut-based
transducer with backing is simulated using the one-dimensional KLM model developed
in the laboratory. First, we investigate the influence of the backing acoustic impedance on
the electroacoustic response of a high temperature transducer whose design is based on
that of a reference transducer developed by authors. Then, we report simulations of
transducers based on the two porous materials that were characterized as a function of
temperature

4.1. Measurementsas a Function of Temperature

For all three samples, the ultrasonic wave velocity decreases as the temperature
increases (Figure 6a). The relative change is about 6% over a temperature range of 400 °C.
For 25% and 35% porosity samples, the temperature coefficient is almost linear. It is,
respectively, 16.7 ppm °C−1 and 19.2 ppm °C−1. Concerning the attenuation (Figure 6b), in
the dense steel sample, it increases with temperature and the attenuation is 0.25 dB mm−1
greater at 400 °C than at room temperature. For porous steel, with 25% and 35% porosity,
the attenuation tends to increase slightly as a function of temperature. However, this
variation is less than 0.05 dB mm−1 for samples with 25% porosity and less than 0.15 dB
mm−1 for samples with 35% porosity. The attenuation mechanisms in these materials
depend little on temperature, so attenuation is probably mainly dominated by ultrasonic
wave diffusion mechanisms. Therefore, it seems reasonable to use the attenuation values
measured at room temperature to estimate the performance of this material in the
constitution of a high-temperature transducer.
Acoustics 2024, 6 1082

(a) (b)
Figure 6. (a) Relative wave velocity variation as a function of temperature; (b) variation of
attenuation as a function of temperature.

4.2. Influence of the Backing Acoustic Impedance

Starting from the simulation parameters of the reference transducer, the metallic pad
on the rear face of the transducer was replaced by an infinite-length backing with an
acoustic impedance value ranging from 10 to 30 MRayl. As expected, and can be seen in
Figure 7a,b, the backing plays an important role in the electroacoustic response of the
transducer. Increasing the acoustic impedance shortens the pulse-echo response and
strongly reduces the resonances that are observed in the transfer function. However, these
resonances still exist due to the 1.2 mm thick protective front layer in the transducer
design. The main resonance is around 4.2 MHz, which is close to the natural half-
wavelength thickness-mode resonance of the Lithium Niobate disc.

(a) (b)
Figure 7. (a) Simulated pulse echo responses of the transducer; (b) simulated transfer function of
the transducer.

Figure 8 shows the evolution of the pulse duration in water expressed in millimeters
and round-trip sensitivity defined as 20 times the log of the ratio of the received voltage
to the input voltage in 50 Ω environment. The axial resolution, measured as the −6 dB
Acoustics 2024, 6 1083

pulse duration, varies from less than 1 mm for a backing impedance of 30 MRayl to
approximately 3 mm for an impedance of 10 MRayl,while the sensitivity varies from −42
to −57 dB.

(a) (b)
Figure 8. (a) Evolution of pulse durations as a function of backing acoustic impedance; (b) evolution
of transmit/receive sensitivity b) as a function of backing acoustic impedance.

Comparing these results to those of the reference transducer, the resolution is

strongly improved which makes this design suitable for high-temperature imaging
applications. As the backing acoustic impedance increases, the sensitivity of the
transducer decreases. Indeed, the acoustic impedance becomes closer to that of Lithium
Niobate and more energy is radiated in the backing, which leads to a lower sensitivity.

4.3. Transducer Simulation

For these simulations, the original configuration of the transducer given in Table 1
was modified so that the rear layer, made of steel, was replaced by a 2 cm thick, porous
backing whose characteristics are given in Table 3. Figures 9 and 10 show the pulse-echo
and frequency response of such a transducer.
Acoustics 2024, 6 1084

Figure 9. Pulse echo and frequency response of a LiNbO3-based transducer radiating in water.
Backing material: porous stainless steel with 25% of porosity.

Figure 10. Pulse echo and frequency response of a LiNbO3 based transducer radiating in water.
Backing material: porous stainless steel with 35% of porosity.

In the case of the nominal configuration, measurements of the pulse durations

converted in distance in water at −6 dB and −20 dB are, respectively, 47 mm and 69.9 mm.
Simulations of the transducer mounted on a 25% porous backing predict values of 1.04
Acoustics 2024, 6 1085

mm at −6 dB and 2.04 mm at −20 dB. Simulations of the transducer mounted on a 35%

porosity backing predict values of 1.07 mm at −6 dB and 2.97 mm at −20 dB. These results
are compatible with the development of a high-temperature nondestructive imaging
system. However, it should be noted that the attenuation is relatively low both for 25%
and 35% porosity. The simulation of a transducer with a 2 cm thick backing leads to the
presence of a backing echo, at a level of about 20 dB below that of the main echo 9 μs after
the main response. As mentioned earlier in the text, the attenuation coefficients were
determined at 1 MHz, but in a diffusive regime we expect a very strong frequency
dependence. It is, therefore, reasonable to assume that the attenuation coefficient at the
center frequency of the transducer, i.e., around 4 to 4.5 MHz, would be strong enough to
avoid round-trip echoes in the backing.
At the resonance frequency, the round-trip sensitivity in a 50 Ohms environment is
−54.6 dB with a backing at 25% porosity and −49.8 dB with a backing at 35% porosity. This
sensitivity is relatively low; however, in the context of the applications related to the
nuclear industry, the excitation energy levels can be very high, which would compensate
for this drawback.

5. Conclusions
Developing a new high-temperature transducer is a goal of major importance in
many industrial applications, including the nuclear industry. We have shown that porous
steel materials have a strong potential in designing a new type of broadband transducer
for high-temperature imaging systems. We report measurements on stainless steel dense
samples and porous ones with 25% and 35% porosity up to temperatures of 400 °C. In all
samples, the ultrasonic wave velocity decreases with temperature with relative velocity
variations of about 5–6% for the two porous samples. For both porous samples, the
attenuation mechanism seems to be very little sensitive to temperature. Consequently, we
have simulated the response of an ultrasonic transducer based on these two materials
taking as input the measurements performed at room temperature. The results show a
significant improvement in the axial resolution of the transducer and demonstrate the
interest of these materials for non-destructive testing and evaluation applications. Future
work will focus on the fabrication and electroacoustic characterization of such a
transducer as a function of temperature.

6. Patents
There are no patents resulting from the work reported in this manuscript.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, G.F. and D.C.N.; investigation D.C.N., M.J. and F.N.;
supervision, G.F. and F.N.; validation, G.F., F.N. and M.L.; writing original draft—G.F.; writing—
review and editing, G.F., M.J. and M.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was supported by the CEA contract DES 5506 C38304.
Data Availability Statement: The original contributions presented in the study are included in the
article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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