CHAPTER 1 – Lesson 5: Curriculum Development: It will also pinpoint where improvement can be made and

Process and Models corrective measures, introduced. The result of evaluation is

II. Introduction very important for decision making of curriculum planners,
Curriculum is a dynamic process curriculum and implementors.
development, there always changes that occur that are A. Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic Principles
intended for improvement. Ralph Tyler was an educator who focused on
To do this, there are model presented to us from well- assessments and evaluations. In 1949, he proposed the Tyler
known curricularists like Ralph Tyler, Hilda Taba, Galen curriculum model in his publication, Basic Principles of
Saylor and William Alexander which would help clarify the Curriculum and Instruction.
process of curriculum development. There are many other In curriculum development, there are always changes that
models, but let us use the three for this lesson. occur that are intended for improvement. To do this, there are
III. Discussion models presented to us from well-known curricularists like
Curriculum Development Process Ralph Tyler, Hilda Taba, Galen Saylor and William Alexander
Curriculum is a dynamic process involving many different and many other which would help to clarify the process of
people and procedures. Development connotes changes which curriculum development.
is systematic. A change for the better means alteration, A model is a format for curriculum design developed to
modification, or improvement of existing condition. meet unique needs, contexts, and/or purposes. In order to
To produce positive changes, development should be address these goals, curriculum developers design, rearrange
purposeful, planned and progressive. Usually it is linear and one or more key curriculum components.
follows a logical step-by-step fashion involving the following Two famous scientific models of curriculum development are
phases: curriculum planning, curriculum design, curriculum given by Ralph Tyler known as The Tyler model and Hilda
implementation and evaluation. Taba known as The Taba model.
Generally, most models involve four phases. THE TYLER MODEL: FOUR BASIC PRINCIPLES:
1. Curriculum planning considers the school vision,  Tyler's model is one of the best known, technical
mission and goals. It also includes the philosophy of scientific models.
strong education belief of the school. All of these will  The Tyler model is often referred to as the "objective
eventually be translated to classroom desired learning model" because of its objective approach to educational
outcomes for the learners. evaluation. It emphasizes consistency among objectives,
2. Curriculum designing is way curriculum is learning experiences, and outcomes.
conceptualized to include the selection and organization  In 1949 Tyler published Basic Principles of Curriculum
of the content, the selection and organization of learning and Instruction, in which he outlined a rationale for
experiences or activities and the selection of the examining the problems of curriculum and instruction.
assessment procedure and tools to measure achieved  He mentioned that those involved in curriculum inquiry
learning outcomes. must try to define the
A curriculum design will also include the resources to be 1. Purposes of the school - What education purpose should
utilized and the statement of the intended learning outcomes. schools seeks to attain?
3. Curriculum implementing putting into action the plan 2. Educational experiences related to the purposes - What
which is based on the curriculum design in the classroom educational experiences can be provided that are likely to
setting or the learning environment. The teacher is the attain these purposes?
facilitator of learning and, together with the learners, uses 3. Organization of these experiences and -How can these
the curriculum as design guides to what will transpire in educational experiences be effectively organized?
the classroom with the end in view of achieving the 4. Evaluation of the purposes- How can we determine
intended learning outcomes. Implementing the curriculum whether these purposes are attained or not?
is where action takes place. (1) PURPOSES OF THE SCHOOL:
Implementing the curriculum is where action takes place. By “purposes” Tyler was referring to objectives. He indicated
It involves the activities that transpire in every teacher's that curriculum planners should identify these general
classroom where learning becomes an active process. objectives by gathering from three sources:
4. Curriculum evaluating determines the extent to which (i) The subject matter
the desired outcomes have been achieved. This procedure (ii) The learners, and
is on-going as in finding out the progress of learning (iii) The society.
(formative) or the mastery of learning (summative). After identifying numerous general objectives, the curriculum
Along the way, evaluation will determine the factors that planners were to refine them by filtering them through two
have hindered or supported the implementation. screens
 The use of philosophy in selecting the objectives and
 The use of psychology of learning in selecting the should match, but also the validity and significance of the
objectives. chosen content needs to be determined, the relevancy and
(2) EDUCATIONAL EXPERIENCES RELATED TO significance of the content.
THE PURPOSES: 4. Organization of learning contents.
Tyler then discussed how to select educational experiences A teacher cannot just select content, but must organize it in a
that would allow attainment of objectives. Learning particular sequence, taking into consideration the maturity of
experiences had to take into account both the previous learners, their academic achievements and their interests.
experiences and the perceptions that the learner brings to a 5. Selection of learning experiences.
situation. Also, the experiences were to be selected in light of Content must be presented to pupils and pupils must engage
what education knows about learning and human the content. At this point, the teacher’s instructional methods
development. involve the students with the content.
(3) ORGANIZATION OF THE EXPERIENCES: 6. Organization of learning activities.
Tyler next talked about the organization and sequencing of the Just as content must be sequenced and organized, so must the
experiences. He purported that the ordering of the experiences learning activities. Often the sequence of the learning
had to be somewhat systematic so as to produce a maximum activities is determined by the content. But the teacher needs
cumulative effect. He thought that organizing elements, such to keep in mind the particular students whom s/he will be
as ideas, concepts, values, and skills, should be woven as teaching.
threads into the curriculum fabric. These key elements could 7. Evaluation and means of evaluation.
serve as organizers and means and methods of instruction, and The curriculum planner must determine just what objectives
they could relate different learning experiences among have been accomplished. Evaluation procedures need to be
different subjects. The ideas, concepts, values, and skills could considered by the students and teachers.
also link content within particular subjects. C. Galen Saylor and William Alexander Curriculum
(4) EVALUATION OF THE PURPOSES: Model
Tyler's last principle deals with evaluating the effectiveness of The Galen Saylor and William Alexander Curriculum
planning and actions. Tyler considered evaluation to be Model is an educational framework that emphasizes the
important in curriculum development. He realized that it was importance of integrating technology into the learning process.
necessary if educators were to find out whether the learning It was developed by Galen Saylor, a technology consultant,
experiences actually produced the intended results. Also, it and William Alexander, an educational researcher, with the
was important to determine whether program was effective or goal of enhancing student engagement and learning outcomes.
ineffective. An evaluation should relate to all the objectives. The model consists of three main components: content,
B. Hilda Taba Model: Grassroots Approach process, and product. The content component focuses on the
Hilda Taba created a multi-purpose teaching model that knowledge and skills that students need to acquire, while the
utilizes the use of multiple processes: listing, grouping, process component emphasizes the strategies and tools that
labeling, regrouping, and synthesizing. Taba is an inductive should be used to facilitate learning. The product component
(teacher) approach. Taba is a belief that teachers are aware of involves the assessment and evaluation of student learning.
the students’ needs hence they should be the one to develop One of the key principles of the Galen Saylor and William
the curriculum. The main idea of this model is that the Alexander Curriculum Model is the use of technology to
students are at the forefront to the curriculum. support and enhance learning. This can include the use of
Hilda Taba improved on Tyler's model. She believed that digital tools, multimedia resources, and online platforms to
teachers should participate in developing a curriculum. As a deliver content, facilitate collaboration, and provide
grassroots approach Taba begins from the bottom, rather than opportunities for students to demonstrate their understanding.
from the top as what Tyler proposed. She presented seven Galen Saylor and William Alexander (1974) viewed
major steps to her linear model which are the following: curriculum development as consisting of four steps.
1. Diagnosis of learners' needs. Curriculum is "a plan for providing sets of learning
The teacher (curriculum designer) starts the process by opportunities to achieve broad educational goals and related
identifying the needs of the students for whom the curriculum specific objectives for an identifiable population served by a
is to be planned. single school center
2. Formulation of learning objectives. 1. Goals, Objectives and Domains. Curriculum
After the teacher has identified the needs of the learners that planners begin by specifying the major educational goals and
require attention, s/he specifies the objectives by which needs specific objectives they wish to accomplish. Each major goal
that will be fulfilled. represents a curriculum domain: personal development, human
3. Selection of learning contents. relations, continued learning skills and specialization. The
The objectives selected or created suggest the subject matter goals, objectives and domains are identified and chosen based
or content of the curriculum. Not only objectives and content
on research findings, accreditation standards, and views of the Four Educational Philosophies (Ornstein and Hunkins,
different stakeholders. 2004)
2. Curriculum Designing. Designing a curriculum follows Perennialism
after appropriate learning opportunities are determined and Perennialism calls for allegiance to absolute principles. It
how each opportunity is provided. Will the curriculum be also believes that despite different environments, human
designed along the lines of academic disciplines, or according nature remains the same everywhere, hence, education should
to student needs and interests or along themes? These are be the same for everyone. It is education's task to impart
some of the questions that need to be answered at this stage of knowledge of eternal truth. For perennialists, it is important
the development process. for the teacher to guide the students in acquiring timeless,
3. Curriculum Implementation. A designed curriculum is universal truths like the classic literatures, philosophies,
now ready for implementation. Teachers then prepare principles, etc. Perennialism is a teacher-centered philosophy
instructional plans where instructional, objectives are specified which also focus on fostering critical think through Socratic
and appropriate teaching methods and strategies are utilized to method or Q&A Method. The aim of education is to cultivate
pull achieve the desired learning outcomes among student. intellect through the great works of great people.
4. Evaluation. The last step of the curriculum model is Progressivism
evaluation. A comprehensive evaluation using a variety of Progressivism is the idea that education is always in the
evaluation techniques is recommended. It should involve the process of development. Education should be life itself, not a
total educational programme of the school and the curriculum preparation for life. In other words, progressivism calls for a
plan, the effectiveness of instruction and the achievement of lifelong learning, a learning that is not only present inside the
students. Through the evaluation process, curriculum planner classrooms. Learning should be directly related to the interests
and developers can determine whether or not the goals of the of the child. It is a learner-centered approach. The teacher's
school and the objectives of instruction have been met. role is not to direct but to advice and the school should
All the models utilized the processes of encourage cooperation rather than competition. Interplay of
(l) curriculum planning, ideas and personalities that is necessary condition of true
(2) curriculum designing, growth. Finally, educators must be ready to modify methods
(3)Curriculum implementing, and and policies in the light of new knowledge and changes in the
(4) curriculum evaluating. environment. Educators should be ready to always adjust, to
Chapter 1 – Lesson 6: FOUNDATIONS OF be flexible at all time, and all for the sake of development and
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT innovation.
II. Introduction Essentialism
For something to last, it must also need a strong Essentialism revolves around the idea that there are
foundation. Aside from the approaches of great individuals, certain essentials that all men should know if they are to be
curriculum development has also its philosophical, historical, considered educated. For essentialists, learning involves hard
psychological, and social backgrounds which need to be work and often unwilling application. The initiative in
studied in order for us to understand how it began how it education should like with the teacher rather than with the
developed, and how it has endured over time. In this learners. The main goal is to produce competent individuals
discussion, we will look at these backgrounds and their roles therefore the sole authority of the classroom is on the teacher.
in planning, designing, implementing, and evaluating a The heart of the educational process is the assimilation of
curriculum. prescribed subject matter.
III. Discussion The school should retain traditional methods of mental
A. Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum discipline. Essentialism believes that books should be used
Philosophy provides educators, teachers, and curriculum and made to relate to present realities. In other words,
makers with framework for planning, implementing, and essentialism wants to produce mastery of the subject matter.
evaluating curriculum in schools. It helps in answering what Essential subjects should always be part of the curriculum.
schools are for, what subjects are important, how students Reconstructionism
should learn and what materials and methods should be used. Reconstructionism seeks reproachment of Essentialism
(Bilbao, 2008) Th philosophies of education act as pillars or and Progressivism. It is aiming for the combination of the two.
basis of what the curriculum has evolved throughout the years. It is saying that we should keep the essentials while also
It is within the minds of these intellectuals that the modern maintaining progress for both the learners and the society. The
curriculum planners have the idea of designing curriculum. new society must be a genuine democracy whose major
They provide what should be taught, how they should be institutions and resources are controlled by the people
taught, and why they should be taught. themselves. The child, the school and education are
conditioned inexorably by social and cultural forces.
 Education must commit itself here and now to the creation  Cognitive theorists believed that learning constitutes a
of new social order that will fulfill the basic values of the logical method for organizing and interpreting learning.
culture and harmonize social and economic forces. Teachers use a lot of problem and thinking skills in
Reconstructionism aims to make the teachers as agents of teaching and learning.
change wherein the focus is for the learners to be able to 3. Humanistic Psychology
contribute to reconstructing the society for a sustainable  Concerned with how learners can develop their human
future. potential
B. Historical Foundations of Curriculum  This is built on Gestalt Psychology, learning can be
Importance of historical foundation in curriculum in the explained in terms of the wholeness of the problem and
Philippines is that it has several of foreign influences. where the environment is changing and the learner is
The following are some of the known curriculum specialists continuously reorganizing perceptions.
over certain era:  Humanistic psychology in curriculum is more concerned
1. Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956) with PROCESS not the PRODUCTS, personal needs not
He presented curriculum as a science that emphasizes on subject matter
students’ need. Curriculum prepares for adult life.  Traditional psychologists do not consider humanistic
2. Werret Charters (1875-1952) psychology as school of psychology
Curriculum is a science. Gives emphasis on students’ needs.  This school of thought has a great influence in the
Subject matter should be related to objectives. Subject matter curriculum.it believes that learners are not machines and
and objectives are planned by the teachers. minds are not computers Humans.
3. William Kilpatrick (1871-1965) D. Social Foundation of Psychology
Curricula are purposeful activities which are child centered. The social foundations of curriculum look at how society
The purpose of the curriculum is child development and affects what we teach in schools. This means thinking about
growth. Project method was introduced; students and teacher the values, beliefs, and needs of the community. It helps us
plan the activities. understand why certain subjects and lessons are important. By
4. Harold Rugg (1886-1960) studying social foundations, teachers can create lessons that
He emphasized social studies and teacher plans curriculum in are meaningful and relevant to students' lives.
advance.  Schools exist within the social context. Societal culture
5. Hollis Caswell (1902-1989) affects and shapes schools and curricula. (Bilbao, 2008)
Curriculum as organized around social functions of themes,  Schools are not only institution that can educate the
organized knowledge and learner’s interest. Curriculum is a society. Home, family, community likewise educates the
set of learner’s experiences. people in the society. However schools are formal
6. Ralph Tyler (1902-1994) institutions that address more complex and interrelated
Curriculum is a science and an extension of school’s societies and the world.
philosophy. Based on students’ needs and interest. Curriculum  Curricula should reflect and preserve the culture of
is always related to instruction. The process emphasizes society and its aspirations, thus society should imbibe the
problem solving. The curriculum aims to educate generalists changes brought about by formal institutions like schools.
and not specialists. Components of the Curriculum
C. Psychological Foundation of Curriculum Major components of a curriculum are the following:
1. Behavioral Psychology COMPONENT 1: Aims, goals and objectives
Learning should be organized in order that students can COMPONENT 2: Subject matter/content
experience success in the process of mastering the subject COMPONENT 3: Learning experiences
matter. The method is introduced in a step by step manner COMPONENT 4: Evaluation approaches
with proper sequencing of task which is viewed as simplistic COMPONENT 1: Aims, Goals and Objectives
and mechanical. General goals of schools (Phil Consti 1987)
2. Cognitive Psychology  Inculcate patriotism and nationalism
 Focused on how individual process information and how  Foster love of humanity
they monitor and manage thinking.  Promote respect for human rights
 Some cognitive psychologists are Vygotsky (Social  Appreciate the role of national heroes in the historical
Constructivism), Piaget (Cognitive development), development of the country
Gardner (Multiple intelligences) and Felderand Silverman  Teach the rights and duties of citizenship
(Learning Styles)  Strengthen ethical and spiritual values
 Cognitive psychology determines how learners store  Develop moral character and personal discipline
information and how they retrieve data and generate  Encourage critical and creative thinking
conclusions.
 Broaden scientific and technological knowledge and  Experience-centered design - child remains to be focus,
promote vocational efficiency experience-centered design; interests and needs of
 Aims of elementary education ( Education Act of 1982 or learners cannot be pre-planned. Instead, experiences of
Batas Pambansa Blg. 232) the learners become the starting point of the curriculum,
 Aims of secondary education (Education act of 1982 or thus the school environment is left open and free.
Batas Pambansa Blg. 232)  Humanistic-centered design - development of self is the
COMPONENT 2: Curriculum Content or Subject ultimate objective of learning. It stresses the whole person
Matter and the integration of thinking, feeling and doing. Stresses
 All curricula have content is more than simple the development of positive self-concept and
information to be learned in school interpersonal skills.
 Compendium of facts Concepts generalization principles  Child-centered psychologists - John Dewey, Rouseau,
and theories Pestallozi, and Froebel.
 SUBJECT CENTERED  Humanistic-centered psychologists - Abraham Maslow
 STUDENT CENTERED and Carl Rogers
COMPONENT 3: Curriculum Experiences  Problem-Centered Design - this design draws on
 This links to instructional social problems, needs, interest and abilities of the
strategies/methodologies/pedagogies that are utilized to learners.
facilitate learning. Examples of problem-centered design
 Among these are time tested methods, inquiry approaches,  Life-situation design - contents are organized in ways that
constructivist, and the like. allow students to clearly view problem areas clearly. Uses
COMPONENT 4: Curriculum Evaluation past and present experiences of learners as a means to
 To consider a curriculum to be effectively and efficiently analyze the basic areas of living.
utilized, there must have element of evaluation.  Core design - it centers on general education and the
 This may refer to effectiveness of the program, process, problems are based on common human activities.
and product of the curriculum. (Worthen, 1987)
 Evaluation is defined as meeting the goals and matching
them with the intended outcomes. (Tuckman, 1985)
Curriculum Design Models
 Subject-centered design model
 Focuses on the content of the curriculum.
 Corresponds mostly to the textbook written for specific
subject. of subject-centered curriculum are (1) Subject
design-
 Examples - the oldest design (2) Discipline design - often
used in college (3) Correlation design - links separate
subjects to reduce fragmentation (4) broad field
design/interdisciplinary - called holistic curriculum
 Subject design - easy to deliver, but learning is
compartmentalized. Focused on the content that it forgets
about the learners.
 Discipline design. - cluster of content. Focuses on
academic disciplines.
 Correlation design - subjects are related with each other
but each subject maintains its identity.
 Interdisciplinary - clustering of subject (i.e. social science
includes history, geo, etc. linguistics includes grammar,
literature, etc)
 Learner-Centered Design - very strong in the
elementary level. Under the progressivist school of
psychology. Learner is the center of the educative
process.
Examples of the learner-center designs:
 Child-centered design - anchored on the needs and
interests of the child. One learns by doing.