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Biomedical Engineering: It is the application of engineering principles and design concepts to

medicine and biology.
 It provides electrical, electronic and electro-optical and computer engineering support to
clinical and biomedical application.
 It improves the field of health care diagnosis, monitoring and therapy
DEVELOPMENT OF BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION
INSTRUMENTATION: It includes measuring instruments that used to monitor and control.
BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION: It is the subdivision of biomedical engineering. It is
the field of creating instruments that helps to measure, record and transmit data from or to the
human body.
Basic objectives of instrumentation system generally fall into one of the major categories:
1. Information Gathering: In this system, instrumentation is used to measure natural
phenomena and other variables to aid man in his quest for knowledge about himself and the
universe in which helives.
2. Diagnosis: Measurements are made to help in the detection and, hopefully, the correction of
some malfunction of the system beingmeasured.
3. Evaluation: Measurements are used to determine the ability of a system to meet its functional
requirements.
4. Monitoring: Instrumentation is used to monitor some process or operation in order to obtain
continuous or periodic information about the state of the system beingmeasured.
5. Control: Instrumentation is sometimes used to automatically control the operation of a system
based on changes in one or more of the internal parameters or in the output of thesystem.

BIOMETRICS
 The measurement of physiological variables and parameters is known asbiometrics.
 Biomedical instrumentation provides tools by which their measurements can beachieved.
COMPONENTS OF MAN-INSTRUMENT SYSTEM
 A system which includes human and the instrumentation required for measurement of the
human is called man-instrumentsystem.

Figure 1: Block diagram – the man-instrument system

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1. Subject:
 Subject is the human being on which the measurement is carriedout.
2. Stimulus:
 In many measurements, the response to some form of external stimulus isrequired.
 The instrumentation used to generate and present this stimulus to the subject is a vital part of
the man instrumentsystem.
 The stimulus may be visual (e.g. a flash of light), auditory (e.g. a tone), or direct electrical
stimulation of some part of nervoussystem.
3. Transducers:
 In general transducer is defined as a device capable of converting one form of energy or signal
toanother.
 In the man-instrument system, each transducer is used to produce an electric signal that is an
analog of the phenomenon beingmeasured.
 The transducer may measure temperature, pressure, flow, or any of the other variables that can
be found in the body, but its output is always an electricalsignal.
 As indicated in fig 1, two or more transducers may be used simultaneously to obtain relative
variations betweenphenomena.
4. Signal ConditioningUnit:
 It amplifies, modifies the signal obtained from transducer into a suitable form that can be easy
to understand and process by the rest of the devices thatfollows.
 It is also used to combine or relate the outputs of two or moretransducers.

5. DisplayEquipment:
 It is used to display the result we obtain from theprocess.
 Its output is some form of visual, audible or tactileinformation

6. Recording, Data Processing And Data TransmissionEquipment:

 To record the measured information for possible later use or to transmit it from one location to
another.
 Equipment for these functions is often a vital part of the man-instrumentsystem.
 Where automatic storage or processing of data is required, so an online analog or digital
computer may be part of instrumentationsystem.
7. ControlFeedback:
 It is used to give feedback to the system for obtaining efficientoutput.

Measurement in biomedical instrumentation can be divided in to 2 types:

VIVO Measurement is made on or within the human body
Eg: Device inserted in to blood stream to measure PH of blood

VITRO Measurement is performed outside of the body

Eg: Measurement of blood PH from blood samples.
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Overview of anatomy & physiological system of body

Anatomy–The study of the structure and shape of the body and body parts & their
relationships to one another.
The term anatomy comes from the Greek words meaning to cut (tomy) apart( ana) .

Gross anatomy (macroscopic anatomy) – the study of large, easily observable structures (by
naked eye), such as the heart or bone.

Microscopic anatomy (cytology, histology) – the study of very small structures, where a
magnifying lens or microscope is needed.

Physiology – the study of how the body and its parts work or function

Physiology can be classified in to

1. Cell Physiology: Study ofcells

2. Patho Physiology: PathologicalFunctions

3. Circulatory Physiology: Study of bloodcirculation

4. Respiratory Physiology: Study of breathingorgans

PHYSILOGICAL SYSTEMS OF THE BODY
 Physiology: The science deals with the normal function of the organs of thebody.
 Human body contains various systems such as electrical, mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic,
chemical and thermaletc.
 Systems communicate internally with each other and with externalenvironment.
 With this, enable to perform useful tasks, sustain life and reproduceitself.

Major subdivision of body are:

CARDIO VASCULAR SYSTEM

 Cardio means “heart” and Vascular means“vessels”.
 It performs the essential service of transportation of oxygen, carbon dioxide numerous
chemical compounds and the bloodcells.
 System made up of “heart”, “vessels and“blood”.
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Figure 2: Internal structure of human heart

FUNCTIONS OF CARDIO VASCULAR SYSTEM

 Carrying wastes away

 In addition, blood contains cells that fightdisease.

HEART
 Heart is divided into two parts right and Left-each part has two chambers called atrium and
ventricle.
 Heart has fourvalves:
1. Tricuspid valve or Right Ventricle valve: The tricuspid valve, or right atrioventricular
valve, is on the right dorsal side of the heart, between the right atrium and the right
ventricle. The function of the valve is to prevent back flow of blood into the rightatrium.

2. Bicuspid Mitral or Left Ventricle Valve: This valve is situated between the left atrium
and the left ventricle. It permits blood to flow one way only, from the left atrium into the
left ventricle. This valve is more commonly called the mitral valve because it has two
flaps (cusps) and looks like a bishop's miter orheaddress.

3. Pulmonary Valve: A semilunar valve between the pulmonary artery and the right
ventricle of the heart that prevents the blood from flowing back into the rightventricle.

4. Aortic Valve: The aortic valve is a valve in the human heart between the left
ventricle and the aorta. It is one of the two semilunar valves of the heart, the other being
the pulmonaryvalve.
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 Heart wall consist of threelayers:

1. Pericardium: The membrane enclosing the heart, consisting of an outer fibrous layer and
an inner double layer of serousmembrane.
2. Myocardium: The middle muscular layer of the heartwall.
3. Endocardium: The endocardium is the innermost layer of tissue that lines the chambers
of theheart.

 3 types of bloodvessels:
1. Arteries:
 Move blood away from theheart
 Most arteries carry oxygen-richblood
 The largest artery in the body is the Aaorta have thick walls that are both strong and
flexible.
2. Veins: move blood toward theheart
3. Capillaries:
 Tiny blood vessels that connect arteries andveins
 Branching from the smallest arteries are capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in your
body.
 As blood flows through the capillaries, oxygen and dissolved nutrients diffuse through
the capillary walls and into your body’scells.
 Capillaries are involved in temperatureregulation.

Functions of Blood
 Carries oxygen from lungs to all body cells and removes carbon dioxide from thecells
 Carries waste products of cell activity to the kidneys to be removed from thebody
 Transports nutrients from the digestive system to bodycells
Flow of blood through heart
 The circulatory system carries nourishment and oxygen to, and
wasteandcarbondioxidefrom,thetissuesandorgansofthebody
 In human circulatory system, the heart serves as a pump to move blood through
vessels called arteries andveins. The circulatory system carries nourishment
and oxygen to, and wasteandcarbondioxidefrom,thetissuesandorgansofthebody
 The deoxygenated blood is returned to the right side of the heart viathevenous system.
 Bloodfromtheheadandthearms,aswellasrestoftheupperpartofthe body, returns to the
heart through the superior vena cava ; blood from the lower portion of the body
returns through the inferior venacava.
 The inferior is placed lower in the body thansuperior.
 Bloodleavestherightatriumthroughthetricuspidvalvetoenterright ventricle.
 Fromrightventricleitpassesthroughthepulmonarysemilunarvalve to
pulmonaryartery.
 Thisvesselcarriesbloodtothelungs,whereCO2isgivenoutandO2 is takenin.

 Bloodreturningfromlungsviapulmonaryveinre-enterstheheart through
leftatrium
 It then passes through the mitral (bicuspid) valve to the left ventricle and then
backintothemainstreamofcirculatorysystemviatheaorticvalve.
 The great artery attached to the left ventricle is called theaorta.
 Blood then circulates through the body to again return to the right side of heart
via superior and inferior venacava.
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 The heart serves as a pump because of its ability to contract under

electricalstimulus.Whenanelectricaltriggeringsignalisreceived,the heart will
contract, starting in the atrium. A fraction of second later the ventricles also begin
tocontract.
 The ventricular contraction is known as systole. The ventricular
relaxation is known as diastole
PHYSIOLOGY OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 The human respiratory system is a series of organs responsible for taking in oxygen and
expelling carbondioxide.
 The primary organs of the respiratory system are lungs, which carry out this exchange of gases
as webreathe.
 The lungs are a pair of respiratory organs situated in the thoraciccavity.
 Red blood cells collect the oxygen from the lungs and carry it to the parts of the body where it
isneeded.
 During the process, the red blood cells collect the carbon dioxide and transport it back to the
lungs, where it leaves the body when weexhale.
 The lungs are spongy intexture.
 In the young, the lungs are brown or grey in colour. Gradually, they become mottled black
because of the deposition of inhaled carbonparticles.
 Your right lung has three lobes and your left lung only hastwo.
 The right lung is a little larger than the leftlung.
 The right lung weighs about 625 gms. It is about 50 gms heavier than leftlung.
 The exhaling rate is faster in kids than inadults.
 It is healthier to breathe through your nose than your mouth, because your nose hairs and
mucus clean the air.

Figure 3: Respiratory system

 The pharynx is a wide muscular tube situated behind the nose, mouth and larynx. It is a part of
the upper respiratory passages where infections arecommon.
 The larynx is the organ that produces of voice. It is also an airpassage.

 The trachea, colloquially called the windpipe, is a cartilaginous tube that connects the pharynx
and larynx to the lungs, allowing the passage ofair.
 A bronchus is a passage of airway in the respiratory tract that conducts air into thelungs.
 Alveoli are the many tiny air sacs of the lungs which allow for rapid gaseousexchange
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Working
 Air that flows from the mouth or nasal cavity travels through the pharynx and moves down
to thetrachea.
 Then the air moves to the bronchi tubes as they enter thelungs.
 The primary organs of the respiratory system are the lungs, which function to take in
oxygen and expel carbon dioxide as webreathe.

 The gas exchange process is performed by the lungs and respiratory system. Air, a mix of
oxygen and other gases, isinhaled.

 In the throat, the trachea, or windpipe, filters the air. The trachea branches into two
bronchi, tubes that lead to thelungs.

 Once in the lungs, oxygen is moved into the bloodstream. Blood carries the oxygen
through the body to where it isneeded.

 Red blood cells collect carbon dioxide from the body’s cells and transports it back to the
lungs.
 An exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place in the alveoli, small structures
within the lungs. The carbon dioxide, a waste gas, is exhaled and the cycle begins again
with the nextbreath.
 The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle below the lungs that controls breathing. The
diaphragm flattens out and pulls forward, drawing air into the lungs for inhalation. During
exhalation the diaphragm expands to force air out of thelungs.

ANATOMY OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system includes the brain, spinal cord, and a complex network of neurons.
This system is responsible for sending, receiving, and interpreting information from all
parts of the body.
The brain is the control center of the body. Covering the brain is a protective layer of
connective tissue known as themeninges.
There are three main brain divisions: the forebrain, the brainstem, and thehindbrain.
The nervous system monitors and coordinates internal organ function and responds to
changes in the external environment.
This system can be divided into two parts: the central nervous system and the peripheral
nervoussystem.
 The nervous system can be divided into two majorregions:
1. Central nervous system: It includes the brain and spinal cord
2. Peripheral nervous systems: The nervous system outside the brain and spinalcord.
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Figure 4: Nervous system

The central nervous system (CNS)

It is the processing center for the nervous system. It receives information from and sends
information to the peripheral nervous system. The two main organs of the CNS are the
brain and spinal cord. The brain processes and interprets sensory information sent from
the spinal cord. Both the brain and spinal cord are protected by a three-layered
covering of connective tissue called themeninges

The Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

 The primary role of the PNS is to connect the CNS to the organs, limbs andskin.
 The nerves that make up the peripheral nervous system are actually the axons or bundles of
axons from neuroncells.
 The peripheral nervous system is divided into twoparts:
The somatic nervoussystem
 The somatic system is the part of the peripheral nervous system responsible for carrying
sensory and motor information to and from the central nervoussystem.
 This system contains two major types ofneurons:
 Sensory neurons (or afferent neurons) that carry information from the nerves tothe
central nervoussystem.
 Motor neurons (or efferent neurons) that carry information from the brain and spinal
cord to muscle fibers throughout the body.
Autonomic Nervoussystems
 The autonomic system is the part of the peripheral nervous system responsible for
regulatinginvoluntary (reflex/Un intentional)body functions, such as blood flow, heartbeat,
digestion andbreathing.
 This system is further divided into twobranches:
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 The sympathetic system regulates the flight-or-fight responses.

 The "fight or flight response" is our body's primitive, automatic, inborn response that
prepares the body to "fight" or "flee" from perceived attack, harm or threat to oursurvival.

 Parasympathetic system helps maintain normal body functions and conserves physical resources
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 Brain: A mass of 100 billion neurons located inside theskull.
 Cerebrum: Largest part of humanbrain.
 Cerebellum: At base of brain. Important for coordination, precision and timing ofmovement
 Brain Stem: Connects brain to spinal cord. Regulates heart rate, breathing, sleep cycles and
emotions
 Spinal Cord : Column of nerves from brain to tailbone – protected by vertebrae ofspine
 Responsible for: Conducting impulses between the brain and the rest of thebody
 Impulses may travel as fast at 268miles/hr.
 Basic Cells of the Nervous System:Neuron
 Neuron transmits impulses (up to 250mph)
 Three types ofNeurons;
1. Sensory neurons: bring messages toCNS
2. Motor neurons: carry messages fromCNS
3. Interneurons: between sensory & motor neuron

SOURCES OF BIOELECTRIC POTENTIALS

 The body system generates its own monitoring signals while carrying out variousfunctions.
 Such signals convey useful information about the functions theyrepresent.
 These signals are bioelectric potentials associated with nerve conduction, brain activity,
heartbeat, muscle activityetc.
 Bioelectric potentials are actually ionic voltages produced as a result of electrochemical
activity of certain special types ofcells.
 Special type of cells, like nerve and muscle cells, in the body are encased in semipermeable
membrane that permits some substance to pass through the membrane while others are kept
out.
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Figure 7: Normal semipermeable membrane

 The ions outside the membrane are called as ECF, and the ions inside the membrane are called
as ICF, as shown in fig7.
 In normal condition when the semipermeable membranes are in polarized state, the ions,
Sodium (Na+) will be outside themembrane.
 Since the size of Na+ ions is more than the size of holes in semipermeable membrane, they
cannot enterinside.
 Whereas other ions like potassium (K+) and chloride (Cl-) can enter the membranes, and
exhibit restingpotential.
 The sodium ions can enter the membrane when the holes are increased by stimulation
(excitation) as shown in fig8.

Figure 8: Excited semipermeable membrane

 After stimulation of the membrane, all sodium ions can enter inside due to the increased
diameter of pores orholes.
 It constitutes depolarization and gives actionpotential.

RESTING POTENTIAL
 Some fluids are surrounding the cells of the body, which areconductive.
 These conductive solutions contain atoms known asions.
 Principal ions present are: Sodium (Na+), Potassium (K+) and Chloride(Cl-).
 The membrane of cells readily permits entry of K+ and Cl-, but effectively blocks Na+ions.
 According to concentration and electric charge, various ions seek a balance between inside and
outside ofcell
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Figure 9: Polarized cell with resting potential

 Due to inability of Na+, to penetrate the membrane there results twoconditions:

1. The Na+ ions inside the cell become much lower in concentration than in the intercellular
fluid outside. Sodium ions are +ve, it tends to make outside of cell more +ve thaninside.
2. Inanattempttobalancetheelectriccharge,additionalpotassiumions,whicharealso
+ve, enter the cell causing a higher concentration of potassium on the inside than the
outside. But, the charge balance cannot be achieved, due to imbalance concentrate of K+
ions.
 Equilibrium is reached with a potential difference across the membrane, -ve on inside and +ve
on the outside, and this membrane potential is known as resting potential ofcell.
 This potential is maintained until some disturbance upsets theequilibrium.
 The membrane potential is made from inside the cell with respect to the bodyfluids.
 Therefore, the resting potential is –ve, rating from -60 mV to -100mV.
 Fig 10 shows the cross section of a cell with resting potential and the state is said to
“polarized”.

ACTION POTENTIAL
 Due to some external energy or by the flow of ionic current, a section of cell membrane
changes its characteristics and begins to allow some of sodium ions toenter.

Figure 10: Depolarization of cell

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 This movement of sodium ions into the cell constitutes an ionic current flow that further
reduces the balance of membrane to sodiumions.
 The net result is avalanche effect and tries to balance with ionsoutside.
 At the same time, potassium ions, in higher concentration inside the cell during resting state,
try to leave the cell, but are unable to move as fast as sodiumions.
 The result is that the cell always attains small +ve potential on the inside due to imbalance of
potassium ions, known as action potential, which is nearly +20mV.
 When a cell is excited and displays an action potential, it is said to be “depolarized” and the
process of charging resting state to action potential, is called as depolarization as shown in
figure 10 and figure 11 shows cross-section of depolarized cell, that is actionpotential.
 New equilibrium state is achieved, once the rush of sodium ions through the cell membrane
hasstopped.
 Ionic currents that lowered the barrier sodium ions are no longer present and membrane
reverts back to original selectivity permeablecondition.
 Now passage of sodium ions from the outside to inside of the cell is againblocked.
 Time taken to develop back resting potential would be more, but by an active process, the
sodium ions are quickly transported to outside of thecell.

Figure 11: Cross-section of depolarized cell

 The cell again becomes polarized and assumes its resting potential, the process now is called
“repolarization”.
 The rate of pumping is directly proportional to the sodium concentration in thecell.
 Figure 12 depicts a typical transmission of impulse or action potential waveform, beginning at
resting potential depolarization and returning to resting potential afterrepolarization.

Figure 12: A typical action potential waveform

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PROPAGATION OF ACTION POTENTIAL

 If a cell is excited and generates an action
potential, an ionic currentflows.
 Such process excites the neighbouring cell
or adjacent areas of the same cell.
 Rate at which an action potential moves
down a fiber or is propagate from cell to
cell is called propagation rate.
 In nerve fiber,the propagation rate is also
called as nerve conduction rate or
conduction velocity.
 Now figure shows the charge distribution
in the vicinity of the action region of an
unmyelinated and myelinated nerve fiber,
as propagation of actionpotential.
 The membrane lying ahead of the active
region is polarized, as in the resting state
and the active region is depolarized and membrane behind the active region is repolarized
membrane.
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BIOELECTRIC POTENTIALS
 To measure a bioelectric potential, we need a transducer for converting ionic potentials into
electricpotentials.
 The waveforms obtained in bioelectric potential measurements, generally ends in the suffix
“gram”.
 For example, electrocardiogram is the waveform resulting from the heart’s electricalactivity.
 That waveform measured by an instrument is calledelectrocardiograph.

Bio electric potentials are

 TheElectrocardiogram(ECG)

 TheElectroencephalogram(EEG)

 TheElectromyogram(EMG)

 TheElectroretinogram(ERG)

 TheElectro-oculogram(EOG)

 TheElectrogastrogram(EGG)

ELECTRO-CARDIOGRAM (ECG)
 The bio-potentials generated by the muscles of the heart result in the electrocardiogram.
Abbreviated asECG.
 The contraction of the heart muscles depends upon the impulse generated by the specialised
cells in the SA node(sino-atrial).
 SA node is situated in the upper part of rightatrium.
 The generated impulse spread out both the right and leftatria.
 Through AV node (atrio-ventricular) the impulse reaches the starting of rightventricle.
 There is a time delay occurs because AV node is very narrow instructure.
 In ventricles we have specialised cells called “Bundle of His”, it contains a cluster of fibers
called “Purkinjefiber”.
 These structures help to spread the impulse throughout theventricles.
 According to this impulse, the ventricular and atrial contraction and relaxationoccurs.
 With a person in a sitting position, the heart beats (or contracts) about 70 times perminute.
 With each beat, a quantity of blood is driven through theheart.
 Between the beats, the heart mechanically rests and this is known as the period of“diastole”.
 During diastole the heart assumes its maximum size and fills with oxygenated blood returning
from the lungs and the venous blood returning from thebody.
 The heart’s period of mechanical activity is known as“systole”.
 The systoles are initiated by the contraction of both atria andventricles.
 The electrocardiogram (ECG) waveform can be represented as;
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Figure 14: Representation of ECG waveform

P Depolarization of arterialmuscles
QRScomplex Repolarization of atria and depolarization ofventricles.
T Repolarization ofventricles.
U After potential in the ventriclemuscles.

 For representing prominent features, some alphabetic designations have beengiven.

 These can be identified with events related to the action potential propagationpattern.
 In which the horizontal segment on this wave form preceding the ‘P’ wave is designated as the
base line or isopotentialline.
 The P wave represents depolarization of the arterialmuscles.
 The QRS complex is the combined results of the repolarization of the arterial muscles and
depolarization of ventricles, which occurs almostsimultaneously.
 The T-wave is the wave of ventricularrepolarization.
 The U-wave if present is generally believed to be the result of after potentials in the
ventricularmuscles.
 The P-Q interval represents the time during which the excitation wave is delayed in the fiber
near the AVnode.

ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAM (EEG)
 The recorded representation of bioelectric potentials generated by the neuronal activity of the
brain is calledelectroencephalogram.
 The EEG has a very complex pattern, which is much more difficult to recognize than theECG.

Figure 15: Typical EEG signals

 The waveform varies greatly with the location of the measuring electrodes on the surface of
thescalp.
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 EEG potentials measured at the surface of scalp, actually represent the combined effect of
potentials from a fairly wide region of ‘cerebral cortex’ and from various pointsbeneath.
 The various frequency ranges of the EEG have been given Greek letter designations because
frequency seems to be the most prominent feature of an EEGpattern.

Frequency Range Signal Type Activity

Below 3.5 Hz Delta Deep sleep

From 3.5 Hz to about 8 Theta Normal sleep

Hz

From about 8 Hz to Alpha Relaxed state with

about 13 Hz closing eyes

Above 13 Hz Beta Anxious state, Rapid

eye movement (REM)

 These frequency ranges are the key characteristics used to define normal or abnormal EEG
rhythms.
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 Most human seem to develop EEG pattern in ‘alpha range’ when they are relaxed with their
eyesclosed.
 Then we get a synchronised pattern shows idling or natural frequency ofbrain.
 When the person becomes alert, or begins thinking the alpha rhythm disappears ant it is
replaced with a desynchronised pattern, generally in the ‘betarange’.
 Another form of EEG measurement is the ‘evoked response’. This is a measure of the
disturbance in the EEG pattern that results from external stimuli such as flash of light or a
click ofsound.

ELECTROMYOGRAM (EMG)
 The bioelectric potentials associated with skeletal muscle activity constitute electromyogram,
EMG.
 These potentials may be measured at the surface of the body near a skeletal muscle of interest,
or directly from the muscle by penetrating the skin with the needleelectrodes.
 Like EEG, EMG electrodes pickup potentials from all muscles within the range of the
electrodes.
 This means that potentials from nearby large muscles may interfere with attempts to measure
the EMG from smaller muscles, even though the electrodes are placed directly over the small
muscles.

 So it is required to interest needle electrodes directly into themuscles.

 The amplitude of the measured EMG waveform is the instantaneous sum of all the action
potentials generated in that giventime.
 The EMG waveform appears very much like a random noise waveform, because the electrode
experience both positive and negative polarities by the actionpotentials.

Figure 16: Typical EMG signals

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ELECTRORETINOGRAM (ERG)
 The recording of potential changes produced by the eye when the retina is exposed to a flash of light is
calledelectroretinogram.

ELECTROOCULOGRAM (EOG)
 The potential changes due to eye movement are called electrooculogram. The potentials are mainly
taken fromcornea.
 The EOG provide information on the orientation of theeye.

ELECTROGUSTROGRAM (EGG)
 The waveform pattern associated with electric potentials generated by the stomachmuscles.